Mom AP World History Notes PDF

Extra Notes for AP WORLD: Hunting and Gathering to Civilization (2.5 million to 600 B.C.E.) Describe the pattern of agriculture as it pertains to its spread across the Earth. ● Different civilizations began to use agriculture at different times = beginning of permanent settlements The pattern of ag...

Extra Notes for AP WORLD: Hunting and Gathering to Civilization (2.5 million to 600 B.C.E.) Describe the pattern of agriculture as it pertains to its spread across the Earth. ● Different civilizations began to use agriculture at different times = beginning of permanent settlements The pattern of agriculture during the transition from hunting and gathering to civilization periods involved a gradual and regionally diverse process. Here are key points describing the pattern of agriculture spread: ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Regional Variation: ● Agriculture did not emerge uniformly across the globe. Different regions adopted farming practices at varying times based on local conditions, resources, and environmental factors. Independent Agricultural Origins: ● Agriculture developed independently in multiple centers around the world. Notable regions include the Middle East (Fertile Crescent), East Asia, Mesoamerica, and the Andes. Fertile Crescent: ● One of the earliest centers of agriculture, the Fertile Crescent (present-day Middle East), witnessed the domestication of plants and animals. Crops like wheat and barley were cultivated, and this region played a crucial role in the Agricultural Revolution. East Asia: ● Agriculture emerged independently in East Asia with the cultivation of rice and millet. The domestication of plants and animals contributed to the establishment of settled communities. Mesoamerica and Andes: ● In Mesoamerica (e.g., present-day Mexico) and the Andes (South America), societies like the Olmec and Norte Chico developed agriculture, cultivating crops such as maize and potatoes, respectively. Impact on Settlements: ● The adoption of agriculture marked the shift from nomadic, hunter-gatherer lifestyles to settled agricultural communities. This transition led to the establishment of permanent villages and towns. Technological Advances: ● Agriculture brought about innovations such as the use of plows, irrigation systems, and domestication of animals. These technologies enhanced food production, contributing to population growth. Social and Economic Changes: ​ ● The transition to agriculture led to social changes, including the development of social classes, as some individuals engaged in specialized roles such as farming or trade. Economic systems became more complex. Spread over Time: ● The timeline for the adoption of agriculture varied, spanning thousands of years. Some regions embraced farming earlier than others, and the spread of agricultural practices was often influenced by migration, trade, and cultural diffusion. In summary, the pattern of agriculture spread during the transition from hunting and gathering to civilization was characterized by regional variations, independent origins, technological advances, and social changes, ultimately contributing to the development of settled societies and the growth of human civilizations. How did the Neolithic Revolution bring about fundamental changes to human society? ● organizing society= social classes, jobs, gov, religion The Neolithic Revolution, also known as the Agricultural Revolution, brought about profound and fundamental changes to human society. Here are key ways in which the Neolithic Revolution impacted the organization of society, including social structures, jobs, government, and religion: ​ ​ ​ ​ Shift from Nomadic to Sedentary Lifestyle: ● Before the Neolithic Revolution, humans were primarily nomadic hunter-gatherers. The adoption of agriculture allowed for the establishment of permanent settlements as people began to cultivate and domesticate plants and animals. Development of Social Classes: ● The surplus of food produced through agriculture enabled a more stable food supply. This surplus led to the emergence of social hierarchies and distinct social classes, as some individuals could specialize in non-agricultural activities like crafts, trade, and governance. Specialization of Labor: ● With settled communities, individuals could focus on specific tasks beyond food production. This led to the specialization of labor, where people engaged in occupations such as pottery, metalworking, and trade. Specialization contributed to the growth of economic diversity. Formation of Governments: ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ● The increased complexity of societies and the need to manage resources and resolve disputes led to the development of organized governments. Leaders and governing structures emerged to maintain order, enforce laws, and oversee communal affairs. Creation of Formalized Religious Practices: ● The Neolithic Revolution influenced the development of religious practices. Agricultural societies often associated natural cycles, such as planting and harvesting, with deities or spiritual forces. Religious rituals and ceremonies became more formalized within these settled communities. Establishment of Permanent Structures: ● As societies became more settled, there was a shift from temporary shelters to permanent dwellings. The construction of more durable structures, such as houses and storage facilities, reflected the stability and permanence of settled communities. Formation of Social Norms and Rules: ● The increased interaction among individuals within settled communities necessitated the establishment of social norms and rules. This included rules for behavior, property rights, and interpersonal relationships, contributing to the development of social order. Population Growth: ● The ability to produce surplus food allowed for population growth. Larger populations supported more complex social structures and contributed to the expansion of settled communities. Transformation of Family Roles: ● With settled communities and the need for labor specialization, family roles evolved. While agriculture often required cooperative efforts within families, the emergence of specialized roles led to changes in family dynamics. In summary, the Neolithic Revolution marked a pivotal point in human history, bringing about significant changes in societal organization. The shift from nomadic lifestyles to settled agricultural communities led to the development of social classes, job specialization, organized governance, and the formalization of religious practices, laying the foundations for the more complex civilizations that followed. What are the key aspects of the river valley civilizations? ● Important Ancient texts: Code of Hammurabi, Epic of Gilgamesh, 10 Commandments, etc. ○ ○ ○ Code of Hammurabi: Law codes (Babylon) Epic of Gilgamesh: Mesopotamia poem/story 10 Commandments: Religious law codes (Judaism) The river valley civilizations, often considered the cradles of early human civilization, were characterized by key aspects that shaped their societies. Here are some key aspects of river valley civilizations, along with references to important ancient texts: Common Aspects of River Valley Civilizations: ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Geographic Location: ● River valley civilizations were situated near major rivers, providing fertile land for agriculture. Examples include the Tigris and Euphrates (Mesopotamia), the Nile (Egypt), the Indus (Harappan civilization), and the Yellow and Yangtze (China). Agriculture and Irrigation: ● Dependence on agriculture for sustenance and economic development. Irrigation systems were often developed to control water flow for crop cultivation. Urban Centers: ● Emergence of urban centers and cities with centralized governance, administrative structures, and economic activities. Social Stratification: ● Formation of social hierarchies with distinct social classes, including rulers, priests, elites, and commoners. Religious Beliefs: ● Development of complex religious beliefs and practices often centered around natural elements and deities associated with fertility, agriculture, and the environment. Technological Advances: ● Introduction of technologies such as writing systems, pottery, metallurgy, and architectural innovations. Important Ancient Texts: ​ ​ Code of Hammurabi (Babylon): ● Description: A well-preserved Babylonian law code, one of the earliest and most complete written legal systems. ● Significance: Provided a comprehensive set of laws and punishments, emphasizing the principle of "an eye for an eye." Epic of Gilgamesh (Mesopotamia): ● Description: An ancient Mesopotamian poem/story recounting the adventures of Gilgamesh, a legendary Sumerian king. Significance: Offers insights into Mesopotamian mythology, the concept of mortality, and the search for immortality. 10 Commandments (Judaism): ● Description: Found in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), the 10 Commandments are ethical and religious principles delivered by God to Moses on Mount Sinai. ● Significance: Fundamental to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, the commandments provide a moral and legal foundation for monotheistic religions. ● ​ These ancient texts are crucial for understanding the legal, literary, and religious aspects of their respective river valley civilizations. They reflect the values, beliefs, and societal norms of these early cultures, offering valuable insights into the foundations of human civilization. ● Compare and Contrast: political, gender, and economic structures of river valley civilizations ● Compare ● Patriarchal civilizations favor men ○ Babylon, Egypt, China ■ Laws and social class structure favored them ■ Contrast ● Catal Huyuk = egalitarian (Equal) Patriarchal Civilizations (Babylon, Egypt, China): ​ ​ ​ Political Structures: ● Centralized political authority with kings, pharaohs, or emperors at the top of the hierarchy. ● Administrative systems and bureaucracies to manage governance and rule. Gender Structures: ● Patriarchal societies where men held primary positions of power and authority. ● Legal systems and social norms favored men in terms of inheritance, property rights, and leadership roles. Economic Structures: ● Agricultural economies with a focus on cultivating crops and utilizing river resources. ● Social classes, including ruling elites, priests, and commoners, with economic roles determined by birth. Contrast - Catal Huyuk (Egalitarian): ​ ​ ​ Political Structures: ● Lacked a centralized political authority or ruling class. ● Decision-making might have been more decentralized, with a focus on community cooperation. Gender Structures: ● Egalitarian and relatively equal treatment of men and women. ● Absence of strong gender-based hierarchies in social, political, and economic spheres. Economic Structures: ● Economy likely based on agriculture, but without a rigid social hierarchy. ● Absence of extreme economic disparities, and resources might have been shared more equally among the community. Summary: Patriarchal Civilizations: ● Political: Centralized authority, bureaucratic systems. ● Gender: Patriarchal, with men holding dominant roles. ● Economic: Social classes, with economic roles determined by birth. Catal Huyuk (Egalitarian): ● Political: Lack of centralized authority, community-focused decision-making. ● Gender: Egalitarian, with relatively equal treatment of men and women. ● Economic: Likely agricultural, with a more communal approach to resource distribution. These comparisons highlight the diversity in political, gender, and economic structures among river valley civilizations. While some societies followed patriarchal structures with centralized governance, others, like Catal Huyuk, exhibited more egalitarian principles in their organization. These differences reflect the unique cultural and social dynamics of each civilization during their respective time periods. Classical Period, “Enduring Legacies and Influences” (600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E.) Classical China: Zhou, Qin and Han Dynasties ● Mandate of Heaven and Dynastic Cycle ○ Mandate of Heaven = right to rule, you lose that right when the gov is failing the people Dynastic Cycle = Dynasty gains the Mandate of Heaven and loses it and the next dynasty gains the Mandate of Heaven Confucianism, Daoism and Legalism Qin Shi Huangdi ○ Legalist ruler who ended the Warring States Period Compare and Contrast the three main schools of thought of Chinese philosophy Confucianism is an ethic of moral uprightness, social order, and filial responsibility. - Daoism was a philosophy of universal harmony that urged its practitioners not to get too involved in worldly affairs. -Legalism is a theory of autocratic, centralized rule and harsh penalties. Changes and Continuities: political, economic and social organizations from Zhou to Qin to Han ○ ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Mandate of Heaven and Dynastic Cycle: Mandate of Heaven: ● Definition: A political and religious concept in ancient China that claimed the emperor's right to rule was granted by divine approval. ● Belief: The ruler, known as the Son of Heaven, held the Mandate as long as he governed justly and effectively. Losing the Mandate could lead to rebellion and the establishment of a new dynasty. ● Purpose: Served as a legitimizing force for dynastic rule, explaining changes in leadership and emphasizing the importance of virtuous governance. Dynastic Cycle: ● Definition: The recurring pattern of rise, decline, and replacement of dynasties in Chinese history. ● Phases: It involves the establishment of a new dynasty, consolidation of power, prosperity, decline due to corruption or external factors, and eventual rebellion leading to the establishment of a new dynasty. ● Cyclical Nature: Reflects the idea that historical events follow a cyclical pattern, and the legitimacy of a ruling dynasty is tied to its adherence to moral principles. Three Main Schools of Chinese Philosophy: ​ Confucianism: ● Founder: Confucius (Kong Fuzi) ​ ​ ● Principles: ● Emphasis on moral uprightness, social harmony, and filial piety. ● Importance of proper conduct, respect for authority, and virtuous leadership. ● Role in Society: ● Confucianism advocates for the cultivation of moral character to promote social order and stability. Daoism (Taoism): ● Founder: Laozi ● Principles: ● Emphasis on living in harmony with the Dao (the Way). ● Advocates for simplicity, spontaneity, and embracing the natural order of things. ● Role in Society: ● Daoism encourages individuals to align with the natural flow of life and avoid unnecessary interference. Legalism: ● Key Figures: Han Feizi, Shang Yang ● Principles: ● Advocates for strict laws, harsh punishments, and strong central authority. ● Belief that people are inherently selfish and need strict control to maintain order. ● Role in Society: ● Legalism emphasizes the need for a powerful and authoritarian government to enforce laws and maintain social order. Changes and Continuities: Zhou to Qin to Han: Political Organization: ● Zhou Dynasty: ● Changes: Feudal system with decentralized power among lords (nobility). ● Continuities: Dynastic rule continued, with the concept of the Mandate of Heaven. ● Qin Dynasty: ● Changes: Centralized bureaucratic rule, abolishment of feudalism. ● Continuities: Persistence of dynastic rule, emphasis on the Mandate of Heaven. ● Han Dynasty: ● Changes: Expansion of bureaucracy, adoption of Confucian principles. ● Continuities: Dynastic rule, continuation of the Mandate of Heaven concept. Economic Organization: ● Zhou Dynasty: ● Changes: Agricultural-based economy, trade, and barter. ● Continuities: Primarily agrarian economy. ● Qin Dynasty: ● Changes: Standardization of weights and measures, currency, and infrastructure projects. ● Continuities: Agrarian focus with state interventions. ● Han Dynasty: ● Changes: Expansion of agriculture, introduction of the Silk Road, economic prosperity. ● Continuities: Agrarian base with increased trade. Social Organization: ● Zhou Dynasty: ● Changes: Emergence of social classes, feudal hierarchy. ● Continuities: Social hierarchy, patriarchal structure. ● Qin Dynasty: ● Changes: Legalist principles influenced social order, emphasis on social conformity. ● Continuities: Social hierarchy, Confucian influence on familial structure. ● Han Dynasty: ● Changes: Expansion of bureaucracy, Confucianism as state ideology. ● Continuities: Social hierarchy, continuation of Confucian influence. In summary, the transition from Zhou to Qin to Han involved shifts in political structures, economic policies, and social organization. The Mandate of Heaven persisted as a legitimizing force, but the emphasis on Confucianism and Legalism varied, reflecting changes and continuities in the philosophical foundations of Chinese governance. The dynastic cycle remained a constant, illustrating the cyclical nature of Chinese historical development. ● - Change in Philosophy, Warring States Period, Mandate of Heaven Classical India: Maurya and Gupta Dynasties Impact of geography on Indian political institutions ○ Large subcontinent, diverse regions led to emperors using war to unite India The impact of geography on Indian political institutions was significant and played a crucial ● role in shaping the political landscape of the Indian subcontinent. Several geographic features influenced the development of political institutions in ancient India: ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Large Subcontinent: ● The Indian subcontinent is vast, with diverse geographical features such as mountains, plains, rivers, and coastlines. ● Impact: The size of the subcontinent led to the emergence of distinct regions with their own local governance structures. Different regions developed political autonomy and governance systems suited to their specific geographical and cultural contexts. Himalayan Mountains: ● The Himalayas in the north served as a natural barrier. ● Impact: The geographical barrier provided protection against invasions and facilitated the development of unique cultural and political institutions in the Indian subcontinent. It contributed to the sense of regional identity and separation. River Systems (Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra): ● The fertile river valleys of the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra provided rich agricultural land. ● Impact: These river systems supported the growth of agricultural civilizations. The availability of fertile land and water resources influenced the establishment of early urban centers and the emergence of organized political structures in river valley civilizations such as the Indus Valley Civilization. Diverse Regions: ● India has diverse regions with distinct climates, ecosystems, and natural resources. ● Impact: The diversity of regions led to the development of different economic activities and governance systems. Each region adapted its political institutions based on its specific geographical conditions, economic practices, and social structures. Coastlines: ● India has extensive coastlines along the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. ● Impact: Coastal regions played a crucial role in trade and commerce. Coastal cities became centers of economic activity and cultural exchange, influencing political institutions by integrating coastal regions into larger political entities. Deccan Plateau: ● The Deccan Plateau in central India is characterized by its elevated terrain. Impact: The Deccan Plateau influenced settlement patterns and provided natural defensive advantages. Some regions in the plateau developed fortified cities and political entities with a focus on defense against external threats. Isolation of Island Territories: ● Islands such as Sri Lanka and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are geographically isolated. ● Impact: The isolation of these islands contributed to the development of distinct political institutions and cultural practices. These areas often had unique political structures influenced by their isolation. ● ​ In summary, the geography of the Indian subcontinent had a multifaceted impact on political institutions. It influenced settlement patterns, trade routes, economic activities, and the emergence of regional political entities. The diversity of geographical features contributed to the rich tapestry of political structures and governance systems across different regions of ancient India. ● ● Maurya Dynasty: Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka ○ Ashoka’s role and impact on spread of Buddhism ■ Edicts of Ashoka ● codes of conduct ● Helped organize empire, set standards for government and citizens, respected others and their religions Gupta Dynasty: cultural and intellectual achievements ● Golden Age = Wealth, Trade, and Technology advancements ● Merchants ● Hinduism Maurya Dynasty: Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka Chandragupta Maurya: ● ● ● Founder of the Maurya Dynasty. Established the first centralized empire in ancient India through conquests. Governed with a strong administrative system and a network of spies. Ashoka: ● ● Grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. Known for his conversion to Buddhism after the Kalinga War, which led to a shift in his governance philosophy. Ashoka’s Role and Impact on the Spread of Buddhism: ● ● ● Ashoka became a prominent patron of Buddhism. His conversion influenced the spread of Buddhism beyond India, reaching Central Asia and Southeast Asia. Promoted Buddhist principles of non-violence, tolerance, and moral conduct. Edicts of Ashoka: ● ● ● Ashoka's inscriptions on pillars and rocks across his empire. Conveyed moral and ethical guidelines, promoting Dhamma (law of righteousness). Emphasized social welfare, non-violence, and religious tolerance. Codes of Conduct: ● ● ● Set standards for government officials and citizens. Encouraged ethical conduct, respect for others, and religious tolerance. Aimed at fostering a just and harmonious society. Impact on Empire: ● ● Helped organize the Maurya Empire with a focus on moral governance. Established principles that influenced the administration and behavior of citizens. Gupta Dynasty: Cultural and Intellectual Achievements Golden Age: ● ● The Gupta Dynasty is often referred to as the Golden Age of ancient Indian history. Characterized by prosperity, advancements in trade, wealth, and technological achievements. Wealth, Trade, and Technology Advancements: ● ● Flourishing trade routes contributed to economic wealth. Significant advancements in science, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Merchants: ● ● Trade and commerce thrived, with merchants playing a crucial role. Trade connections extended to regions like Southeast Asia and the Mediterranean. Hinduism: ● ● ● The Gupta Dynasty patronized Hinduism. Temples were built, and religious practices were supported. Hindu culture and art flourished during this period. In summary, the Maurya Dynasty, under Chandragupta and Ashoka, saw the establishment of a centralized empire with a significant impact on the spread of Buddhism. Ashoka's edicts and codes of conduct emphasized moral governance. The Gupta Dynasty's Golden Age was marked by cultural, intellectual, and economic prosperity, with advancements in various fields and a patronage of Hinduism. The period witnessed flourishing trade, technological achievements, and cultural development, contributing to India's rich historical and intellectual heritage. ChatGPT can make mistakes. Consider checking important information. ● Religions and belief systems ○ Hinduism: Karma - the force generated by a person's actions, typically the belief that if you do good things, good things will come to you Dharma - Roughly translated as “religious duty.” Fulfillment of duty to your role. Reincarnation - The cycle of rebirth. Upon death your spirit returns in a new body. If you fulfilled your dharma, you had a chance of moving up the caste system. Caste System - Divides Hindus into four main categories – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Shudras Upanishads - present a vision of an interconnected universe with a single, unifying principle behind the apparent diversity in the cosmos, any articulation of which is called brahman. Moksha - Salvation, freedom from the endless cycle of life and death. ● Buddhism: Siddhartha Gautama - Referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher and founded Buddhism. Four Noble Truths - The truths of the Noble Ones, the truths or realities for the "spiritually worthy ones" ● Eightfold Path - An early summary of the path of Buddhist practices leading to liberation from samsara, the painful cycle of rebirth, in the form of nirvana. Nirvana - The stopping of all existence Compare and Contrast: Buddhism and Hinduism - Buddhism = no caste system, Both have reincarnation Summary of Differences Between Hinduism and Buddhism: Hinduism: ● Karma: Belief in the force generated by actions; good deeds lead to positive outcomes. ● Dharma: Fulfillment of religious duty within one's societal role. ● Reincarnation: Cycle of rebirth; fulfillment of dharma may lead to advancement in the caste system. ● Caste System: Divides society into four main categories (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras). ● Upanishads: Present a vision of an interconnected universe with the concept of Brahman (unifying principle). ● Moksha: Salvation, freedom from the cycle of life and death. Buddhism: ● Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha): Founder, a wandering ascetic and religious teacher. ● Four Noble Truths: Basic truths about suffering, its cause, cessation, and the path to liberation. ● Eightfold Path: Set of practices leading to liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) and achieving nirvana. ● Nirvana: The state of the cessation of all existence. Comparison: ● Reincarnation: Both Hinduism and Buddhism believe in the cycle of rebirth. ● Caste System: Hinduism maintains a caste system, while Buddhism rejects it. ● Approach to Liberation: Hinduism seeks Moksha through fulfilling duties and understanding Brahman, while Buddhism seeks Nirvana through the Eightfold Path and understanding the Four Noble Truths. ● Concept of Deity: Hinduism has a diverse pantheon of gods, while Buddhism focuses on the teachings of the Buddha without a central deity. ● Path to Liberation: Hinduism emphasizes rituals, duties, and devotion, while Buddhism emphasizes ethical conduct, meditation, and wisdom. Contrast: ● Caste System: Absent in Buddhism, contrasting with Hinduism where it plays a significant societal role. ● Ultimate Goal: Moksha in Hinduism involves union with the divine, while Nirvana in Buddhism is the cessation of existence. ● Concept of Self: Hinduism identifies with the eternal soul (Atman), while Buddhism emphasizes the non-self (Anatta). ● Religious Practices: Hinduism involves rituals, ceremonies, and devotion to deities, while Buddhism focuses on meditation and ethical living. In summary, while Hinduism and Buddhism share some concepts like reincarnation, they differ in significant ways, including their approach to social structures, paths to liberation, and concepts of the ultimate goal. Hinduism is characterized by its diverse pantheon and complex rituals, while Buddhism focuses on the teachings of the Buddha and the pursuit of enlightenment. Classical Mediterranean: Greece and Rome ● How did Athens and Sparta compare in their cultural and political values? ○ Athens was democracy and golden age (Pericles) ○ Sparta was militaristic (Leonidas) ○ Sparta defeated Athens in the Peloponnesian war w/ the Persian Empire ○ Geography made Greece divide into different city states ■ Sea’s divided them, but also gave them harbors and ports for trade Athens: ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Political System: ● Democracy: Athens is often considered the birthplace of democracy. Citizens participated in decision-making through assemblies. Cultural Values: ● Intellectual Pursuits: Emphasis on education, philosophy, arts, and literature. Home to prominent philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. ● Individualism: Valued individual achievement, creativity, and intellectual exploration. Military Focus: ● Navy: Athens had a strong naval force, contributing to its maritime power. Social Structure: ● Citizenship: Limited to free male citizens. Women, slaves, and non-citizens had limited political rights. Foreign Relations: ● Alliances: Athens formed alliances with other city-states, leading to the Delian League. Role of Women: ● Limited Rights: Women had restricted roles in public life and lacked political participation. Sparta: ​ Political System: ● Oligarchy: Sparta had a dual kingship and a council of elders (Gerousia). Citizenship rights were limited. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Cultural Values: ● Military Focus: Emphasis on military training, discipline, and physical fitness. The state prioritized military strength over intellectual pursuits. ● Collectivism: Emphasized the needs of the state over individual desires. Military Strength: ● Land Army: Spartan society revolved around the strength of its land army (hoplites). Social Structure: ● Citizenship: Limited to a select group of male citizens known as Spartiates. Helots, non-citizens, and perioikoi had distinct roles. Foreign Relations: ● Isolationist: Spartan foreign policy was often isolationist, focusing on military preparedness rather than forming alliances. Role of Women: ● Physical Fitness: Spartan women had more physical freedom and were encouraged to maintain good health for the sake of producing strong offspring. Contrast: ● Values: ● Athens: Valued intellectual and artistic pursuits, individualism, and democratic governance. ● Sparta: Emphasized military strength, discipline, and collectivism in service of the state. ● Education: ● Athens: Focused on a well-rounded education, including philosophy, arts, and physical training. ● Sparta: Emphasized military training and physical fitness over intellectual pursuits. ● Social Structure: ● Athens: More inclusive citizenship, with limitations based on gender and social status. ● Sparta: Limited citizenship to a select group with a strict hierarchical structure. ● Foreign Policy: ● Athens: Engaged in alliances and the Delian League, promoting trade and cultural exchange. ● Sparta: Adopted an isolationist approach, prioritizing military strength. In summary, Athens and Sparta had distinct cultural and political values. Athens emphasized democracy, intellectual pursuits, and individualism, while Sparta prioritized an oligarchic system, military strength, and collectivism. These differences contributed to the unique identities of each city-state in ancient Greece. ● ● ● ● Pericles and Democracy ○ Pericles was the Athenian leader who spoke on Democracy Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age ○ Warrior and conquered Eastern Mediterranean ○ Spread Greek culture (Hellenism) Achievements and policies of the Roman Empire: citizenship, “bread and circus,” etc., comparisons with Han China ○ Both had strong central government and bureaucracy ○ Collapsed due to weakening gov Rise of Christianity in Rome ○ Trade ○ martyrs ○ Peter’s letters ○ embracing of Christianity by the emperor Constantine Pericles and Democracy: ● Pericles: ● Athenian leader during the Golden Age of Athens. ● Prominent advocate of democracy and key figure in the development of Athenian political institutions. ● Democracy: ● Athens is considered the birthplace of democracy. ● Pericles played a crucial role in shaping democratic governance through his speeches and policies. Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age: ● Alexander the Great: ● Conqueror and military leader from Macedonia. ● Expanded his empire across the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond. ● Hellenistic Age: ● Era following Alexander's conquests, marked by the spread of Greek culture (Hellenism). ● Cultural diffusion, blending of Greek and local traditions. Achievements and Policies of the Roman Empire: ● Citizenship: ● Roman citizenship expanded over time, including both freeborn and freed individuals. ● "Bread and Circus": ● Policy of providing free food (bread) and entertainment (circus) to the Roman population to maintain social order. ● Comparisons with Han China: ● Both had strong central government and bureaucracy. ● Experienced collapses due to weakening governance structures. Rise of Christianity in Rome: ● Trade: ● Roman trade networks facilitated the spread of cultural and religious influences. ● Martyrs: ● Early Christians faced persecution and became martyrs for their faith. ● Peter’s Letters: ● Biblical texts attributed to the apostle Peter, addressing Christian communities. ● Embracing of Christianity by Constantine: ● Emperor Constantine's conversion to Christianity had a profound impact. ● Christianity became a state-sponsored religion, leading to its widespread adoption. In summary: ● Pericles played a key role in promoting democracy in Athens. ● Alexander the Great's conquests spread Greek culture during the Hellenistic Age. ● The Roman Empire's achievements included citizenship policies and "bread and circus." ● Both Roman Empire and Han China had strong central governments and faced collapses. ● The rise of Christianity in Rome involved trade, martyrdom, Peter's letters, and Constantine's embrace of the faith, marking a transformative period in Roman history.