WHAP 1400-1750 Test Review PDF

Comprehensive Study Guide: 1450-1750 1. European Conquest and Advantages in the Americas Key Factors in Conquest ("Guns, Germs, and Steel"): ○ Military Technology: Europeans used advanced metal weapons (steel swords and armor) that outmatched the stone and wooden tools us...

Comprehensive Study Guide: 1450-1750 1. European Conquest and Advantages in the Americas Key Factors in Conquest ("Guns, Germs, and Steel"): ○ Military Technology: Europeans used advanced metal weapons (steel swords and armor) that outmatched the stone and wooden tools used by many Indigenous American societies. Cannons and firearms gave Europeans decisive power in battles, making even small groups of European soldiers a formidable force against larger Indigenous armies. ○ Disease and Immunity: Europeans carried diseases like smallpox, influenza, and measles to the Americas. Indigenous populations, having been isolated from these diseases, had no immunity, leading to catastrophic mortality rates (often referred to as "The Great Dying"). This rapid population decline weakened Indigenous resistance and destabilized societies. ○ Use of Domesticated Animals: Horses, unknown in the Americas, played a crucial role in European conquests, as they allowed for faster travel, intimidation in warfare, and increased mobility for soldiers. Cattle and pigs, introduced to the Americas, provided food, while oxen provided labor for Europeans, further strengthening their agricultural and economic systems. Examples of Conquests: ○ Aztec Empire (1521): Hernán Cortés and a small group of Spanish soldiers allied with the Aztec’s enemies (e.g., the Tlaxcalans) to bring down the empire, using superior military technology and the advantage of smallpox, which spread among the Aztecs and decimated their population. ○ Incan Empire (1533): Francisco Pizarro, with a force of only 168 Spaniards, captured Atahualpa, the Incan emperor, at Cajamarca by using surprise attacks and deception. Pizarro’s tactics exploited the Incas’ lack of knowledge about European warfare and were aided by internal Incan conflicts and the recent spread of smallpox. Key European Advantages: ○ Geographic and Agricultural Advantages: Europe’s diverse climates allowed for different forms of agriculture, fostering a steady food supply that could support larger populations. Access to metal resources, navigable rivers, and a variety of climates supported innovation and trade. ○ Motivations for Expansion: Europeans were motivated by wealth (gold, silver), the desire to spread Christianity, and the competition between European states for dominance. ○ Political Organization and Literacy: European political structures allowed for the mobilization of resources, including military and administrative support for  overseas ventures. Literacy and documentation (maps, legal documents) helped Europeans organize expeditions, record knowledge, and enforce colonial policies. 2. The Columbian Exchange and Its Transformative Effects Overview: The Columbian Exchange refers to the extensive transfer of plants, animals, people, technologies, and diseases between the Americas, Europe, Africa, and Asia. It was a direct result of European exploration and colonization of the New World and fundamentally reshaped the societies and environments on both sides of the Atlantic. Disease and Demographic Impact: ○ Impact of Smallpox and Other Diseases: Smallpox was the deadliest disease introduced to the Americas, killing millions of Indigenous people. Measles, influenza, and typhus further reduced the population. The demographic impact was enormous, with some estimates suggesting that up to 90% of the Indigenous population died within the first 100 years after contact. ○ Consequences: The population decline weakened Indigenous resistance to European conquest, undermined Indigenous societies, and allowed Europeans to claim and settle large tracts of land with less opposition. Agricultural Exchange and Economic Impact: ○ New World to Old World: Crops like maize (corn), potatoes, tomatoes, cacao, and tobacco were introduced to Europe, Africa, and Asia. The potato, in particular, became a staple in Ireland and parts of Eastern Europe, supporting population growth due to its high caloric content and adaptability to different climates. Maize spread across Africa and became a key food source in many regions. ○ Old World to New World: Europeans introduced wheat, rice, coffee, sugarcane, and livestock (horses, cattle, pigs, sheep). The introduction of sugarcane led to the establishment of plantations in the Caribbean and Brazil, setting up an economic system that would rely on enslaved labor and drive the demand for African slaves. ○ Livestock and Environment: Horses revolutionized Indigenous cultures in North America, especially among the Plains tribes, who adapted them for hunting, warfare, and trade. European livestock transformed the American landscape, introducing grazing and altering Indigenous agricultural practices. Cultural Changes and Syncretism: ○ Religious Blending: In Latin America, Indigenous beliefs combined with Catholic practices, resulting in syncretic religions like Santería and the veneration of saints who were blended with Indigenous deities. ○ Economic Transformations: The export of American crops fueled European economic expansion, while plantation agriculture in the Americas drove the development of the transatlantic slave trade. 3. Colonial Economies and Social Hierarchies in the Americas The Sugar Economy and Enslaved Labor: ○ Sugar Plantations in Brazil and the Caribbean: European demand for sugar was immense, turning the Caribbean and Brazil into major sugar-producing regions. Sugar production was highly labor-intensive, and the climate in these regions was harsh, leading to high mortality among workers. To meet labor demands, European colonists imported enslaved Africans, creating one of the largest forced migrations in history. ○ Role of the Transatlantic Slave Trade: Enslaved Africans were essential to the plantation economy, with over 12 million transported across the Atlantic. Slaves faced brutal conditions, and plantation owners had to continuously import new labor due to the high death rates. Other Colonial Economies: ○ Southern British Colonies: The Southern British colonies grew cash crops like tobacco, rice, and indigo, also relying heavily on enslaved Africans. The plantation economy led to the development of a rigid social hierarchy with wealthy landowners at the top and enslaved Africans at the bottom. ○ Northern British Colonies: More family-based, with a focus on small-scale farming, fishing, and trade, leading to a more diverse economy and a different social structure than in the South. Colonial Social Hierarchies: ○ Peninsulares and Creoles: In Spanish America, peninsulares (Spanish-born colonists) held the highest social status and governmental roles. Creoles (American-born Spanish descendants) were wealthy but excluded from the highest offices. ○ Mestizos and Mulattoes: Mestizos (mixed Indigenous and European ancestry) and mulattoes (mixed African and European ancestry) occupied a middle status, often working as artisans, small farmers, or laborers. They represented the growing diversity and blending of cultures in colonial society. ○ Indigenous and Enslaved Populations: Indigenous people were forced into labor systems like the encomienda and hacienda, while enslaved Africans were subjected to harsh labor on plantations. Both groups faced severe discrimination and exploitation. 4. The Expansion of the Russian Empire and Siberia Motivations for Russian Expansion:  ○ Fur Trade: The fur trade, driven by demand for sable, ermine, and other pelts in Europe and Asia, was a significant motivator for Russian expansion into Siberia. Known as “soft gold,” furs became one of Russia’s most valuable exports. ○ Security and Territorial Control: Russian rulers aimed to secure borders against nomadic invasions and to control the lucrative trade routes across Eurasia. Impact on Siberian Indigenous Peoples: ○ Forced Tribute and Cultural Assimilation: Indigenous Siberian groups were forced to pay tribute (yasak) in the form of furs. They also faced pressure to convert to Orthodox Christianity and adopt Russian language and customs. ○ Environmental and Social Disruptions: Russian settlers and traders disrupted traditional hunting and gathering practices, introducing new economic pressures and diseases that impacted Indigenous communities. Westernization under Peter the Great: ○ Military and Bureaucratic Reforms: Peter modernized the Russian army, established a navy, and reformed the government to centralize power. These changes strengthened Russia’s territorial control and positioned it as a European-style absolute monarchy. ○ St. Petersburg: Peter built the city of St. Petersburg as a “window to the West,” symbolizing Russia’s shift toward European culture and politics. 5. The Mughal Empire and Religious Dynamics in South Asia Religious Policies Under Akbar and Aurangzeb: ○ Akbar’s Tolerance and Inclusivity: Akbar, who ruled from 1556 to 1605, pursued policies of religious tolerance, abolishing the jizya tax on non-Muslims, incorporating Hindus into the administration, and encouraging dialogues between different religious leaders. Akbar attempted to create a syncretic religion, Din-i Ilahi, to unite his diverse subjects. ○ Aurangzeb’s Conservatism and Conflict: In contrast, Aurangzeb reimposed the jizya tax and enforced Islamic law more strictly, leading to increased tensions with Hindu communities. His policies weakened Mughal unity and contributed to internal rebellions that destabilized the empire. Economic and Administrative Organization: ○ Zamindar System: Local landowners, or zamindars, were granted the right to collect taxes from peasants. While they helped maintain local governance, zamindars occasionally resisted central authority, creating tensions between local and imperial power. ○ Agricultural Wealth: India’s fertile land supported cotton, grain, and spice production, which made the empire wealthy and allowed it to sustain a large population and army. Cultural and Artistic Achievements:  ○ Architecture and Art: Mughal architecture, influenced by Persian and Indian =styles, reached new heights under rulers like Shah Jahan, who commissioned the Taj Mahal. Mughal miniatures and decorative arts also flourished, reflecting the empire’s wealth and cultural synthesis. ○ Literature and Language: The Mughals promoted Persian as the language of administration, but regional languages like Hindi and Urdu developed as a result of cultural blending. 6. European Trade Empires and Commerce in Asia Portuguese Trading Post Empire: ○ Establishment of Forts and Trade Monopolies: The Portuguese established fortified trading posts along the Indian Ocean, including Goa, Malacca, and Hormuz. They used force to monopolize the spice trade and introduced the cartaz system, which required merchant ships to purchase permits for safe passage. ○ Economic Impact: By controlling strategic ports, the Portuguese became major players in the spice trade and created a maritime empire based on trade rather than territorial control. Dutch and British East India Companies: ○ Joint-Stock Companies: These companies received charters from their governments, granting them the authority to wage wars, make treaties, and govern overseas territories. They operated like private armies and contributed to European dominance in Asian trade. ○ Impact in Southeast Asia and India: In Indonesia, the Dutch monopolized the spice trade through military force, displacing local populations to secure control over production. In India, the British East India Company began as a trading operation but gradually expanded its control, setting the foundation for British colonial rule. Spanish Influence in the Philippines: ○ Conversion to Christianity: Spanish missionaries actively converted Filipinos to Catholicism, making the Philippines a predominantly Christian nation. The colony served as a key link in the Manila Galleon trade, connecting Asia and the Americas. 7. The Transatlantic Slave Trade and the African Diaspora Development and Scale of the Slave Trade: ○ Demand for Labor in the Americas: Sugar plantations in the Caribbean and Brazil, as well as tobacco and cotton plantations in the Americas, relied on  enslaved African labor due to the high mortality of Indigenous workers and the extreme labor demands of cash crops. ○ Middle Passage: The journey enslaved Africans faced across the Atlantic was brutal, with overcrowding, malnutrition, and disease leading to high mortality rates (up to 20% per voyage). Effects on African Societies: ○ Economic and Political Shifts: African kingdoms such as Dahomey and the Ashanti participated in the trade, benefiting economically but becoming dependent on European goods like firearms, which led to internal conflicts and the militarization of African societies. ○ Demographic Imbalance and Social Disruption: The demand for young men created a gender imbalance in African societies, affecting marriage patterns, labor distribution, and social structures. Cultural Impact and Resistance: ○ African Diaspora: Enslaved Africans brought their cultural practices, languages, and religions to the Americas, where they influenced local culture and contributed to the formation of new, syncretic traditions (e.g., Vodou in Haiti, Candomblé in Brazil). ○ Resistance: Enslaved Africans resisted through rebellion, escape (forming maroon communities), and the preservation of cultural practices that offered a sense of identity and resilience. 8. The Globalization of Christianity and Religious Conflict Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation: ○ Reformation: Martin Luther’s 95 Theses challenged the Catholic Church’s authority, leading to the formation of Protestant denominations (Lutheran, Calvinist, Anglican). The Reformation increased individualism and questioned centralized religious authority. ○ Counter-Reformation: The Catholic Church responded with the Council of Trent, clarifying doctrines and reforming practices. The Jesuits became key figures in global missionary efforts, spreading Catholicism to Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Christianity in the New World: ○ Conversion of Indigenous Populations: Spanish and Portuguese missionaries sought to convert Indigenous peoples, often blending Catholicism with Indigenous beliefs to encourage acceptance (syncretism). This created unique religious practices that mixed Indigenous traditions with Christian elements. ○ Resistance and Adaptation: Some Indigenous groups resisted conversion, while others adapted Christianity to fit local customs, resulting in syncretic religions and cultural blending.