Module 1: The Study of Human Development PDF

Developmental Psychology 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 1 – THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT By: mavictandocjuan,phd ____________________...

Developmental Psychology 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 1 – THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT By: mavictandocjuan,phd ___________________________________________________________________________ Human Development is not new to you. You have already studied part and partial of it in your Social Science 11 or Biology subjects. Life-span development is a lifelong process of development from conception until the time when life ends. It includes the following stages: pre-natal, infancy, babyhood, early childhood, late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle and late adulthood. This module is a window into the journey of human development, its universal features, its individual variations, its’ nature. Examining the shape of life span development allows us to understand it better. Each of us develops partly like all other individuals and partly like no other individual that makes us a unique person. However, as humans, we all have travelled some common paths. Each of us, you, me and other people walked at about 1 year, engaged in play as a young child, searched for identity as a youth. If we live long enough, we will experience visual and hearing problems, death of family members and friends during later years. These are reminders that whenever we talk about human development, we talk about real people in a real world who undergoes changes, physically, socially, emotionally, intellectually and morally throughout the life span. In this module, we will explore the goals, importance, distinctive features and characteristics of human development. Developmental process and periods of development will be identified and described. Prominent theories and research methods that are the foundation of the science of life-span development will be discussed. At the end of the module, some ethical issues in research are included to inform study participants of their rights and the investigators of their responsibilities and limitations. LEARNING OBEJCTIVES: Upon completion of all the topics and activities presented in this module you are expected to: 1. Define and explain basic concepts and importance of studying Life Span Development. 2. Discuss the distinctive features of a life-span perspective on development. 3. Identify and analyze the broad domains of Human Development and developmental changes. 4. Describe the orderly stages of Human Development. 5. Explain the issues of development. 6. Compare some prominent theories of Human Development 7. Enumerate and discuss the different methods of developmental research. LEARNING CONTENTS/TOPICS: A. DEFINITION OF BASIC TERMS Human Development - is the orderly and sequential changes that occur with the passage of time as an organism moves from conception to death. Developmental Psychology - is one area of psychology that explains that explains the course of physical, psychosocial (social, emotional, moral), intellectual development (cognitive development) and moral development over a person’s life span.  Developmental Psychology 2 Life-span Development – concept of human development as a life long process which can be studied scientifically. Quantitative change – change in number or amount, such as height, weight or size of vocabulary. Qualitative change – change in kind, structure or organization such as the change from nonverbal to verbal communication. B. IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT How would you benefit from the study of life-span development? You maybe a parent, teacher, doctor, nurse, office worker, accountant, engineer, businessman, a preacher, politician etc today or in the future. Your knowledge about human development would help you understand and deal better with different people in your everyday life. Perhaps you would like to know more about yourself as you grow through adult years. What are some of the affected changes that you may encounter physically, emotionally, socially, mentally as you age? Your accumulated knowledge through study and research would help you prepare in the future as a parent understanding your own children, your students as a teacher, your patients as a doctor or a nurse, your business associates, co-workers, supervisors, subordinates and others. Your experiences today will prepare and help you and influence your development throughout the remainder of your life. C. GOALS OF THE STUDY OF LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 1. Description – developmentalists attempt to describe both normal development and individual differences or variation in development. 2. Explanation – they seek to understand 3. Prediction – knowledge of human development make it possible to predict later behaviour. 4. Modification – (change behaviour) ex. Understanding of how language develops may be used to help a child to talk. (research) a child that cannot talk. D. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE Life Span Perspective – the perspective that development is lifelong, multi- directional plastic, multidisciplinary and contextual; involves growth, maintenance, and regulation and is constructed through biological, socio-cultural, and individual factors working together. Development is Lifelong – no age period dominates development, early adulthood is not the end point of development. Development is Multi-dimensional – whatever your age, your body, your mind, your emotions, and your relationships are changing and affecting each other. Development consists of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional dimension, these are many components. Development is Multi-directional – throughout life, some dimensions or components of a dimension expand and others shrink. Development is Plastic – Plasticity means the capacity for change. Developmentalists debate how much plasticity people have in various dimensions at different points in their development. Developmental Science is Multidisciplinary - Psychologists, sociologists, neuroscientists, anthropologists and medical researches share an interest in discovering the mysteries of development through the life span. Development is Contextual – (CONTEXT) the setting in which development occurs, which is influenced by historical, economic, social and cultural factors. All development occurs within a context or setting. Context include families, schools, peer groups, churches, cities, neighborhood, universities, laboratories, communities,  Developmental Psychology 3 countries and so on. Individuals are changing beings in a changing world. As a result of these changes, contexts exert three types of influences. Development involves Growth, Maintenance and Regulation of Loss – Baltes and his colleagues assert that the mastery of life involves confidence and competition among three goals of human development, growth, maintenance and regulation of loss. E. BROAD DOMAINS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT (ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT) 1. Physical Development - these are changes that take place in the person’s body including changes in weight and height, in the brain, heart, and the other organs, structures and processes and in the skeletal, muscular and neurological features that affects your motor skills. 2. Psychosocial Development - changes and carry over in personal and interpersonal aspects of development, such as motives, emotions, personality and social relationship. Personality Development - is a person’s unique and relatively consistent way of feeling, reacting and behaving. Social Development - refers to changes in relationship with others. Emotional Development - subjective feelings such as sadness, joy, and fear which arise in the response to situations and experiences and are expressed through some kind of altered behavior. 3. Cognitive Development - are those changes that occur in the mental activity or thought process - changes in sensation, perception, language, learning, thinking, memory, problem solving and other mental processes. Cognition - the activity of knowing and the process through which knowledge is acquired. 4. Moral Development – are those changes that occur in the individual’s perception of what is right and wrong and to act on this distinction. Development that involves feelings and actions regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interaction with other people. These include changes that occur in the individuals’ perception of what is right and wrong and to act on this distinction. The goal of developmental changes is to enable people to adapt to the environment in which they live. F. DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES (Two Kinds) Quantitative changes - (growth) change in number or amount measurable changes. Qualitative changes - (development) change in kind, structure or organization. Example: from non-verbal infant to a child who understands and speaks language. Types of Changes in Development 1. Change in size - there is a change in physical and mental growth. 2. Change in proportion - physical development is not only limited to size. It also apparent in mental development. 3. Disappearance of old features - some features that disappear are the thymus gland, baby hair, Darwinian reflexes, Babinski reflex and the baby forms of locomotion such as creeping and crawling. 4. Acquisition of new features - new features are acquired such as the primary and secondary characteristics as well as new mental traits such as curiosity, sex, urge, knowledge, morals and standards, religious beliefs, forms of language and types of neurotic tendencies.  Developmental Psychology 4 Factors of Development Maturation - is the development or unfolding of traits potentially present in the individual considering his hereditary endowment. Learning - is the result of activities or day-to-day experiences of the child himself. Rate of Development Rapid Development - observed during the prenatal period and continues throughout babyhood (except for the first two weeks which is known as the “plateau” stage when no physical development takes place) up to the first six years. Slow Development - starts from six years to adolescence. Factors Influencing Attitudes towards Developmental Changes 1. Appearance - changes that improve one’s appearance are welcome and lead to favourable attitudes while those that detract from one’s appearance are resisted and every possible attempt is made to camouflage them. 2. Changes in behavior - those that are the disconcerting especially during puberty and senescence, affects attitudes toward the changes unfavourably. The reverse is true when changes are favourable, as when the helplessness of babyhood gradually gives away to the independence of childhood. 3. Cultural Stereotypes - people learn cultural stereotype associated with different ages from mass media and they use them to judge people of these age 4. Cultural values - every culture has certain values associated with different ages. Maximum productivity is associated with young adulthood through early middle adulthood in the Filipino today; thus attitude towards this age group is more favourable than attitudes towards any other group. 5. Role changes - attitudes toward people of different ages are greatly influences by the roles they play. When people change their roles to less favourable ones, social attitudes toward them become less sympathetic. 6. Personal experience - these have profound effect on an individual’s attitude toward developmental changes. Since the authority and prestige of middle-aged executives decreases as they approach retirement. G. SIGNIFICANT FACTS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT 1. Early facts are critical. - Attitudes, habits, and patterns of behavior established during the early years determine to a large extent how successful individuals will adjust to life as they grow older. 3 conditions under which change is likely to occur: a. Change may come about when the individual receives help and guidance in making the change. b. Changes are likely to occur when significant people treat individual in new and different ways. c. Change exists where there is strong motivation on the part of the individual himself to make the change. 2. The role of maturation and learning in development. - Maturation and learning play important roles in development.  Developmental Psychology 5 3. Development follows a definite and predictable pattern. There are orderly patterns of physical, motor, speech and intellectual development. Cephalocaudal Law - which maintains that development spreads over the body from head to foot. Proximodistal law- which maintains that development spreads outward from the central axis of the body to the extremities. 4. All individual is different. - All people are biologically and genetically different from one another, even identical twins. Since all individuals are different, no two people can be expected to react in the same manner to the same environmental stimuli. 5. Each phase of development has a characteristic “pattern of behavior”. - The patterns are marked by period of equilibrium when individuals adapt easily to environmental demands and, as a result make good personal and social adjustments, and by the periods of disequilibrium, when they experience difficulties in adaptation and, as a result, make poor personal and social adjustments. 6. Each phase of development has hazards. - Evidences show that each period in a life span has associated with it certain developmental hazards, whether physical, psychological or environmental in origin and these inevitably involve adjustment problems. 7. Development is aided by stimulation. - While most development will occur are result of maturation and environmental experiences, much can be done to aid development so that it will reach its full potential, this can be done by stimulating development through directly encouraging the individual to use an ability which is in the process of developing. 8. Development is affected by cultural changes. - Development is molded to conform to cultural standards and ideas, thus, changes in these standards affect the development pattern. 9. There is social expectation for every stage of development. - Every cultural group expects its members to master certain essential skills and acquire approved patterns of behavior at various ages during the life span. 10. There are traditional beliefs about people of all ages. - These beliefs about physical and psychosocial characteristics affect the judgments of others as well as their self-evaluation.  Developmental Psychology 6 H. STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 1. Prenatal period (conception-birth) Is the time elapsing between conception & birth. It normally averages about 266 days, or 280 days from the last day of the last menstrual period. 2. Newborn/Infancy (birth to the end of the 2nd week) The infant arrives with all sensory system functioning. To the watchful observer, babies communicate at least some of their perceptions and abilities. Newborns tell us what they hear, see & feel in the same manner that any other organisms do-through systematic responses to stimulating events. 3. Babyhood (from the end of the 2nd week to the end of 2nd year) At this stage babies expend enormous amount of energy in exploring, learning about and mastering their world. They continually initiate activities by which they can interact effectively with the environment. Children at one year of age are poised for fundamental development in language and social skills Children’s physical growth takes place in a generally orderly fashion with predictable changes occurring at given age levels. 4. Early Childhood (3-6 years) The period between age 3 and 6 when children enlarge their repertoire of behaviors. They refine their previously learned skills and evolve new ones for relating to other people and to the large world. By doing so, they became progressively integrated into the broader context of group life and in this way the child’s needs and capacities are fused with the ideas and sentiment of the culture. 5. Late Childhood (7-12 years) During the elementary school years, marked development occurs in children’s ability to receive, create and use knowledge about their physical; and social worlds. Children confront the challenges of developing healthy self-conceptions. The stage is marked by growth in children’s cognitive sophistication. 6. Adolescence (13-19 years) This stage is frequently depicted s a carefree age of physical attractiveness, vitality, robust fan, love, enthusiasm, & activity. Some authors find it a n extremely difficult period. They hold contrasting images of adolescence like they are given to juvenile delinquency, drug addiction, prenatal pregnancies and disrespect for authority. Adolescents experience a very rapid increase in height and weight referred to as adolescent growth spurt. This stage is also characterized by the development of reproductive system accompanied by extensive physical changes, and development of formal operations. 7. Early Adulthood (20-39 years) The age of infancy, childhood and adolescence are all preparation for entry to adult life. Physiologically, young adults are at their peak; strength, endurance, reaction time, perceptual abilities and sexual responsiveness are all optimal even though the aging process is taking slight and usually not even tolls on the body. Early adulthood is also a period of effective cognitive functioning. Young adults are physically and intellectually capable for they face many challenges, they are changed by marriage, new parenthood, and other normal events of the family life cycle, just as they are affected by their work and experiences.  Developmental Psychology 7 8. Middle Adulthood (40-64 years) Stage characterized by the gradual decline in the body and its physical capacities that began in the 20’s & 30’s may now become noticeable. Gray hairs or (no hairs) shortness of breath after exercise, a need for reading glasses proclaims that one is aging. Women experiences menopause around age 50, both men and women become more vulnerable to heart diseases and other chronic illnesses. Although intellectual capacities generally remain quite stable, middle aged adults gradually gain some intellectual capacities and lose others. After emptiness & middle-aged adults are freed of major parenting responsibilities, they often find their marriages more satisfying take pride in their grown children & grandchildren. 9. Late Adulthood (65-above) Old age brings with it some losses and declines in functioning, but it is also for most, a period of continued growth & many satisfactions. By the time adults are in their 60’s and 70’s, most of them have a physical impairment of some kind – a chronic disease, a disability, failing eyesight or hearing, or, at the least a slower nervous system and slower reactions. Most adults continue to carry out daily activities effectively and they enjoy just as much self-esteem and life satisfaction as younger adults do. They continue to lead active social lives, use their sophisticated social cognitive skills to understand other people and engage in complex moral reasoning and enjoy close ties with both family and friends. Issues in Human Development Nature versus Nurture Continuity versus discontinuity Stability versus change Nature vs. Nurture The degree to which human behavior is determined by genetics/ biology (nature) or learned through interacting with the environment. Nature Behavior is caused by innate characteristics: The physiological/ biological characteristics we are born with. Behavior is therefore determined by biology Also a Determinist view- suggest all behavior is determined by hereditary factors: Inherited characteristics, or genetic makeup we are born with. All possible behaviors are said to be present from conception. Genes provide the blueprint for all behaviors; some present from birth, others pre- programmed to emerge with age. Nurture An individual’s behavior is determined by the environment- the things people teach them, the things they observe and because of the different situations they are in. Also a determinist view-proposed all human behavior is the result of interactions with environment. Behaviorist theories are nurture theories: Behavior is shape by interactions with the environment.  Developmental Psychology 8 Born an empty vessel – waiting to be filled up by experiences gained from environmental interaction. Nature Nurture interaction Behavior is often a result of the interaction between nature and nurture An individual’s characteristics may elicit particular responses in other people e.g. Temperament: how active, responsive or emotional an infant is influences in part determines their caregivers responses. Gender: people tend to react differently to boys and girls due to expectations of masculine and feminine characteristics. Aggression: Displaying aggressive behavior create particular responses from other people. Continuity vs. Discontinuity Continuity and discontinuity are two competing theories in developmental psychology that attempt to explain how people change through the course of their lives, someone change through the course of their lives, where the continuity theory says that someone changes throughout their life along a smooth course while the discontinuity theory instead contends that people change abruptly. These change can be described as a wide variety of someone’s social and behavioral make up, like their emotions, traditions, beliefs. Stability vs. change Deals with the issue of whether or not personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the lifespan. The stability- change debate describes the developmental psychology discussion about whether personality traits that are present in an individual at birth remain constant or change throughout the life span. For example, does a naturally extroverted and talkative baby remain that way for their entire life? J. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Theory/Phenomena is a set of logically related concepts of statements which seeks to describe and explain development and predict what kinds of behavior might occur under certain conditions. Theories are particularly useful if they are concise and yet applicable to a wide range of phenomena. Good theories are also precise, that is, capable if making explicit prediction that can be evaluated in later research. All theorists agree that human change all the time and that there are biological, psychological and social causes of this development. We will put into consideration 4 theories of human development, the Cognitive Theory by Piaget, Psychosocial Theory by Erikson, Psychosexual Theory by Freud and Moral Theory by Kohlberg. Theory of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)  Developmental Psychology 9 The Swiss researcher who believed that children’s thinking is qualitatively different from adults. His theory outlined children’s cognitive progress through a series of stages.  Cognitive Development refers to how a person perceives, thinks & gains an understanding of his/her world through the interaction and influence of genetic and learned factors. Piaget believed that children learn to understand things such as whether to eat or stack blocks, through two active processes: assimilation & accommodation. Basic Concepts:  Assimilation – is a process by which a child uses old methods or experience to deal with new situations.  Accommodation – is the process by which a child changes old methods to deal with or adjust to new situations.  Equilibration - Achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.  Schema - Cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. Piaget’s cognitive stages refer to four (4) different stages: sensorimotor, pre- operational, concrete operations & formal operations – each of which is more advanced than the preceding stage because it involves new reasoning and thinking abilities. I. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (from birth to about 2 years old) The first stage of Piaget’s cognitive stages. During this stage, infants interact with and learn about their environments by relating their sensory experience (such as hearing or seeing) to their motor action (mouthing & grasping). Object permanence – refers to the understanding that objects or events continue to exist even if they can no longer be heard, touch or seen. The idea of object permanence develops slowly over a period of about 9 months. By the end of the sensorimotor stage (about age 2) an infant will search long and hard for lost of, or disappearance objects indicating a fully developed concept of object permanence.  Developmental Psychology 10 II. PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (from 2-7 years old) During the 2nd stage, children learn to use symbols such as words or mental images to solve simple problems and to think or talk about things that are not present. This stage is highlighted by the following important events: a. conservation – refers to the fact that even though the shape of some objects or substances is changed, the total amount remains the same. b. egocentric thinking – refers to seeing and thinking of the world only from your own viewpoint & having difficulty appreciating someone else’s point of view. c. centration – the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspects. d. irreversibility – pre operational children have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can understand that 2+3=5 but can’t understand that 5-3=2. e. animism – the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects. f. transductive reasoning – the pre operational child’s type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive. III. STAGE OF CONCRETE OPERATIONS (from about 7 to 11 years) During this 3rd stage, children can perform a number of logical mental operations or concrete objects (those that are physically present). It is marked by the following: a. Decentering – the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. b. Reversibility – the child can now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse. Ex. Addition is the reverse of subtraction. c. Conservation – that ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. d. Seriation – the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as weight, volume, or size. e. Classification – process of sorting stimuli into categories of characteristics, such as in length, weight, amount, etc. IV. STAGE OF FORMAL OPERATIONS (from about 12 years old to adulthood)  Developmental Psychology 11 During this 4th & last stage, adolescents and adults develop the ability to think & solve abstract problems in a logical manner. It is the stage when adolescents develop thinking & reasoning like typical adults. It is characterized by the following: a. Hypothetical Reasoning – the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgment. The student can now deal with ‘what if” question. b. Analogical Reasoning –the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or problem. c. Deductive Reasoning – the ability to think logically by applying general rule to a particular instance or situation. Psychosexual Development Theory (Sigmund Freud) Freud (1940 – 1961) hypothesized that each of us the individual seeks pleasure from different areas of the body associated with sexual feelings. Freud emphasized that the child’s first five years are most important to social and personality development. In Freud’s theory there is often conflict between the child and the parent. The conflict arise because the child wants immediate satisfaction of its needs while parents often place restrictions. Basic Concepts: Basic Concepts: Frustration, Overindulgence, Fixation, Errogenous zones Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One reason for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may not have been adequately met in which case there is frustration. Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence. Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage. Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been permanently 'invested' in a particular stage of his development. It is assumed that some libido is permanently invested in each psychosexual stage and thus each person will behave in some ways that are characteristic of infancy, or early childhood. Errogenous zones are pleasure areas that become focal points for the particular stage. I. ORAL STAGE Period: Early infancy to the first 18 months of life. Errogenous Zone: mouth. Important Event: Pleasure seeking activities include sucking, chewing and biting.  Developmental Psychology 12 Fixation: If the child is locked into or fixated at this stage because his oral wishes were gratified too much (overindulgence) or too little (frustration), he would continue to seek oral gratifications as an adult manifested in smoking, overeating, being orally receptive or orally aggressive. II. ANAL STAGE Period. Late infancy to 1.5 – 3 years. Errogenous Zone. anus Important Event: The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. The child needs to work on toilet training. Fixation: If a child was locked into or fixated at this stage, he would continue to engage in behavioral activities related to retention of elimination. Retention may take the form of being anal retentive – obsession with cleanliness, perfection and control, stingy or behaviorally rigid, or anal expulsive – the person becomes messy and disorganized, or being too generous. III. PHALLIC STAGE Period. Early childhood to 3 – 6 years. Errogenous zone: genitals Important Event: During this stage, the child will compete with the parent of the same sex (father/mother) for the affection and pleasure of the parent of the opposite sex (father/mother). Children become interested in what makes boys and girls different. Fixation: Problems in resolving this competition (called Oedipus/Electra complex) may result in feelings of inferiority for men and of having to prove something for women and vice versa. IV. LATENCY STAGE Period. Middle and late childhood from six to puberty. Errogenous Zones: None Important Event. The latency stage, which lasts from about age six to puberty, is a time when the child represses sexual thoughts and engages in non-sexual activities, such as developing social and intellectual skills. Fixation: None At puberty, sexuality reappears and marks the beginning of a new stage. V. GENITAL STAGE Period. Puberty through adulthood. Errogenous zones: genitals Important Event. A time when the individual has renewed sexual desires that he or she seeks to fulfill through the relationships with members of the opposite sex. If the child successfully resolved conflicts in the first three stages, she will have the energy to develop a loving relationship and mature personality. Psychosocial Stages of Development (Erik Homberger Erikson)  Developmental Psychology 13 Erickson’s theory draws our attention to the continual process of personality development that takes place throughout a person’s life span. It focuses on the individual’s interaction with society. According to Erikson, personality develops through a progressive resolution of conflicts between needs and social demands. According to Erikson, a child will encounter a psychosocial problem at each stage. If he successfully solves the problem, he will develop a good social trait that will help him solve the next problem. If he is unsuccessful, he will develop a bad social trait that will hinder his or her solving a new problem at the next stage. The more successful an individual resolves the problem the healthier development will be. Basic Concepts: Epigenetic Principle – this principle says that we develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages. Psychological crisis – two opposing emotional in every stage of development. Virtue – is attained when a stage is managed well or when the stage is successfully passed through. I. TRUST vs. MISTRUST Period. Early infancy – birth through the first year. Important Event. Feeding Potential problem. The child comes into the world as a helpless infant who needs much care and attention. Outcome. If the child’s parents are responsive and sensitive to his needs, he will develop what Erikson calls basic trust, which makes it easier for him to trust people later in life. If the child’s parents neglect his needs, he may view his world as uncaring, learns to become mistrustful, and have difficulty dealing with the second stage. Virtue. Hope II. AUTONOMY vs. SHAME & DOUBT Period. Late infancy to 1-3 years. Important Event. Toilet Training Potential problem. Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. As a child begins walking, talking and exploring, he is bound to get into conflict with the wishes of his parents. Outcome: If his parents encourage him to explore. He will develop a sense of independence or autonomy. If his parents disapprove of or punish his explorations, he may develop a feeling that independence is bad and feels the shame and doubt. Virtue. Will III. INITIATIVE vs. GUILT Period. Early childhood to 3 – 5 years. Important Event. Exploration  Developmental Psychology 14 Potential problem. As a preschooler, a child has developed a number of cognitive and social skills he is expected to use to meet the challenges in his small world. Some of these challenges involve assuming responsibility and making plan and initiating new things. Outcome: If people around the child discourage initiative, however, he may feel uncomfortable or guilty and may develop a feeling of being unable to plan his future. Virtue. Purpose IV. INDUSTRY vs. INFERIORITY Period. Middle and late childhood to 6-12 years. Important Event. Attending school. Potential problem. A child’s grade school years are an exciting time, filled with participating in school, playing games with other children, and working to complete projects. Outcome. If he can direct his energy into working at and completing tasks, he will develop a feeling of industry. If he has difficulty applying himself and completing homework, he may develop a feeling of inferiority and incompetence. Feedback from peers, parents & teachers they receive regarding their adequacy shapes their self-image & self-esteem. Virtue. Competence V. IDENTITY vs. CONFUSION Period. Adolescence. (ages 13-20) Important Event. Social Relationships Potential problem. Adolescents need to leave behind the carefree, irresponsible, and impulsive behaviors of childhood and to develop the more purposeful, responsible, planned behaviors of adults. Outcome. If he is successful in making this change, he will develop a sense of confidence and a positive identity. If he is successful he will experience role confusion, which will result in low self-esteem and become socially withdrawn. Virtue. Fidelity VI. INTIMACY vs. ISOLATION Period. Early adulthood. (20-30 years) Important Event. Intimate Relationships Potential problem. Early adulthood is a time for finding intimacy by developing loving and meaningful relationships. On the positive side, we can find intimacy in caring relationships. On the negative side, without intimacy, we will have a painful feeling of isolation and our relationship will be impersonal. Outcome. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation Virtue. Love VII. GENERATIVITY vs. STAGNATION Period. Middle adulthood (40 – 65) Important Event. Work and Parenthood. Potential problem: Middle adulthood is a time for helping the younger generation develop worthwhile lives. Generativity is achieved through raising our own children. If adults have no children of their own, they can achieve generativity through close relationships with children of friends or relatives. Generativity can also be achieved through mentoring at work and in helping others. On the other side, lack of involvement leads to a feeling of stagnation, of having done nothing for the younger generation. Outcome. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation Virtue. Care  Developmental Psychology 15 VIII. INTEGRITY vs. DESPAIR Period. Late adulthood. (65 and older) Important Event. Reflection on life. Potential problem. Late adulthood is a time for reflecting on and reviewing how we met previous challenges and lived our lives. Outcome. If we can look back and feel contented about how we lived and what we accomplished, we will have a feeling of satisfaction or integrity. On the negative side, if we reflect and see a series of crises, problems and bad experiences, we will have a feeling of regret and despair. Virtue. Wisdom Theory of Moral Reasoning(Lawrence Kohlberg) Kohlberg believed that moral judgment develops with age. His theory has two distinct features. First, he classifies moral reasoning to three distinct levels – preconventional, conventional and postconventional. Second, he suggests that everyone progresses through the levels in order, from lowest to higher. Not everyone reaches, however, the highest levels of moral development. I. PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL (before age 9) Kohlberg’s lowest level of moral reasoning. At this level, good and bad are interpreted in terms of external rewards and punishments. This level represents Kohlberg’s lowest level of moral reasoning. It has two stages:  Stage 1 (heteronomous morality age 4-7) – moral decisions are based primary on fear of punishment or the need to be obedient.  Stage 2 (individualism, instrumental purpose and exchange) – at this stage, individuals reason that pursuing their own interests is the right thing to do but they let others do the same. Thus, they think that what is right involves an equal exchange. They reason that if they are nice to others, others will be nice to them in return.  Developmental Psychology 16 II. CONVENTIONAL LEVEL (Adolescence) – the second or intermediate level, at this level individuals apply certain standards, but they are standards set by others such as parents of the government. This level represents an intermediate level of moral reasoning.  Stage 3 (mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships and interpersonal conformity) At this stage, individuals value trust, caring and loyalty to others as a basis of moral judgments.  Stage 4 (social systems morality) at this stage, moral judgments are based on understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty. III. POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL the highest level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. At this level, an individual recognizes alternative moral causes explores the options, and then decides on a personal moral code.  Stage 5 (social contract or utility and individual rights) at this stage, individuals reason that values, rights and principles undergrid or transcend the law.  Stage 6 (universal ethical principles) the highest stage in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. At this stage, the person has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights. Kohlberg believe that these levels and stages occur in a sequence and are age related. Before age 9, most children use level 1, pre-conventional reasoning based on external rewards and punishments, when they consider moral choices. By early adolescence, their moral reasoning is increasingly based on the application of standards set by others. Most adolescents reason at stage 3, with some signs of stage 2 and 4. By early adulthood a small member of individuals reason in post conventional ways Ecological Theory of Human Development  Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Biological theory looks at a child’s development within the context of the system of relationships that form his or her environment.  The interaction between factors in the child’s maturing biology, his immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development.  Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s development then, we must look not only at the child and her  Developmental Psychology 17 immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well. I. The Microsystem This is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with which the child has direct contact. The microsystem encompasses the relationships and interactions a child has with her immediate surroundings (Berk, 2000). Structures in the microsystem include family, school, neighborhood, or childcare environments. Relationships have impact in two directions - both away from the child and toward the child. For example, a child’s parents may affect his beliefs and behavior; however, the child also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parent. At the microsystem level, bi-directional influences are strongest and have the greatest impact on the child. However, interactions at outer levels can still impact the inner structures II. The Mesosystem This layer provides the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem (Berk, 2000). Examples: the connection between the child’s teacher and his parents, between his church and his neighborhood, etc. III. The Exosystem This layer defines the larger social system in which the child does not function directly. The structures in this layer impact the child’s development by interacting with some structure in her microsystem (Berk, 2000). Parent workplace schedules or community-based family resources are examples. IV. The Macrosystem This layer may be considered the outermost layer in the child’s environment. While not being a specific framework, this layer is comprised of cultural values, customs, and laws (Berk, 2000). The effects of larger principles defined by the macrosystem have a cascading influence throughout the interactions of all other layers. DETERMINANTS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Two groups of determinants of human development a. biological or genetic factors & b. environmental or contextual factors.  Developmental Psychology 18 A model of the determinants of life span development was describe by Dr. Aldrich in his ‘WATERMELON THEORY” Aldrich divides determinants into two (2) categories that are similar to the genetic and environmental factors, biological aspect (the top half of the watermelon )and psychosocial aspects (the bottom half of the watermelon). BIOLOGICAL FACTORS These are the genetic or inherited aspects of development including physical features and physiological organs. Cardiovascular system (Lungs & heart) Central nervous system (Brain & Spinal Cord) musculoskeletal system (bones & attached muscles) Endocrine System (ductless gland) Skin PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS These factors are the physical environment (e.g. school, and neighborhood) and the social environment (e.g. parents, teachers, peers, and co-workers), as well as the individual’s personal or psychological “interpretations” of these environments, including: Cognitive development (the development of thinking and language) Personality development ( the development of the self concept, including behaviour patterns and values) Social Development (the lifelong process by which individuals develop attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, the awareness of expectations, and appropriate role behaviour). THE INTERACTION OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT Both heredity and environment are intimately involved in the development of human beings, but how do heredity and environment interact in the process of development? The concepts of canalization, gene expression and range of reaction are important to an understanding of this process of interaction and mutual regulation of development. CANALIZATION – a model of genetic traits in which such traits can be thought of as a ball rolling down a canal. Where the canals are fairly deep, it is difficult for the environment to change the direction of the ball. At other times (called the sensitive periods) the rolling ball may arrive at a point where several shallow canals meet. During this period the environment may influence the course of the ball (or the genetic trait) THE CONCEPT OF GENE EXPRESSION - The possession of a genetic endowment for a particular trait does not mean that the trait will automatically be translated into a physical characteristic. RANGE OF REACTION – This is the variation in traits, skills, or abilities that can develop from the same genetic endowment under variety of conditions. K. RESEARCH METHODS Researchers in human development work within two methodological traditions: Quantitative Research – deals with “hard” objectively measurable data: ex. How much fear or anxiety does job applicants feel before interview, as measured by standardized tests, physiological changes or statistical analysis.  Developmental Psychology 19 Qualitative Research – deals with soft data about the nature or quality of participants’ subjective experiences, feelings or belief – for instance, how job applicants describe their emotions before interview. Sampling – (Sample) group of participants chosen to represent the entire population for study. FORMS OF DATA COLLECTION Common ways of gathering data include self reports (verbal reports by study participants), tests and other behavioural measures, and observation. Researches may use one or more of those data collection techniques in any research design. Qualitative research tends to depend heavily on interviews and or observation in natural settings, where as quantitative research makes use of more structured methods. CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Self-Reports: Diaries, Interviews, Questionnaires. Diaries – a record with discrete entries arranged by date reporting on what has happened over the course of a day or other period. Interview – a face to face encounter between the interviewee and the interviewer as a means of gathering data. Questionnaire – an instrument for gathering data in the form of printed questions about a given subject. The simplest form of self report is a diary or log. Ex. Adolescents may be asked to record what they eat each day or the times they feel depressed. In studying young children, parental self-reports – diaries, journals, interviews or questionnaires – are commonly used, often together with other methods such as videotaping or recording. In a face-to-face or telephone interview, researchers ask questions about attitudes, opinions, or behaviour. In structured interview, each participant is asked the same set of questions. An open-ended interview, more often is used in qualitative research is more flexible, the interviewer can vary the topics and order of questions and ask follow up questions based on the responses. To reach more people and protect their privacy, researchers, sometimes distribute a printed questionnaire which participants fill out and return. Advantage: Can provide first hand information about a person’s life, attitudes or opinions. Disadvantage: Participant may remember information accurately or may distort responses in a socially desirable way; how question is asked or by whom may affect answer. Behavioral and Performance Measure – shows something about a person rather than asking the person or someone else (such as parent or friend) to tell about it. Advantage: Provide objectively measurable information; avoids subjective distortions. Disadvantage: Cannot measure attitudes or other non-behavioral phenomena; results may be affected by extraneous factors. Naturalistic and Laboratory Observation o Naturalistic observation – research method in which behaviour is studies in natural settings without intervention or manipulation. This is common in qualitative research where researchers look at people in real life setting and record what they see without changing the situation. o Laboratory observation – research method in which all participants are observed under the same controlled conditions.  Developmental Psychology 20 Advantage: Provides good description of behavior; does not subject people to unnatural settings that may distort behavior. Disadvantage: Lack of control; observer bias. BASIC RESEARCH DESIGNS A research design is a plan for conducting a scientific investigation: what questions are to be selected, how data are to be collected and interpreted, and how valid conclusions can be drawn. Four of the basic designs used in developmental research are case studies, ethnographic studies, correlational studies and experiments Case Studies – a study that focuses on a single individual rather than a group of subjects, neuropsychological measures, biographical, autobiographical or documentary material. Advantage: Flexibility: provides detailed picture of one’s behavior and development; can generate hypotheses Disadvantage: May not generalize to others, conclusions not directly testable, cannot establish cause and effect. Ethnographic studies – seeks to describe the pattern of relationships, customs, beliefs, technology, arts, and traditions that make up a society’s way of life. Ethnographic research can be qualitative, quantitative or both. It was a combination of methods, including participant observation – a form of naturalistic observation in which researchers live or participate in the societies or groups they observe. Advantage: Can help overcome culturally-based biases in theory and research; can test university of developmental phenomena Disadvantage: Subject to observer bias. Correlational Studies – research design intended to discover a correlation or statistical relationship between variables, phenomena that change or vary among people or can be varied for purposes of research. Advantage: Allows prediction of one variable on basis of another; an suggest hypotheses about causal relationships. Disadvantage: Cannot establish cause and effect. Experimental Method – a method that makes use of an experiment in a controlled, replicable procedure in which the experimenter manipulates variables to learn how one affects another. Advantage: Establishes cause-and-effect relationships; highly controlled procedure that can be repeated by another investigator. Degree of control is greatest in the laboratory experiment. Disadvantage: Findings, especially when derived from laboratory experiments, may not generalize to situations outside the laboratory. A common way to conduct an experiment is to divide the participants into two kinds groups. o Experimental group – is composed of people who are to be exposed to the experimental manipulation or treatment under study.  Developmental Psychology 21 o Control group – a group of people similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive. The treatment or experimental manipulation whose effects are to be measured. o Independent variable – the condition or factor which the experimenter has direct control. o Dependent variable – the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable. It depends on the independent variable. BASIC RESEARCH DESIGNS TYPE MAIN ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES CHARACTERISTIC Case Study Study of single Flexibility: provides May not generalize to individual in depth. detailed picture of one’s others, conclusions not behavior and directly testable, cannot development; can establish cause and generate hypotheses effect. Ethnographic In-depth study of a Can help overcome Subject to observer Study culture or subculture. culturally-based biases bias. in theory and research; can test university of developmental phenomena Correlational Attempt to find Allows prediction of one Cannot establish cause Study positive or negative variable on basis of and effect. relationship between another; an suggest variables hypotheses about causal relationships. Experiment Controlled procedure Establishes cause-and- Findings, especially in which an effect relationships; when derived from experimenter highly controlled laboratory experiments, controls the procedure that can be may not generalize to independent variable repeated by another situations outside the to determine its investigator. Degree of laboratory. effect on the control is greatest in dependent variable; the laboratory may be conducted in experiment. the laboratory or field. DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS Longitudinal study. A study approach in which scientist study the same individuals at different points of their lives. This allows the researcher to study the same individuals at regular intervals between birth and death.  Developmental Psychology 22 Advantage: Can show age-related change or continuity; avoids confounding age with cohort effects. Disadvantage: Time-consuming, expensive; problems of attrition, bias in sample, and effects of repeated testing; results may be valid only for cohort tested or sample studied. Cross-sectional study. Study design in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion. Advantage: Can show similarities and differences among age groups; speedy economical; no problem of attrition or repeated testing. Disadvantage: Cannot establish age effects; masks individual differences, can be confounded by cohort effects. Sequential method. A study that combines both the longitudinal and cross-sectional method. Advantage: Can avoid drawbacks of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. Disadvantage: Requires large amount of time and effort and the analysis of very complex data. Microgenetic study. Study design that allows researches to directly observe change by repeated testing over a short time. Advantage: occurs as changes are happening, allows us to see what causes changes and why change occurs, very in depth Disadvantage : the experience used to stimulate change may be atypical and may not cause change outside of the lab or the change may not persist over long periods Survey Method - A procedure for gathering date in which people are interviewed through questions read from prepared questionnaires, or people received questionnaires in mail, etc. fill out and return it. ▪ Interview - a face to face encounter between the interviewees and the interviewer as means of gathering data ▪ Questionnaire - an instrument for gathering data in the form of printed questions about a given subject. Naturalistic Observation Method - A research approach that entails watching and recording of behavior as it occurs in their common everyday surroundings. A researcher simply observes and records what he or she sees without changing the situation. ▪ Observer influence - tendency of the participant to react to an observer’s presence by behaving report in unusual ways. ▪ Structured Observation - an observation method in which the investigator cues the behavior of interest and observes participant’s response in a laboratory. They create special conditioned designed to elicit the behavior of interest. ▪ Modifications in observational techniques: 1. Time Sampling - an observational technique in which the researcher counts the number of times that a given behavior is exhibited by a subject in a constant, systematic spaced interval time.  Developmental Psychology 23 2. Event Sampling - an observational technique in which the researcher focuses upon a class of behaviors and records the time that is consumed by a given episode. Advantage: it is independent of the subject’s ability or willingness to report on given matters Disadvantage: with the same amount of time and money fewer people can be directly observed than interviewed. Cross Cultural Method - A technique that involves the comparison of data from two or more societies, so that culture, rather than the individuals are the unit of analysis. Advantage: It helps to separate behavior from the context or environment. Disadvantage: A researcher is unlikely to know much about individual societies when comparing many societies from different parts of the world. If a tested explanation turns out to be supported, the lack of detailed knowledge about the sample cases is not much of a problem. INDIGENOUS RESEARCH METHOD Many of the existing and popular methods of gathering data have a Western framework and are not suited to gauge the thoughts, feelings and actions of Filipinos so Virgilio Enriquez (1980) Father of Filipino Psychology suggested the use of indigenous methods of research. 1. Patanung-tanong - method on which emphasis is given not only on how it is carried out, but on the qualities of the interview as well as the interviewees, the purpose, the place, the situations, the time and the method of asking questions. 2. Pakapa-kapa - (called the groping method) this approach searches into an unsystematized mass of cultural and social data to be able to obtain order, meaning and directions for research. 3. Pagmamasid - is a visual method for monitoring or examining actions of person, events or other phenomena in a particular place. It may involve: Paguusyuso - observing an event that has happened or still happening Pakikiramdam - implies sensitivity to what is going on or what is being studied or observed. 4. Pakikipanayam - involves asking questions from, or conversing with experts or authorities on a topic under investigation 5. Pagdalaw-dalaw - entails frequent visits to participants which enable the researcher to gain the confidence of community and to allow more freedom of expressing the respondents inner most feelings which they apt to hold back. TEACHING/LEARNING ACTIVITIES: 1. Observe your parents, siblings, cousins or whoever is with you in your house, list some of their significant overt behaviors and cite what kinds of influences make one person different from one another? References: Acero, Victorina D. (2010). Child and Adolescent Development. Manila Rex Bookstore.  Developmental Psychology 24 Atkinson and Hilgard. (2009). Introduction to Psychology 15th Edition. United Kingdom. Cengage Learning EMEA. Boyd, D. and Bee, H. (2011). Life Span Development 6th edition. Cambridge UK. Peakson Publishing Dacey, John S. et all. (2008). Human Development Across the Life Span. New York: McGraw Hill Co. Evangelista, Lourdes L. (2009). Development Psychology: Growth and Development with Patenting by Filipino Values. Manila: NBS Papalia, Diane E. (2008). Human Development. 9th edition. New York:McGraw Hill. Co. Plotnic, R. and Kouyoumdjian, H. (2010). Introduction to Psychology. 9th edition. ITP. International Thompson Publishing. 2010 Santrock, J W. (2011). Life Span Development. 13th edition. Boston:McGraw Hill. Co. Shaffer, D and Kipp, K (2010). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence. 8th edition. CA Wadsworth Cengage Learning.