History and Development of Neuropsychology PSYC3013 PDF

HISTORY OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Week 1 – TOPIC 1 Recommended reading Zillmer et al. Chapter 1 Sami & Camarata (2019). The Historical Role of Neuropsychology in Neurosurgery. Watts & Shuttleworth-Edwards(2016). Neuropsychology in South Africa. Overview Divided into three parts 1. History of Neuropsych...

HISTORY OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Week 1 – TOPIC 1 Recommended reading Zillmer et al. Chapter 1 Sami & Camarata (2019). The Historical Role of Neuropsychology in Neurosurgery. Watts & Shuttleworth-Edwards(2016). Neuropsychology in South Africa. Overview Divided into three parts 1. History of Neuropsychology ▫ Dualism Mind-body relationship ▫ Functional neuroanatomy ▫ Psychological testing 2. Modern Neuropsychology (special focus on South Africa) 3. The Neuropsychologist Objectives Critically discuss philosophy of the brain-mind relationship Discuss neuroanatomical history and philosophy, including localization theory and the wholistic view Track historical developmental of psychological testing and discuss implications Identify and discuss pioneering contributions to modern neuropsychology Discuss development of neuropsychology in the South African context Critically consider the role of the neuropsychologist in general and in the South African context Things we should know… But I never know with you guys! Psychology = the study of behaviour Neuropsychology = subspeciality – complex interactions between the brain function and behaviour. Brain contains billions of neurons – With infinite possible connections ▫ Exchange complex information ▫ Understanding these networks is a key point for Neuropsych  Philosophy of the mind-body relationship How are the mind and body related? ▫ This fascinates humanity but complicated by religious and existential issues. How can the material (body) produce the nonmaterial (mind)? ▫ How does the brain work and produce mental activity? ▫ How does physical activity in the brain give rise to thought, emotion, and behaviour? Philosophy of the Mind-Body Relationship: 3 classic theories. Mentalism Dualism Materialism Mind-Body problem Psyche=mind Cogito ergo sum Mind & Behaviour= Responsible for “I think, therefore I CNS behaviour am” Aristotle Descartes Darwin  The Brain in antiquity Cave drawings – people have been aware of the brain-behaviour relationship ▫ recognised how diseases and blows to the head/brain affected behaviour Trephination = ancient surgical operation ▫ Cutting, scraping, chiselling, drilling a hole in the skull ▫ Relieved pressure related to brain swelling ▫ And they survived http://www.enotes.com/topic/Trepanning http://dodd.cmcvellore.ac.in/hom/03%20-%20Trephin.html http://www.neurosurgery.org/cybermuseum/pre20th/treph/trephination.html Some interesting history Egypt – Alexandrian school ▫ Scientists work on physiology and anatomy ▫ Discovered knowledge about the nervous system and neuroanatomy =dissections ▫ Condemned criminals were at the scientists disposal ▫ Hypothesised that different parts of the brain control different behaviours. Ventricular localisation hypothesis= ▫ Mental and spiritual processes reside in ventricular spaces The cell doctrine= ▫ cell meaning small space – Ventricle ▫ The cell of common sense We know ventricles – site where cerebral spinal fluid passes ▫ The urine of the brain.  Some interesting history cont.. Galen = advancing the anatomic knowledge of the brain ▫ Identified main structures linked to behaviour (due to brain trauma) ▫ Romans forbade autopsies – so studied gladiators during surgery ▫ Contemporary neuropsychologists made the most advances during WW1 and WW2 & other wars. ▫ Believed physical function depends on the balance of bodily fluids or humors (usually blood – disease)  Good humor and bad humor  Recap: Philosophers of Functional Neuroanatomy Hypocrates: brain is the centre of reasoning, emotions, senses and movement were controlled by the brain Galen: Tried to establish the relationship (localization) between the psychic phenomena and the brain Albertus Magnus: Behaviour as the result of the combination of the brain, the cerebellum and the midbrain Andreas Vesalius: Brain mass was responsible for mental processes. (anatomic theatre) Thomas Willis: Studies of the blood circulation in the brain. Mental faculties reside in the corpus striatum Giovannni Lancisi: knowledge on aneurysm and believed the corpus collosum was the seat of mental functions  Non-western attitudes Non-western – stronger focus on the soul and gods ▫ Belief that god(s) sent diseases Egyptian – life as a balance between internal and external forces ▫ Believed the heart to be the centre of the mind, sensation and consciousness Localization theory - Phrenology 19th century – neuropsychology evolved ▫ Began to demonstrate how the brain organises behaviour Franz Gall – Mental faculties are innate and depend on the topical structure of the brain ▫ Size of the brain – related to skills (intelligence) ▫ Formulated the localization theory (but how he labelled it was wrong and not how we see it now) From Gall’s theory – Phrenology was born ▫ Brain area is enlarged – corresponding area of the skull will be enlarged ▫ Feeling cranial bumps to determine which cerebral areas are the largest ▫ Bumps on the skull made predictions about psychological strengths and weaknesses.  This Phrenology = entirely inaccurate Localization theory cont… Johann Spurzheim – continued phrenological teaching ▫ Became increasingly popular in the USA ▫ Believed could determine attributions of people only on their physical characteristics  Men and women – gender stereotypes  Race –larger brain sizes and superiority Advancements and developments in neuropsych ▫ scientists refused to believe a single part of the brain was responsible for all behaviour ▫ Places more emphasis on the cortex – functional neuro tissue Era of cortical localization Paula broca – speech production ▫ Posterior, inferior region of the left frontal lobe  First to discover the differenced between left and right brain ▫ Brocas Aphasia – speech production impaired  Inability to talk Carl Wernicke – understanding and comprehension of speech ▫ Superior, posterior aspects of the temporal lobe ▫ Wernicke’s Aphasia – no motor deficit, but inability to comprehend speech ▫ Able to talk, but sentences made no sense and sounded like a foreign language In order to prove localisation – you need to ensure there is double dissociation Language processing in the brain Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke’s Both: localization of language in the brain → complexities of language as a high cognitive function Broca: Wernicke: Understanding the origins Understanding the origins of non-fluent aphasia of fluent aphasia Dominance of left- Weakened the hemisphere for all mental localizationist theory functioning  Localization Theory Pierre Flourens – suggested an alternative to localization ▫ Ablation experiment – removing parts of brain from birds ▫ Generalized disorders ▫ Loss of function depends on the extent of the damage and not the location ▫ Agued that cerebral material is Equipotential  If sufficient cortical matter is intact, remaining material will take over the function – plasticity ▫ Suggested that humans use only 10% of the brain  Commonly holds today  Dr. Wilder Penfield Pioneered direct electrical stimulation of the brain during surgery ▫ By systematically mapping the brain (patients were awake) ▫ A technique for finding damaged areas of the brain ▫ Intention to cure focal epilepsy Amongst the first to map the brain and its functional organisation in living people https://www.mcgill.ca/library/channels/event/neurological-laboratories-interdisciplinary-centres-brain-research-otfrid-foerster-wilder-penfield- 226004 Localization theory Edouard Hitzig Neuroanatomists Gustav Fritsch who mapped the brain By electrical stimulation and lesioning of the cortical tissue the provided conclusive evidence of localization of cortical functions History Background: Wholistic view Sigmund Freud -1856-1939 -Criticized Broca and Wernicke: the complexity of the aphasias showed that their “areas” are nodal points in a complicated network Karl Lashley -1890-1958 -It doesn’t matter what part of the cortex you remove, but HOW much you remove  Integrated theories of the brain: Hughlings Jackson – main research into Epileptic seizures ▫ Found a connection between limb movements and specific areas of the brain ▫ Higher mental functions are not unitary abilities  No specialised cortical areas  But Simpler and more basic skills – need combining into more complex functions  Integrated theories of the brain: Luria’s functional model Alexander Luria – NB Go read up more. ▫ “…a new branch of science with the specific and unique aim of investigating the role of individual brain systems in complex forms of mental activities” (p. 16) Most productive and significant neuropsychologist of his time. Realised a viable brain-behaviour theory must not only fit both localization and equipotentiality hypotheses Meet Alexander Luria Cultural-Historical Psychology: mediatory role of culture and language in the development of higher mental functions New method in neuropsychology: flexible and qualitative, theoretical and clinical, case study driven, syndrome analysis Systemic localization of brain function – functional systems & units; hierarchical (built one above the other) MODERN NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Week 1 -TOPIC 1 Special focus on South Africa NEUROPSYCHOLOGY BRAIN Normal and acquired brain damage/dysfunction COGNITION BEHAVIOUR Points to consider What are the main contributions of the representatives of contemporary neuropsychology to the field. Is neuropsychology as new branch of science as stated by Luria? Why are Luria contribution to neuropsychology so important? ▫ Theoretical ▫ Practical ▫ Methodological ▫ Vocational Neuropsychology in South Africa Watts, A. (2008). Neuropsychology in South Africa: Past, present and future. In: C. van Ommen & D. Painter. Interiors: A History of Psychology in Southern Africa (pp. 353-380). Pretoria: Unisa Press. Main influences in the development of Neuropsychology in South Africa The division of Neuropsychology at the council for Scientific and Industrial Research’s National Institute for Personnel Research Aptitude Tests Section (ATS) of the South African Air Force →created during World War II → By Dr. Simon Biesheuvel (prof at the Psychology Department at Wits) → Requested by the Smuts government. Dr. Biesheuvel hired Dr. Mundy-Castle (Phd at Cambridge) who established the Division of Neuropsychology at NIPR Dev Griesel, first EEG laboratory; 1953 a new division of the NIPR, ‘Division of Neuropsychology’ →Lots of research and clinical services → Conflict with the Apartheid Government based on results (EEG, etc.) → Closed down in 1993 Main influences in the development of Neuropsychology in South Africa The psychology departments, neuropsychology units and laboratories at the university Physiological psychology labs → experiments done in animal. 1970 neuropsychology emerged as a discipline → Masters and research programs, NΨ units → epidemiology of TBI, development of test, effects of solvents on cognition, etc. The neurology and neurosurgery departments at state hospital Only a few posts Victor Nell funded a Neuropsychology clinic in Hillbrow (health psychology dept Pretoria) Dev Griesel, Institute of Behavioral Sciences at the University of South Africa (UNISA) in Pretoria, Both departments neuropsychology focus -= normative tests Participation of Clinical Psychologists in this services Main influences in the development of Neuropsychology in South Africa Various Neuropsychology workshops and conferences held in South Africa 1981→ First South African Neuropsychological Conference (Durban) → Led to the formation of the south African Society for Brain and Behaviour Studies (hosting a number of conferences) The formation of Neuropsychology Associations 1985 → South African Clinical Neuropsychology Association (SACNA) → promote professional development Psychological Society of South Africa (PsySSA) → Division of Neuropsychology (2001) (reaction against SACNA) Private Sector Assessment and rehabilitation in private units (not many neuropsychologists as part of the team)  From: Watts, A. and Shuttleword-Edwards, A. (2016) 2013 International Neuropsychoanalysis Congress, Cape Town 2019 HPCSA settled on the case regarding the registration of Neuropsychologists.  Neuropsychologists face many challenges in South Africa https://www.wesrch.com/gp/5-neuropsychology-based- ways-to-clear-your-mind-for-your-brain-health-1966 COMPLEX SOCIO-CULTURAL PICTURE: -Multiple cultures -Multiple languages -Ever-changing social picture -Great socio-economic differences -City vs. rural areas -Access to education and quality of education -Access to health services -HIV/TBI world records