EXE 221 Motor Learning and Development PDF

EXE 221 – motor learning and development Unit 1 – physical development Textbook pg 350 Intrinsic dynamics - Constraints that a-ect observable motor patterns and motor skill learning and refining Size and shape - Are Important constraints but some factors have not...

EXE 221 – motor learning and development Unit 1 – physical development Textbook pg 350 Intrinsic dynamics - Constraints that a-ect observable motor patterns and motor skill learning and refining Size and shape - Are Important constraints but some factors have not been explores regarding developmental changes like 1. Height 2. Weight 3. Bone growth and development 4. Muscular development 5. Visual and spatial awareness Constraints - People with constraints can be independent by performing tasks in unique ways - Eg. Wheelchairs, hearing aids, sign language and guide dogs Structural constraints - Heigh, strength, spinal cord damage, hearing and visual impairments Look at how genetic and environmental factors may aHect motor learning and development Nature and nurture - The debate over genes/nature and environment/nurture to explain individual di-erences is 140 years old Genetic factors - almost the sole determinant of characteristics like height, blood type and hair color - also control the timing of growth and loss of strength later in life factors aHecting growth 1. extrinsic factors 2. prenatal nutrition 3. ingestion of wrong drugs 4. x-ray exposure extensive practice is better able to account for exceptional abilities – ericsson 2007 Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception, e.g., the product of exposure, life experiences, and learning on an individual. 1 phenotypes - observable characteristics or behavior - Research to separate nature and nurture often uses twins - Monozygotic = identical genotypes - Dizygotic = di-erent genotypes environmental impact = a special treatment that positively influences a phenotype of monozygotic twins - Concluding that characteristics/phenotypes are not completely determined by the genotype Nature vs Nurture - explains di-erences in individuals in a population as a function of genetics, extrinsic factors or both It cannot explain - Weight being controlled by genes/exercise or eating habits - How much improvement may expect as a function of training or practice Heritability - a measure of how well diHerences in people's genes account for diHerences in their traits - Can be calculated - Stats showing the di-erences among groups regarding their genetic factors - In both training and practice, true environmental factors are critical even if genetics determines a ceiling of performance Experts - People can become experts using lengthy processes of deliberate practice with changes in cognitive activity - Most people do not become experts due to not being able to sustain the intensity and e-ort of the required practice Exceptions - Height and body size are not influenced by genes Individual diHerences - In motor learning and development di-erences are influenced by genes interacting with many extrinsic factors 1. Type and amount of practice 2. Social support 3. Motivation 4. Personal value beliefs 5. Cultural influences 2 Lecture 2 Physical growth and maturation - Size and shape of children and adolescents change as they grow - There structural realities a-ect how they coordinate their movement and learn motor skills - Changes over a lifespan in skeletal, muscular and nervous sytem will a-ect motor performance and learning - i.e. small hand result in two hand throw of a big ball rate of change in motor skills - physical growth in first year after birth a. 50% gain in height b. 200% gain in weight - New motor skills in 1st year of life a. Standing b. Sitting c. Crawling d. Walking - Childs changing weight and length constraints must be coordinated with changing tasks and environmental constraints Growth curves - Exist for common body size measures which include a. Stature b. Sitting height c. Leg length d. Limb and head circumference e. Breadth of shoulders, hips and knees Sigmoid shaped growth curves - Rapid change after birth and in adolescence make the sigmoid shape curvilinear - As values on the y-axis are accumulated height = distance curve - 50th percentile = average for age group - 75th percentile = a child who is taller than 75 percent of his same aged peers - These growth charts show whether an individual is short, tall, light or heavy for his age 3  - Growth charts are used to monitor the extremes of weight and height as possible indicators of growth pathology - Examples a. 50th percentile height but 80th percentile weight b. 15th percentile height = could be a genetic factor or growth problem - Size at birth is not an accurate predictor of final height and weight - By age 2 or 3 children tend to stay the same percentile, compared to their peers Lecture 2 - Growth curves – NB what is included in the measures of a growth curve and what does it explain and give an example Clinical evaluation - Uses relative stability in growth Distance curves show only - The extent of growth - Hide whether a child is growing fast one year and slower the next Sigmoid distance curves - Created by averaging the height of many children - Hides individual changes Velocity curves - Rate of change - Rate of change in height per year - Rate of change in height during the first 5 years decelerates - Peak velocity occurs during growth spurts - Velocity curves show that females have an earlier growth spurt and termination of growth compared to males Curve explained - Dramatic change in stature experienced by most adolescence - Awkwardness in attempt to incorporate rapid changing limb lengths into their personal movement - Females enter and end growth spurts 2 years before males Peak height velocity - Gain in height is fastest since the first year of life - Di-erence in adult height between sexes due to a. Females slower PHV b. Cessation of growth 2 years before males 4 Proportion growth curves - Motor learning of children and adolescence is not only a-ected by changes in overall stature and weight but also - Change in bodies proportions or form - Relative growth = refers to the di-erent rates of growth of di-erent body parts - i.e. the heads growth quicker than legs during prenatal growth, but slower than the legs after birth therefore - although adults are taller than young children, they also have di-erent forms - these changes are biomechanical constraints that a-ect coordination - as children grow, their movement patterns need to include a constantly changing body shape that may a-ect performance - i.e. elite female gymnasts during puberty – may not maintain su-icient strength to compensate for their heavier limbs, therefore there is a decline in performance limitations of growth curves distance and velocity curves - Describe the average patterns of change - However individual have unique timing of these events - Peak strength and velocity = follows within a year of the peak height velocity - Future athletes’ success is di-icult to predict in the adolescence growth period Do early maturing adolescence have an athletic advantage versus late maturing adolescents 5 Lecture 3 Body system constraints - Motor learning and development can theoretically be constrained by any body system - Systems that most aHect movement/performance 1. Skeletal system 2. Muscular system – strength and flexibility 3. Cardiovascular system 4. Nervous system 5. Endocrine system 6. Adipose tissue 7. Sensory system – vision and audition 8. Kinesthetic perception – body and spatial awareness - As with relative growth, these systems do not change at a constant rate - The developing child and adolescent must learn to incorporate changing a. Limb size b. Muscle mass c. Visual capabilities into new and old movement patterns - Changes we see reinforce the notion that children are not miniature adults Skeletal system - Structural support system of the body - Enables movement - Large developmental changes occur in bone size structure from birth through adolescence - Bone changes do not end even after adolescent growth Because - Bone is a living and growing tissue - Through remodeling, an entire skeleton is replaced every 10 years but - During childhood bone building occurs at a much faster rate that bone resorption = increases in bone size Skeletal growth in children - Children of the same age may di-er in height - Baby length increases 30% until the 5th month - Expected longitudinal growth a. Ist year = 25cm/year b. 2nd year = 12cm/year c. 3rd year = +6-10cm/ year until growth spurt at puberty - After the 1st month, approximately length increases of 2.5-3vm per month 6 DiHiculties with skeletal growth 1. Osgood-Schlatter disease - Painful disruption in growth of the upper shinbone where the patella attaches 2. Legg – Clave- Perthes - Irritation of the femur where it inserts on the hip Other diHiculties 1. Child problems - Restrict weight as weight bearing activities and movement is often painful 2. Limb amputations - Amputees perform some movements in unique ways to compensate for the loss of a limb Muscular system - Strength is an NB important for motor skills - Influenced by a. Muscle mass amount b. Maturation c. Recruitment of muscle fibers d. Extrinsic factors like nutrition and exercise - Follows a sigmoidal curve - 25% of total weight at birth, men 54% and women 45% at maturity - Strength is an important rate limiter for independent walking - Explains why heavier babies might not walk as early as leaner babies Strength Growth can occur through 2 methods 1. Hyperplasia - Increased number of fibers - Only in childhood due to the presence of stem cells 2. Hypertrophy - Increase in the relative size/volume of muscle fibers - Both gender have a rapid gain in muscle mass - Girls till 13 and boys till 17 - M. fibers increase in both diameter and length during growth and development a. Increase in muscle length, occurs with increase in bone length b. Increase in diameter occurs due to physical activity - Following maturity, muscle mass can only be changed through hypertrophy or atrophy, the decrease in size of muscle fibers 7 Flexibility - Flexibility is a good indicator of overall health Because you will be better able to perform everyday tasks - Joint range of movement is necessary in daily living, athletic events and prevention of muscular injury - Sit and reach test is commonly used to assess flexibility of lower back, hamstrings and hip flexors Gender diHerences - Until 12 years, flexibility increases for females - Until 10, it increases for males - Females are more flexible from 5 years old - Sex diHerences are attributed to a. Size b. Composition c. Hormone levels d. Physical activities - Larger body size = poorer flexibility - Females participate in physical activities that promote increased ROM like dance more than males do - Flexibility is joint specific rather than across the body - It is greatly a-ected by physical activity Cardiovascular system - Heart rate is used to measure cardiac e-ort during rest, mod exe and maximal e-ort - In general, resting heart rate decreases with age - In infancy and childhood, there is an increased heart rate due to a physiological compensation for smaller heart sizes - Smaller hearts = decrease in SV therefore increase in HR compensation - Females average 5bmp more than males due to smaller sizes VO2 max - Measure of aerobic capacity and cardiorespiratory fitness - Performance and VO2 max is highly correlated, but does not mean that VO2 max is set - Vo2 max increases to a similar rate in boys and girls - Boys = continuous to increase till 18 - Girls = till 1 - Increase observed in boys due to continued growth through a later stage 8 Resting heart rate - HR shows the number of heartbeats per minute. Normal values may change depending on age - Should be between 60-140 bmp a. Seniors = 80-100 b. Adults = 60-80 c. Children = 85-90 d. Small children = 100-120 e. Babies = 140 Nervous system - Undergoes changes through life - Neurons fire and establish synapses/ connections later in prenatal period - 100 bill neurons formed by the 3rd and 4th prenatal week - Later in the prenatal period and early in the 1st post-natal year, synapses are formed between neurons - At birth, brain is 25% of its adult weight and at 5yrs it is 90% Cont. - Nr of neurons develop until age 6 but learning and life experiences alter the NS - Practicing new motor skills results in hundreds and thousands of new groups and synapses - Neuromotor di-iculties can a-ect coordination like cerebral palsy Endocrine system - Control hormones in body tissue - Pituitary growth hormones and thyroid hormones are largely responsible for skeletal growth - Shorter stature is related to a deficiency in these hormones = a structural constraints - Estrogen and androgens (testosterone) is responsible for growth spurt and epiphyseal fusion of long bones = terminates growth Adipose tissue - Adipose tissue develops rapidly in the last 3 months of pregnancy - Explains why premature babies are skinny - Absolute adiposities increase during childhood and adolescence because they are still growing and getting bigger Graphs - Age related changes in fat free mass resemble sigmoid curves of height and weight - Decline in both sexes after a peak at about age 1 (represented as %BW) 9  - As an absolute value in kg, adipose tissue continuous to develop from 12mnts to 20 yrs. - Avg adult female = 70% of fat free mass compared to males - Males at adult hood are taller and gained more muscle mass during adolescence that females Obesity - ass with health issues - a structural constraint during performance due to the being an increased energy expenditure needed to move - also, ass with sedentary behavior and poor motor skills - concern = children younger than 6 who have too much body fat lecture 4 sensory system - various developmental changes occur - importance in motor development and learning because it has many implication for skillful performance - movement is dependent on and intricately related perception - movement is based on what we see, hear and feel in children - sensory development can greatly a-ect their performance - Partitioners should take developmental changes into considerations when developing programs like a. Vision b. Audition c. Kinesthetics - Modify equipment and task based on a. Physical capabilities b. Perceptual capabilities Vision - Predominant sensory system (70% in eyes) - Provided info on environment with respect to the position of the head 3 events occur to perceive a visual image 1. Light enters the eye - Forms an image on the retina - Photoreceptors, rods and cones, convert the image to nerve signals 2. Optic nerve transmits nerve signal - To cortex 3. Brain - Interprets the nerve signals 10 The eye - Intact at birth but depth is shorter and distance between retina and lens in less than in adults - Structural di-erences cause infants to be farsighted - Thick retinas = reduce clarity - Weak ciliary muscles = di-icult to focus Vision functions for moving skillfully 1. Visual acuity 2. Visuomotor coordination 3. Figure ground perception 4. Depth perception Visual functions Visual acuity - Sharpness of vision - 2 types 1. Static visual acuity - Sharpness of stationary objects - Normal is 20/20 - At birth it is 20/400 but greatest clarity when object is 46cm away - 20/20 is achieved by age 10 2. Dynamic visual acuity - Distinguishing objects that are moving - Mature ability reached at 15 - Perception of motion begins at 8 weeks more or less Visuomotor coordination - Ability to visually track a moving object and guide body or limbs to intercept the object - Improves with infants’ active exploration of their environment through a. Playing with hands b. Toys c. General throwing Figure and ground perception - Ability to distinguish object from its surroundings - Critical for many sport and activities Developmental changes in vision - Children have di-iculty separating an object from the background - Ability continuous to develop until 18 Rate limiter – key constraint that restricts the task goal i.e. kicking a ball hard or far enough, knee injury 11 Depth perception - Ability to see in 3 dimensions - Allows us to judge distance - Critical component in intercepting an object - Aided by a. Retina disparity b. Visual acuity c. Figure ground perception - Depth development is a-ected by visual acuity development - But it is dependent on the clarity of the image to each eye allowing better comparison Factors aHecting perception of an approaching ball a. Size Important for child to distinguish the ball from b. Color background and use all depth cues in order to catch the c. Speed ball d. Trajectory of motion Auditory system - sounds provide important info in sport to guide motor learning and performance - one of the most common methods of teaching a motor skill = verbal instruction - speech and non-speech sounds can de di-erentiated from by 4 mnths - children can locate sounds at 3 years - continues to growth through adolescence - nb in sport to localize sounds i.e. knowing where an oncoming ball’s location is according to sound - auditory signals are used in activity to increase reaction times \sounds indicate rhythm of movement i.e. rhythmic movements of golf swing the ear - most of its structures are complete at birth - but the drum membrane, ear canal and eustachian tubes are not yet developed - newborn may turn their head to sounds - development of inner ear occurs before the middle and outer ear - inner ear contains main components responsible for sound detection young children - can di-erentiate similar speech sounds - important to distinguish sound a from b - auditory figure-ground perception continues to develop in adolescence kinesthetic perception/ proprioception - kinesthetic sense is the system for sensing the position and movement of indiv body parts - it is the reason we can move our bodies - sense of body position is supported by a. receptors in muscles, tendons, joints and skin b. the inner eyes and ears - provides info regarding relative body positions of body parts 12 poor kinesthetic perception - linked with clumsiness in adolescence - one’s leg is asleep = disruption of kinesthetic sense - critical for performing skillfully and have fluid movement development of proprioception - to fully develop, children must experience wide variety of activities - limited experience delays kinesthetic development and hinder their ability to learn more complex motor skills - most important aspect to develop for optimal kinesthetic perception = body and spatial awareness body awareness - individuals’ sense of the body and knowledge of di-erent body parts and image - includes a. locating body parts b. knowing the movement of parts c. knowing how to e-iciently move the parts development - begins at birth and continues through childhood - discovering hands in later used to shake a rattle - through active exploration, infants learn to propel themselves by understanding the relationship between their feet and leg movement in respect to the ground practitioners instructing young children should a. help them become aware of where their body parts are b. what their body parts do, feet = kick ball spatial awareness - awareness of body size and the position of the body in relation to others and external objects - def = gaining sense of object permanence = object still exists even if it cannot be seen a. toddlers are very interested in spatial concepts b. favorite activity is to place small objects into boxes and taking them out c. learning about size and dimension preschoolers - very egocentric - perceive world only in terms of themselves 5 yrs. old - less egocentric - more established spatial awareness - stronger sense of personal space - able to locate objects relative to others, objects and general space 13 there is a wide variety of manipulating objects and interacting with other children and adults - learnt through active exploration - activities that encourage various movement in space like obstacle courses are especially helpful for young children summary - motor learning and development is a-ected by complex interactions between genes and the environment - distance and velocity curves as well as growth tell di-erent developmental stories - skeletal tissue is newly formed and reabsorbed in life - muscle tissue changes through hyperplasia and hypertrophy - heart rate declines until 20 while VO2max increases until mid-teens, both a-ected by training - neurons develop rapidly until age 6 but synapses connect throughout life - development of adiposity is determined in absolute and relative terms - visual, auditory and kinesthetic development is unique, multifaceted and influential 14 unit 2 – physical aging introduction - with old age, humans experience many declines a. skeletal b. muscular c. cardiovascular d. nervous e. endocrine f. sensory system changes 1. primary aging = agree related declines 2. secondary aging = changes as a result of disease or environmental e-ects by maintaining an active and healthy lifestyle, you are able to reduce many age- related declines can maintain much more of your function for many years longer than sedentary counterparts life a higher quality of life into old adulthood, with reduced secondary diseases and improved physical and cognitive function practitioners who work with older adults should understand the following aging eHects on a. physiological systems b. impact on the movement changes c. e-ect of physically active lifestyles on physiological systems peak physiological function - is the highest level of e-iciency the body’s systems and organs can achieve - occurs between 25-30 on average a. women = peak at 22-25 b. men= 28-30 the age-related changes occurring across the lifespan is highly variable - aging + environmental + behavioral factors = more variability across indiv of the same age and gender - nb to understand how aging a-ects physiological systems and its impact on movement and the wide variety across adults (more than children and adolescence) - essential to individualize programs 15 Skeletal system - peak bone mass = 30 years for males and females - physical activity in youth helps determine size and strength of bones - resistance or weight baring activities develop stronger, dense bones compared to sports like swimming bone health - peak bone mass / highest bone mass acquired before the age of 30 and - age related rate of bone loss the ongoing bone remodeling cycle - bone reabsorption and formation - ensure bone remains strong and capable of adapting to mechanical stress and - repair rate of bone gradually begins to exceed bone formation osteoporosis - in healthy individuals bone tissue is lost in older adulthood, therefore bones become weaker and can fracture more easily - threat of bone fractures increase even further with osteoporosis definition = result from low bone mass and poor structural bone quality - modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors modifiable osteoporotic risk factors 1. gender women generally attain a peak bone mass that is 10% below the average man bone loss is much higher in menopausal women - during menopause, women can lose 30-50% of bone mineral density - increased from the average 0.7-1% loss to 2-3% loss per year after menopause over a 5–10-year period in both men and women, bone loss increase between their 9th and 10th decade 2. age - risk for osteoporosis increases with age, but can occur at any age - 1 out of 3 women and 1 out of 5 men over 50 will experience a fracture due to osteoporosis - Women are at higher risk for osteoporosis due to decreased peak bone mass and increase rate of bone loss 3. Body size - Thin framed women and women less that 58kg have an increased risk for osteoporosis 4. Ethnicity - Caucasian and Asian women are at higher risk - African and American women are to lower risk 16  5. Lifestyle - Participating in regular load bearing exercise like resistance training or running can decrease or even reverse bone mineral loss - Osteoporotic people, prescribe low impact weight bearing exercise like walking/ functional training like seated exercises, resistance bands or light weights 6. Calcium and vitamin D - Increased intake through diet or supplements can help maintain bone health - They work synergistically so adequate intake of both is important 7. Sex hormones - Level can be regulated by medical interventions and lifestyle changes - For example, hormone replacement therapy, maintaining a healthy weight, regular exercise, not smoking and not consuming alcohol excessively 8. Anorexia - Can cause a. Hormonal imbalances b. Nutrient deficiency c. Increased bone absorption to release the lacking minerals and suppressed bone formation - =lower bone mass 9. Cigarette smoking = quit 10. Excessive alcohol intake = decrease consumption Body stature - Decrease in standing height, starts at 40 - Largely a result from progressive compression of intervertebral discs - This compression shortens the spine and causes kyphosis Kyphosis - Curvature of the upper spine - Can also be a result of years of bad posture, weak back muscles, age related osteoporosis and osteoarthritis of the vertebrae Osteoarthritis - Degenerative joint disease a-ecting 50% of adults over 65 - Can a-ect joints of hip, vertebrae, feet and knees - Breakdown of cartilage at the ends of bones leading to pain, sti-ness, swelling and decreased rage of motion in the a-ected joints - Many of the symptoms of arthritis can be controlled through weight bearing exercises (swimming and cycling) flexibility training and light resistance training 17 EHects of physical activity on skeletal system 1. Stimulates bone formation - Regular mechanical stress stimulates osteoblasts - promoting bone formation 2. Increases bone density - Weight bearing/ resistance exercises stimulates bone formation and increases bone density - Maintaining stronger bones 3. Reduces risk of osteoporosis - PA can slow the rate of bone loss and reduces risk of osteoporosis, NB for postmenopausal women 4. Improves joint function - Regular movement maintains joint flexibility and strength, reduces the symptoms of arthritis by keeping joints lubricated and surrounding muscles strong 5. Reduces risk of degeneration - Activities help maintain cartilage health and reduces the risk of degenerative joint disease Case study - You are a clinician working with an 82-year-old women has osteoporosis. She is frail and relatively sedentary What exercises might you prescribe and why 1. Aerobic activities - Walking, dancing / low impact - Promotes bone health and improves cardiovascular fitness Rationale: - Minimizes the risks of fractures while improving CRF 2. Strength training - Resistance bands and light weights - Improve muscle strength and bone density Rationale: - Essential for maintaining and improving bone density (weight bearing) - Builds muscle, to protect and support bones (strength training) 3. Balance and flexibility exercises - Tai chi, modified yoga - Enhances balance and coordination - Reduces the risks of falls Rationale: - Critical for preventing falls, which is a major risk for individuals with osteoporosis 18 What activities would you prescribe if she also had osteoarthritis in her knees and ankles 1. Low impact aerobic activities a. Swimming/ aquatic exercises - The buoyance of water reduces stress on the joints and provides resistance for strengthening b. Cycling (stationary bike) - Low impact on joints, promotes CRF and leg strength 2. Strength training a. Resistance bands - Gentle on the joints - Improves muscle strength and endurance b. Seated or supported resistance - Exercise that supports the body and avoids excessive strain on the knees and ankles, such as seated leg presses/raises, seated row and chest press 3. Balance and flexibility exercises a. Tai chi/ modified yoga - Improves flexibility, balance and joint mobility with modifications to avoid placing excessive stress on the knees and ankles Activities to avoid 1. High impact activities - Running or jumping – increases risk of joint injury and fractures - High intensity aerobics – puts excessive stress on bones and joints 2. High stress joint movements - Deep squats and lunges – places high load on the knees and ankles, which can exacerbate arthritis 3. Heavy weightlifting - can increase risk of injury to bones and joints 4. Spinal flexion exercises - Sit ups and crunches – can increase risk of vertebral fractures in osteoporotic people Why is developing a program for someone with both osteoporosis and osteoarthritis particularly challenging 1. Balancing bone health and joint protection a. Osteoporosis – requires weight bearing and resistance exercise to improve bone density b. Osteoarthritis – requires low impact and joint friendly exercise to prevent pain and injury c. Conflict – weight barring exercises are beneficial for osteoporosis but can exacerbate arthritis symptoms, making it challenging to find suitable activities 19  2. Pain management - Joint pain – limits the ability to engage in certain activities, requiring modifications that may reduce the bone strength benefits 3. Risk of falls and fractures - Increased fall risk – due to both conditions, necessitating a strong emphasis on balance and safety during exercise Individualized approach Tailoring exercises - Requires selection and modification of exercises to meet the specific needs and limitations of the individual - Ensuring both safety and e-ectiveness Monitoring for warning signs and symptoms is essential to ensure safety 1. Pain a. New of increased pain = may indicate a potential fracture or overuse injury b. Persistent pain = especially in the back, hips or wrists – common fractures sights 2. Balance issue - Frequent falls or near falls – significantly increases the risks of fractures 3. Fatigue - Excessive tiredness – may indicate overexertion, adjust exercise intensity Muscular system - Muscular system works in concert with skeletal system allowing body to move - With aging, there is progressive decrease In relative lean body mass ( as % total body mass) - The loss of lean body mass initially results more from an increase in body fat than from reduction in muscle mass - Loss in muscle mass is small until 50 years, after it starts to accelerate - Decrease in muscle mass caused primarily by inadequate physical activity or inactivity - Can avoid by maintaining moderate to high physical activity levels and good nutrition Strength - Maximum strength correlates with muscular cross-sectional area - X-sectional area is largest during the 20s and plateaus until the age of 35-40 - Strength declines begin at 40, but can be earlier in sedentary individuals - This contributes to a decline in motor performance, strength and power 20  - Decrease in muscle mass, causes an increase in muscle weakness and fatiguability - Decline in max strength = greater in legs than arms due to reduced use of legs with age - Size and number of muscle fibers decreases from 50 - There is an age-related decline in fast twitch fibers/type 2 - Slow twitch fibers can be maintained or improved by a physically active lifestyle Maintaining independence - Loss of muscular strength in older adults can have a significant e-ect on their ability to maintain independence - i.e. carrying a bag of groceries, climbing steps, opening a medicine bottle can be challenging for them - made worse by long term physical inactivity leading to frailty - di-icult to reverse frailty - when an individual exhibits severe limitations in a. mobility b. balance c. strength d. endurance - from weak and highly frail muscles - long term inactive lifestyle, genetic factors, disease, injury and aging, or some combo of these lead to muscular atrophy, decrease in strength and increased fatigability and ultimately frailty downward spiral of physical inactivity leading to frailty and reduced mobility frail individuals experience 1. impaired mobility 2. impaired balance 3. increased risk of falls 21 Flexibility - the elasticity of tendons, ligaments and the condition of the synovial fluid in joints enable smooth movements - with age, flexibility and range of motion decreases as: 1. ligaments/tendons shorten 2. cross linkage between collagen fibrils develop and water contents decrease making tendons sti-er 3. amount of synovial fluid decreases 4. cartilage becomes thinner - declines in flexibility accelerates at a faster rate following middle age - lose =8-10cm of flexibility in the lower back, hip and hamstring (assed by sit and reach test) to prevent this - do stretching exercises with warm muscles and or yoga - movement helps keep fluid moving and slows the sti-ening and shrinkage of tendons, ligaments and cartilage. Aerobic capacity - progressive age-related declines in aerobic capacity in adults 25-65 years - these declines accelerate after 70 due to increases in 1. max heart rate 2. stroke volume 3. muscle mass 4. peripheral o2 extraction 5. sti-ening of heart muscle fibers 6. thickening and sti-ening of arterial walls - decline can be partially mitigated by regular aerobic exercise - some factors that has been investigated relative to the decline in aerobic performance include a. max aerobic capacity b. lactate threshold c. exercise economy maximum aerobic capacity - VO2max = the max rate at which oxygen can be consumed – a measure of the body’s ability to take in, transport and utilize oxygen during exercise - Endurance training: can increase VO2 max by 5-20% in children and adults - Maximal aerobic capacity begins to decline following young adulthood - Men have a 40-60% higher VO2max than women 22  - if followed longitudinally, endurance trained older women can decline at twice the rate of sedentary women, largely due to reduced training volume - Endurance trained and sedentary men reported to decline at the same rate, but can also have a larger decline if training volume is reduced - On average, the rate of decline in aerobic power follows a similar pattern in trained vs non training persons - Advantage of staying fit and active = endurances trained adults have a higher VO2max as they age, because they start at a higher level Lactate threshold - Aerobic performance an also be determined by lactate threshold - It is the exercise intensity at which blood lactate begins to accumulate above baseline levels in the blood streams i.e. - the point at which the body shifts from primarily aerobic energy production to anaerobic energy production - Declines with age leading to reduced performance - Although reductions in endurance performance are largely a-ected by decline in lactate threshold in young and middle-aged adults, - Reduced endurance performance in older adulthood is a-ected more by the reduction in VO2max Exercise economy - The oxygen cost of exercise at a particular velocity - A strong contributor to endurance ability - A more economical individual will use less energy to perform the same exercise compared to someone who is less economical - Only a few studies doe, but seems to show that aging does not appear to have such a big e-ect on exercise economy - Therefore, reductions in endurance performance found with aging are primarily the result of VO2max declines over lactate threshold decline 23  1. Define maximum aerobic capacity, lactate threshold, and exercise economy: Maximum Aerobic Capacity (VO2max) - the maximum rate at which an individual can consume oxygen during intense or maximal exercise. It is a measure of the body's ability to take in, transport, and utilize oxygen during exercise. Lactate Threshold - the exercise intensity at which lactate begins to accumulate in the blood at a faster rate than it can be removed. Represents the point at which the body shifts from primarily aerobic energy production to anaerobic energy production. Exercise Economy - the amount of oxygen consumption required to perform a specific exercise at a given intensity. A more economical individual will use less energy to perform the same exercise compared to someone who is less economical. 2. Which is most aHected by aging? - VO2max declines significantly with age – due to reductions in maximum heart rate, stroke volume, and muscle mass. The decline can be partially mitigated by regular aerobic exercise, but it still tends to decrease by about 10% per decade after the age of 30. 3. What types of activities increase aerobic capacity? - Endurance Training: Activities such as running, cycling, swimming, and rowing at a moderate to high intensity for prolonged periods. - Maximum Aerobic Capacity (VO2max): the maximum rate at which an individual can consume oxygen during intense or maximal exercise. It is a measure of the body's ability to take in, transport, and utilize oxygen during exercise. 4. Should aerobic assessment change with age? Why? - Yes, aerobic assessment should change with age. - Older adults generally have lower VO2max levels and di-erent cardiovascular responses to exercise. - Assessments should be tailored to account for these changes to ensure safety and accuracy. e.g. submaximal tests may be more appropriate and safer for older adults than maximal tests. - Assessments should consider the individual's functional capacity and health status. 5. How would you assess aerobic capacity in a 70-year-old healthy man? Submaximal Exercise Tests – some examples: o 6-Minute Walk Test: Measures the distance an individual can walk insix minutes. o Modified Bruce Treadmill Test: A graded exercise test that is safer and less intense than the standard Bruce protocol. o Step Test: Evaluates aerobic fitness by measuring heart rate response to stepping at a set pace for a specific duration. When conducting these assessments, monitor vital signs, ensure proper warm-up and cool-down and consider any health limitations or contraindications to exercise 24 The cardiovascular system As one ages there is 1. Decline in max heart rate 2. Decrease in stroke volume and cardiac output 3. Decrease in VO2max 4. Increase in blood pressure - Some individuals may also have some form of cardiovascular disease resulting from genetics and/or lifestyle behaviors Anatomical changes that can cause physiological changes 1. Increase in ventricular thickness 2. Decrease nr of myocardial cells 3. Reduced elastin and increased collagen 4. Calcification – leads to sti-ness in heart and blood vessels 5. Thickening and hardening of vessels 6. Decreased flexibility or distensibility Heart rate - Most commonly used to measure the response to exercise - Major determent of cardiac output and max o2 consumption - Resting HR – only small changes through adulthood Changes in HR - HR during submaximal exe – lower in older adults than younger people - Why – HR increase at a faster rate in young adults and continue to increase to higher levels than in older adults during submaxim exercise - May be due to decreased parasympathetic nervous system activity and reduced ax HR in elderly Decline in max HR with age - Max HR = 220-age - Not necessarily a valid formula for fit and healthy older adults - Although a HR around 190 beats per minute would be expected from a 30-year- old, some older adults can reach max HR od 20 beats per minute higher than expected based on the formula 25 Stroke volume - The amount of blood that is pumped through one ventricle of the heart during one contraction - not all blood id pumped out during once contraction, 1/3 remains in left ventricle - men have higher stroke volumes than women due to larger hearts - SV can increase with aerobic training and results in lower resting heart rates Dependent on 1. Heart size 2. Duration of contraction 3. Preload – the amount a ventricle stretches before contracting 4. Afterload – aortic pressure during contraction Heart rate is well maintained into old age Older adults have a higher SV than younger adults during submaxim exercise - HR will also be lower in the elderly during submaxim exe - Slower HR allows for longer diastolic filling period - Which can result in higher stroke volume - But is di-icult to sustain with increased intensity to maximal e-ort - Many will then show a decline SV whereas young adults exhibit a gradual increase when approaching max Due to 1. Decreased contractility of heart muscle with age – limits the hearts ability to increase SV 2. Increased afterload due to increased arterial sti-ens A-V diHerence - The arteriovenous oxygen di-erence - Di-erence in oxygen content between arterial and venous blood - Determines the volume of oxygen that is transported to tissue after contraction - Can be improved by aerobic training due to cellular adaptations increasing o2 uptake - Healthy and fit older adults can maintain resting, submaxim and max -A-V di-erence Blood pressure - Reading = a combo of pressure from the contraction of the left ventricle forcing blood in to the aorta, called systole, and the brief relaxation of the ventricle , diastole. 26 Older adults are prone to both orthostatic hypertension and hypertension 1. Orthostatic hypotension / postural - Low bp when moving from lying or sitting position to standing - Older adults are less able to respond to changes in body position or heat than young - Drops may also occur after bouts of exercise Induces a. Dizziness b. Confusion c. Rapid shallow breath d. Palpations e. Light headedness f. Cold/clammy pale skin g. Fainting Clinical Hypertension - A-ects 2/3 of adults over 65 - Greater rise in age related hypertension in people living in developed countries / urban communities due to lifestyle di-erences Risks factors for high blood pressure 1. Non modifiable risk factors – gender, age, ethnicity, family history and diabetes 2. Modifiable risk factors – physical inactivity, high sodium/lipid and cholesterol intake diets, obesity, cigarette smoking and excessive alcohol intake - Other behaviors can decrease BP like intake of omega 3 fatty acids Blood pressure during exercise - Tends to increase during physical activity regardless of age - These increase are even large for individuals with high resting blood pressure - Elderly men have an average 37mmHg higher than young adults - Elderly women have a 26mmHg higher Exercise 1. Continued regular exercise - can decrease resting, submaximal and maximal bp in older adults - Bringing them back down to a normal level like those of younger adults over time 2. Low to moderate intensity exercise - 40-65% of max HR - Beneficial and can decrease BP 3. Weight training - Beneficial but prescribe lower weight, high rep rather than high weight low rep 27  Avoid 1. Hypertensive individuals - Should not participate in high intensity exercise - It will further increase bp - Increasing risk for cardiac problems 2. Valsalva maneuvers - To not increase bp further NB to evaluate individuals' cardiovascular fitness level prior to their involvement in a fitness program or teaching a motor skill as it will greatly a-ect their ability to perform aerobic exercise. The nervous system - Central nervous system is the brain and the spinal cord - Contains 100 billion neurons - Neuron = cell body, axon and dendrites With age dendrites and axons deteriorate Causing a loss in nr of neurons Aging causes brain to reduce size and weight, but can be only small functional losses Recovery after losses - The brain is capable of recovering these losses through a process called neuroplasticity - Brain’s ability to reorganize neural pathways throughout life as a result of experiences (brains ability to change with learning) - There is a change in the internal structure and nr of synapses - Can occur at any age but most adaptable during childhood - Ability of brain to adapt does decrease with age but can be strengthen with cognitive and physical activity - Neuronal connections increase for areas of the brain that receive info more often compared to areas that don’t i.e. - a soccer player would have more of his cortex develop to feet than a violinist who would have more to their fingers - Aging is associated with an increase in abnormal formations like neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques - Found in some degree in the majority of adults with dementia - Older adults could require more time to learn motor skills than younger adults due to short- and long-term memory losses liked to aging - Can slow many age-related losses by maintaining moderate PA levels and doing mental activities like word puzzles, reading and writing - Some simple activities that can cause a mental conflict/ require the opposing sides of the body to perform opposite or di-erent activities = mentally challenging 28  1. Neurofibrillary tangles - Aggregates of microtubule proteins incise the cell of a neuron - Can lead to death of a neuron and contribute to the slowing of central nervous system responsiveness 2. Senile plaques - Form on the outside of neurons in the grey matter of the brain - Related to memory loss Examples of exercises that integrate both sides of the brain and that challenges movement in the whole body - Becomes easier with practice 1. Repeatedly saying yes while shaking head to say no 2. Repeatedly saying no while shaking your head to say yes 3. Move one of your shoulders up and down and the other forward and back 4. Move shoulders in opposite directions at the same time 5. Move one shoulder in n circle and the other forward and back Endocrine system - Maintains homeostasis by creating, releasing and monitoring hormone levels through an integral system of organs - An information signaling system that coordinates di-erent functions of the body Influences 1. Metabolism 2. Tissue function 3. R 4. Growth 5. Mood 6. Energy production 7. Mental activity With aging there are declines in 1. Thyroid functions 2. Gonadal hormone levels 3. Neural and hormonal control systems - Due to a. Production of less hormones b. Slower production c. Decrease responsiveness of tissue 29 Thyroid hormone Gonadal hormone Decrease in Decrease in Blood glucose changes GH melatonin levels Roles Estrogen decrease - Decrease - Plays an - Spikes - Increasing basal in menopause – of important occur metabolic rate Increase risk of muscle role in more - Thermoregulation - CVD mass normal rapidly and Age - Muscle and sleep takes - Decrease atrophy strength awake longer to production in TH - Osteoporosis cycles return to - Gradual - Cognitive with normal in decrease in BMR disturbances aging elderly - Reduces Testosterone - Increasing production of decreases gradually glucose body heat - Increase in intolerance - Increased levels fat mas may occur of body fat - Loss of due to muscle and gradual bone mass decline in - Fatigue insulin - Depression sensitivity Hormonal regulatory systems - Important in maintaining homeostasis during vigorous exercise 1. A-ect cardiovascular regulation in wamr environments 2. Influence fuel mobilization 3. A-ect synthesis of new proteins Body composition - BW tends to increase steadily in adults from age 20-60 - Decreases thereafter - Increase in BW due to increase in fat mass and decrease in lean body mass - Highly variable - Changes much less in trained men and women Redistribution of body fat - From limbs to abdominal area and internally rather tan subcutaneously - So, if measure BF% with skin fold – most use an equation developed specifically for the elderly - Increased body fat and especially abdominal obesity is of concerns due to be related with CVD and premature morality FFM and lean body mass - Includes bone, skin and organs - Peaks in 20’s and 30’s then gradually declines, Due to 1. Muscle atrophy 2. Reduced PA Metabolic rate 3. Osteopenia (bone loss) - Can decrease by 10% from 20-65 years 4. Hormonal changes and another 10 later in life 5. Diet changes - Caused by reduction in lean body mass 30 Resistance training and diet 1. Resistance training - NB in managing body comp is elderly - Helps to a. Increase muscle mass while decreasing fat mass b. Increase resting metabolism and allowing increase intake of food to satisfy nutritional requirements c. Improves mood state 2. Combine dieting with exercise - Dieting alone leads to loss ins muscle mass due to 1. Decreasing muscle mass 2. Reducing resting metabolism Sensory system - Human movement is significantly a-ected by our ability to receive and interpret sensory info - Blind infants take longer to crawl, walk and stand - Older adults with progressive vision loss tend to walk with slower, deliberate steps - Sensory loss begins in 30’s - These losses are often not reported by the elderly and can 1. Limit functioning ability 2. Interfere with communication ability 3. Lead to social isolation - Although we receive sensory info from smell and tastes, it is vision, audition and proprioception that is essential for motor performance 31 Visual system - Anatomical and physiological changes occur in the visual system with age, begins in 20’s - Can cause functional changes or reduced function and a-ect 1. Skillful performance 2. Learning new motor skills 3. Independent living in older adults - i.e. diminished vision cues can a-ect, driving or walking across street without assistance physiological and anatomical changes in vision 1. cornea - membrane thickens - cornea becomes less curved 2. iris - pigmentation changes - decreased thickness - increased rigidity - becomes less reactive 3. pupil - becomes smaller 4. lens - density and thickness increases and becomes less elastic - changes in lens reduces visual accommodation and the ability to focus clearly on close objects - accommodation = process enabling the eye to adjust and focus, producing 5. retina - loss of rods and cones - increased thickness a-ecting peripheral vision, vision outside the center of gaze - reduced responsiveness to visuals stimulation in the primary visual cortex (area of the brain responsible for interpreting visual images these anatomical and physiological changes can also cause functional changes decrease in 1. color discrimination/ blindness - functionality of cone cells 2. brightness sensitivity - ability to adjust to changing levels of light and dark 3. tolerance to glare 4. visual acuity - sharpness of vision 5. contrast sensitivity - amount of contrast needed to determine one imagine and its background - peaks at 20 - nb for many motor skills 32  6. eye movement control - further di-iculty with tracking moving objects 7. visual search - the act of directing attention towards important cues in the environment - with age it can become more di-icult and a-ect everyday activities like identifying street signs and locating house nrs 8. issues with driving - driving at night becomes harder due to glare or impaired night vision - loss of peripheral vision causing twice as many accidents - dynamic visual acuity, clearly seeing and object while its moving auditory system - 1/3 65–75-year-olds have hearing loss - ½ of 75-year-olds have di-iculty hearing - Loss begins in early 30’s - but can occur earlier or be exacerbated by overexposure to environmental noise = noise induced hearing loss (NIHL) can be due to 1. Loss of elasticity in inner ear - Loss of high frequency hearing 2. Loss of hair cells - Sensory receptors in the inner ear 3. Genetic factors 4. Various health conditions - like hypertension or diabetes 5. Side e-ects of some medications - like aspirin, some antibiotics and chemotherapy drugs Signs and symptoms of age-related hearing loss include 1. Speech and other sounds mumbled or slurred 2. High pitched sounds like s are hard to distinguish 3. Conversations are di-icult to understand, particularly when there is background noise 4. Men’s voices are easier to hear than women’s 5. Turing up volume of TV too loud for others 6. Tinnitus in one or both ears Gender diHerences - May be due to increased environmental noise in mainly male dominated occupations - Females tend to have markedly better hearing than males - Hearing loss continues in all adults through middle and older adulthood For the elderly this can mean 1. Sensory deprivation 2. Social isolation and depression 3. Decreased quality of life 33 Kinesthetic perception - Relates to the info we process and interpret through tactile and movement stimuli 1. Reduced tactile sensitivity with age - due to reduction in the number of touch receptors in skin - The lower extremities tent to be more a-ected than upper - Reduced sensitivity in lower extremities could be due to factors like diabetes, circulatory issues or injuries 2. Reduction in sensitivity to pain and temp can also occur 3. Reduced vestibular function - Negatively impacts balance and begins in 30s - Located in inner ear and provides info regarding head position and movement from receptors, hair cells, in the otolith organ and semi-circular canals 4. Number of vestibular hair cells can reduce with cells - Impacts persons sensitivity to gravity, linear acceleration, head tilt and quick movement changes - Estimated 0-35% of older adults su-er from vestibular dysfunction - Deficits in the vestibular system can cause dizziness and vertigo = a balance disorder that can vary from dizziness and vomiting to di-iculties standing and walking - Vestibular dysfunctions result in balance impairments that frequently results in falls - 1/3 to ½ over 65 years’ experience severe falls annually - Reduced ability to detect changes in head acceleration may contribute to slower walking speeds = a self-protective strategy to prevent falls Summary Aging is unique to every individual. A-ected by genetic factors, behavioral lifestyle, and past experiences. These factors interact, causing each individual to age at a di-erent rate. Individual physiological systems also age at di-erent rates – e.g. a person may experience a faster rate of decline in their cardiovascular system than in their nervous system These lectures looked at physiological changes due to healthy (primary) aging, not the result of disease or environment (secondary aging). A physically active lifestyle can slow or delay many of these age- related declines, but they are inevitable. Rate of decline generally increases after the age of 75 years 34  Healthy, physically active adults experience similar rates of decline beyond this age in most areas but are starting at higher levels, enabling them to maintain their physical function much longer than their sedentary peers. Maintaining a physically active lifestyle is NB in sustaining a higher quality of life Clinicians and exercise specialists must understand the e-ects of aging on the physiologic systems and the impact that these changes have on movement. More variability across individuals in older populations than in children and adolescents Therefore, more NB for programs to be individualized for older than for younger adults. Unit 3 – cognitive development Intellectual development Jean Piaget - Swiss child psychologist, who focused on the origin of knowledge - Interested in wrong answers by children - He proposed four general stages of intellectual development - Proposed the ideas of schemes for thoughts and action - Because cognitive experience early in life are movement generated, movement developed making cognitive development an interacting process Piaget’s four stages of intellectual development Sensorimotor - The first month of the sensorimotor stage, newborn schemas are based or reflexes - By 4 months they repeat actions they enjoy, such as bringing hand into view to watch it, these actions occur very close to the body and infants also learn that their actions can a-ect their own body - From 4-10 months, this cause-and-e-ect link is extended outside the body - i.e. the infant realizes that shaking a rattle results in a unique sound and actions such as a crude throw of a food produce a curious splat by 1 year - children are experimenting with a host of actions that produce many fascinating outcomes - a rattle can be seen, reached for, grasped and shaken - they also become aware that objects removed from vision still exists - they find the objects by thoughtfully searching around barriers and under coverings 35 Piaget’s preoccupation stage by 2 years - children demonstrate a time lag before acting on a problem - by age 2 children understand many words and requests and have been experimenting with expressive language for almost a year - stage is characterized by the use of symbols such as images and words. - Languages can reconstruct a previous event, explain the present or predict the future. - Children at this stage initiate pretend play and though action finally develop logical thinking. - In most cases children are not logical thinkers the way most adults are. - Trying to use adult logic with children usually leads to minimal understanding from children - Children tend to be more egocentric in their thinking till late in this stage - Egocentric does not mean selfish, rather that children are unable to view the world from a perspective other than their own - Children also move from parallel play (playing alongside peers but not interacting) to cooperative play (sharing a goal with other youngsters such as building a sandcastle) Concrete operational stage - Make much more logical use of thinking regarding real objects or events based on their experiences - Here they have mastered conservation of liquid problem - Start to think strategically about the intent of an opponent and what they need to do to counter their opponents - Develop a less egocentric view of the world - Able to adopt views of others if they want to be understood Formal operational stage 11- adulthood - Thinking no longer restricted to concrete objects - Children now can deal with abstract thinking - Formal operations allow adolescence to ponder their own futures and aspirations - Can begin to set longer term goals and realize certain actions to achieve them - Same aspects of egocentrism may reappear as adolescents ponder that vast array of life’s possible 36 Types of knowledge Declarative knowledge action is factual and conceptual information stored in memory than can influence the development and execution of skilled movement. Factual knowledge include knowing the di-erence between a cricket ball and a tennis ball or an over and underhand throw Begins to develop in preschool and is acquired through experience and facilitated by language. Conceptual knowledge developed by athletes and sport enthusiasts involves knowledge of the rules and equipment and cultural norms of a sport. Procedural knowledge - How you would do something - Underlies an action and includes anticipation and prediction, decision making and response selection aspects of information processing - The relationship between movement execution, declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge are complicated one can assess procedural knowledge by having people play a game to determine their knowledge of how to play Metacognitive knowledge - Realize that you must study in a quit environment to do well in a test when you find it easier to learn one subject in comparison to another - It is a higher level of cognitive knowledge, knowing that you are beter at one skill than another - Ver important in selecting and planning goal-oriented learning, much of what we can describe later as self-regulation skills = metacognitive skills Development of knowledge - The likely order of knowledge development 1. Declarative 2. Procedural 3. Metacognitive The diHerence in knowing and doing - people who play basketball, know more about basketball than people that don’t - it is an unsurprising but complicated relationship - French and Thomas concluded that children learn what to do in certain situations before the can execute the action - Williams and Davids found that high skilled players had greater declarative knowledge, suggesting that playing a game is imperative factors in declarative knowledge 37 Knowing and doing - People who participate extensively in a given sport are more elaborate in sport specific declarative, procedural and metacognitive knowledge - Knowing and doing are related to each other Game experienced and skills - Highly skilled players had the most extensive declarative knowledge about their sport - This suggests that playing the sport was important factor in developing declarative knowledge - Seems that declarative knowledge is part of skill rather than only a byproduct of experience Role of knowledge that accompanies skill acquisition - Experts have asserted for many years that well learned skill become automatic and we might assume the impact of explicit knowledge would diminish or change with automacity Knowledge in nb for continued improvement and is used by elite athletes in practice session and performance routines in closed skilled sports Development of attention - Suggested reasons adults are more capable than children with simultaneous tasks Increased capacity Automation of skills Improved attention skills - Newborns demonstrate some selective attention - Infants can orient and focus on stimuli by 6 months Selective attention, necessary for learning, thinking, and competence, continues to develop into second decade - Schedule of development of attention with motor skills Over exclusive: age 5 or 6 (attends to limited number of cues) Over inclusive: ages 6-11 (attends to too many cues) Selective attention: over age 11(attends to task- relevant cues) Developmental changes in speed of information processing Two types of reaction time: - simple and choice Suggested reasons children are slower 1. Slower nerve conduction speed 2. Slower central information-processing such as perception or decision making 3. Lack of task-specific strategies and knowledge 4. Noncentral factors such as lack of attention or motivation 38 Memory - Ability to recall things Much of the research on developmental memory has focused on goal-directed and e-ortful strategies that encode information Strategies - goal directed and mentally e-ortful processes that enhance memory - e.g., rehearsal, elaboration, organization) become more complex with age and contribute to age-related memory performance di-erences memory and knowledge - Can we separate understanding, knowledge, and memory? - Piaget believed that understanding, knowledge and memory and inseparable - Tulving distinguished memory and knowledge Episodic memory: remembering personal events Semantic memory: general knowledge from life experiences and learning Procedural knowledge: knowing how to do something; some argue that skilled performance should be di-erentiated from procedural knowledge (i.e., decisions) of that movement Brown described memory as three types of knowledge 1. Knowing: - our knowledge base; semantic memory or declarative knowledge 2. Knowing how to know: - control strategies used in deliberate learning 3. Knowing about knowing - also called metamemory or metacognition - refers to knowledge of how our personal memory functions knowing how to know - refers to control processes and strategies used for deliberate learning - These activities move information or action from working memory to long term memory. Strategies include rehearsing information, naming, grouping information and searching long term memory Learning and knowledge depends on strategic learning according to Brown Knowing about knowing - This is metamemory or metacognition - it is the knowledge of how our personal memory functions In a movement context a person with excellent metamemory might know that she needs to read about a skill to learn the verbal labels and to gain some declarative knowledge, then practice alone to get the idea of the movements and rehearse the declarative knowledge and then seek out a teacher to provide feedback after some trials. Others might know that they learn best by going to an instructor at the beginning. Knowing how to know develops after knowing about knowing and knowing. 39 Memory for movement Methods to improve memory for movements 1. Meaningfulness - whether new movement is similar to previous movements 2. Visual imagery - like picking an apple from a tree 3. Verbal labels - move arm to 2 o’clock 4. Rehearsal strategies - keep head between arms diving 5. Explicit intent to remember - we will use this movement tomorrow 6. Subjective organization - these four dance steps can be viewed as one sport and expertise Janelle and Hillman suggest expertise falls into four domains 1. Physiological 2. Technical 3. Cognitive 4. Emotional and psychological 40 Summary Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development describe qualitative changes in thinking. Children can outperform adults if they have acquired an extensive knowledge base in an area. Knowledge types include declarative, procedural, and metacognitive. Memory is intrinsically tied to knowledge and is a-ected by e-ective use of strategies. Selective attention is present from birth while attention capacity, selectivity, and focus improve through the teenage years. Movement memory can be assisted by visual imagery, verbal labels, rehearsal, intention to remember, and subjective organization. Sport expertise requires thousands of hours of intentional practice. Glossary guide 41 Unit 4 Psychosocial and social a-ective development Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development (birth to 20 years) 1. Trist vs mistrust - First stage and begins at birth and continuous to 18 months - During this stage infants are uncertain about the world that they live in - Looks to their primary care giver for stability and constancy of care 2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt - Second stage, begins from 18 months to approx. 3 years - Children here are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills as well as a sense of personal independence 3. Initiative versus guilt - 3-6 years - children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction 4. industry vs inferiority - 6-12 years - occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve - child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child’s self-esteem - now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society - begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. 5. Identify vs role confusion - occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years - adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals - they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations - Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion - Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society. 42 Changes in self-representation 1. Very early childhood = positive view of self 2. Early to late childhood = social comparisons 3. Middle to late childhood = more accurate self-evaluation and di-erentiation of domains 4. Early adolescence = more domains identified and significant peer influence 5. Middle adolescence = fine discrimination 6. Late adolescence = sense of personal beliefs Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development are - a theoretical framework that outlines eight distinct stages that individuals go through over their lifetimes - each characterized by a specific psychosocial crisis or challenge. - These stages cover the entire lifespan from infancy to old age and emphasize the interaction between an individual's psychological development and social environment. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-1 year): - Infants learn to trust their caregivers and the world around them through consistent care and nurturing. - Failure to develop trust can lead to feelings of insecurity and mistrust. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 1-3 years): - Children begin to assert their independence and develop a sense of autonomy. - If caregivers are too controlling or critical, children may develop shame and doubt about their abilities Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 6-12 years): - Children acquire new skills and knowledge and develop a sense of competence. - If they face consistent failure or criticism, they might develop a sense of inferiority Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12-18 years): - Adolescents explore and develop a sense of self-identity, including their beliefs, values, and life goals. - Failure to establish a clear identity can lead to role confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18-40 years): - Young adults seek close, meaningful relationships and intimate connections. - Failure to form these connections may result in feelings of loneliness and isolation. 43 Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40-65 years): - Adults focus on contributing to the next generation through work, family, and community involvement. - A lack of productivity or contribution can lead to feelings of stagnation. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ years): - Older adults reflect on their lives and accomplishments. - A sense of fulfilment and wisdom leads to ego integrity, while feelings of regret and unfulfilled aspirations can result in despair. Erikson's theory emphasizes the importance of successfully resolving each stage's crisis to achieve healthy psychosocial development. It also highlights the ongoing nature of development and the potential for growth and change throughout life. Keep in mind that these stages are theoretical and not everyone progresses through them in a strictly linear manner. Competence motivation o Desire for competence leads to participation (mastery attempts), seeking optimal challenges; successful participation leads to increase in perceptions of competence, control, and positive a-ect o Significant others may also enhance perceptions of competence ◦ Developmental changes in perceived competence ◦ Di-erentiation of domains: - from no sense of general self- esteem to di-erentiation of many domains ◦ Level and accuracy of perceived competence: - from inaccurate to more accurate self-evaluation ◦ Information sources: - from parents and outcomes to peers to self-references motor competence - Regular exercise is known to be positively linked to health related benefits including reduced body weight and obesity. - Relationship btw motor competence and physical activity may change over developmental time Stodden and colleagues proposed 4 interacting factors: 1. motor competence 2. perceived motor competence 3. health related fitness 4. physical activity o Early childhood sees physical activity influencing motor competence o Because motor competence is strongly linked to parental influence at young age- motor competence and physical activity have weak relationship o Middle and later childhood sees physical activity and motor competence becoming more strongly related o Those who are less able tend to participate less in physical activity o By late elementary or middle school ages motor skill competence drives physical activity levels 44 Negative spiral - Young children see themselves more competent when more actively engaged in physical activity - During middle school age social comparison and cognitive growth are on the increase. - This results in more accurate comparisons to peers. - Now perceived competence and physical competence is more closely related to actual competence. - Less skilled youngsters become less active as they view activities as too di-icult - This is called a negative spiral of disengagement, which even further reduces motor competence as well as perceived competence. Positive spiral o In contrast to the negative spiral we find the positive spiral of participating. o Skilled youngsters become more active during middle childhood because they experience fun and rewards from participating. o more activity across these elementary years augment motor competence, perceived competence and physical activity. o Physical fitness should be fostered in early childhood with the practice of fundamental motor skills. o Spirals of engagement or disengagement a-ect physical fitness from middle childhood through adolescence o Thus- those who are more physically skilled tend to be more active and thus realise greater health related fitness. Self-eHicacy - Bandura defined self-e-icacy as the belief in one’s abilities to produce actions to achieve a specific task - Four sources of self-e-icacy 1. Past mastery experiences 2. Vicarious experiences 3. Verbal persuasion 4. Physiological and a-ective states nb 45 Self-determined motivation Self-determination theory of motivation 1. Intrinsic motivation: pure pleasure and satisfaction 2. Self-determined extrinsic motivation: a means to an end but it is valued by the person 3. Non-self-determined extrinsic motivation: a means to avoid negative consequences 4. Amotivation: not motivated to participate as there is no relationship between actions and outcomes know them and their differences, asked in an example Self-determination theory argues that humans have basic needs to feel ◦ Competent ◦ Autonomous ◦ Related Social aHective constraints A newborn is not likely to have a sense of self separate from the environment. - Piaget shows that infants in the first 2 months of life began to repeat pleasurable acts centred on their own bodies and to understand that they are responsible for some of the events that fascinate them. - Impact of their social world is evident by the emergence of language early in the second year of their lives - A-ected by increasing amount of social agents over time that change in their relative impact, they develop a sense of self-esteem that can be strongly a-ected by motor competence and they develop a repertoire of emotional reactions. Emotional development and physical activity 1. Birth to 6 months - Interest, distress, anger, fear, joy, sadness and surprise are evident 2. Age 2 - Children display guilt, pride, envy and embarrassment Culture and society have emotional display rules 3. Age 3 - Recognizing emotions of others Attributions - Common attributes include personal ability, e-ort, task di-iculty and luck - Casual attributes have 3 dimensions 1. Locus of control (internal vs external) 2. Stability (stable vs unstable) 3. Control (personal control vs uncontrollable) - Positive emotions most likely to occur with success in a valued activity attributed to personal factors - Di-erention between e-ort and ability begins around age 7 46 Arousal and anxiety - Arousal = elevated excitement for an activity - Anxiety = emotional reaction to perceived threat - Inverted u principle of arousal: some arousal will benefit performance but too much may be a detriment Self-regulation - Despite the value of excellent instruction, learning of motor skills also occur through self-regulation - Self-regulation refers to self-generated thoughts, feelings and actions that are planned and critically adapted to the attainment of personal goals Self-regulation phases 1. Forethought - Task analysis = goal setting and strategic planning - Self-motivation beliefs = self-e-icacy outcome expectation, intrinsic interest and goal orientation 2. Performance - Self-control = self-instruction, imagery, attention focusing and task strategies - Self-observation = self-recording and experimentation 3. Self-reflection - Self judgement = self-evaluation, casual attribution - Self-reaction = self-satisfaction and adaptive defense The importance of self-regulation o Experts use self-regulation more than novices o Self-regulation may be as important as skill o Self-regulation enhanced learning when people chose such aspects as when to receive knowledge of results, physical guidance, or blocked versus random practice o Learning di-iculties are associated with infrequent self-regulation Development of self-regulation a. Observation – watching proficient models b. Emulation – trying to imitate a model, often with assistance c. Self-control – skill mastery in a structured setting d. Self-regulation – ability to adapt skills to changing environment Improvement of self-regulation 1. Promote self-observation 2. Set process goals 3. Shift to outcome goals once a skill becomes automatic 4. Use peer coping models 1. Model self-regulatory strategies 2. Demonstrate and promote problem solving for tasks with more than one solution 3. Encourage self-reinforcement 4. Discuss attributions of success and failure 47 Summary - Children actively resolve psychosocial conflicts toward social maturity. - Self-representation develops through personal evaluation and feedback from others: from generally positive perceptions (preschoolers) to finer discriminations in multiple domains (adolescents). - Self-e-icacy can be enhanced by quality instruction, positive feedback, modelling, imagery, and goal setting Glossary items 2 48