MIDTERMS Developmental Psychology PDF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY - Concrete Operational Stage 3RD SEMESTER: MIDTERMS - Formal Operational Stage CHAPTER 1: Lifespan Development “Womb to Womb” - Human development is a study of how we change over time → Characteristics of...

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY - Concrete Operational Stage 3RD SEMESTER: MIDTERMS - Formal Operational Stage CHAPTER 1: Lifespan Development “Womb to Womb” - Human development is a study of how we change over time → Characteristics of Human Development Development is: 1. MULTIDIMENSIONAL - Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral 2. LIFELONG, and change is apparent Development across the lifespan - Level 1: Preconventional 3. MULTIDIRECTIONAL - Level 2: Conventional 4. MULTIDISCIPLINARY - Level 3: Post-Conventional 5. MULTICONTEXTUAL > Multidimensional - 3 General Domains/Dimensions: - Physical - Cognitive - Psychosocial (developmental changes in emotions and psychological concerns, and social relationships) - Erik Erikson - “Father of Developmental > Lifelong Psychology” - First Focus: CHILDHOOD (Freud, - Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages: Klein) Infancy, Early Childhood, Play Age, - Stage Theories School Age, Adolescence, Early - Developmental change often occurs Adulthood, Middle Age, Old Age in distinct stages - Stages are qualitatively different from each other - Stages are set in a universal sequence - Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development - Oral - Anal - Phallic - Latency - Genital - Views of Development: - Discontinuous Development: Stage Theories - Continuous Development: Vygotsky and Information Processing Theorists: Development is a slow and gradual process > Multidirectional - Humans change in many directions - Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive - Gains in some areas, losses in Development others: Growth and Loss - Sensorimotor Stage - There are variations in development - Preoperational Stage  - Early Adulthood experiences dictate “Our journeys through life are more than our future biological; they are shaped by culture, - Adulthood is also a dynamic period of history, economic, and political realities as life marked by continued cognitive, much as they are influenced by physical social, and psychological change.” development - Growth and change continues → Different Contexts that affect Development throughout life - Experience continues to have an 1. The Cohort Effect impact on who we are and how we - Sometimes mistaken for age relate to others - “Cohort” = A group of people who are born at roughly the same period in a > Multidisciplinary particular society - Developmental Psychology is related - “Cohorts” share histories and to other applied fields contexts for living - Is related to: - Members experience the same - Educational Psychology historical events and cultural climates - Psychopathology which give an impact on the values, - Forensic Developmental priorities, and goals that may guide Psychology their lives. - Complements: - Generations: - Social Psychology - Baby Boomers (1946 - 1960) - Cognitive Psychology - Generation X (1961 - 1980) - Gerontology - Generation Y (1981 - 1995) - Child Development - Generation Z (Born after 1995) - Many academic disciplines contribute and collaborate to the study of 2. Socioeconomic Status lifespan - Social standing, social class - Is a way to identify families and > Multicontextual households based on their shared - People are best understood in levels of education, income, and context occupation - CONTEXT: When and where we - Members of a social class tend to love, our actions, beliefs, and values share similar lifestyles, patterns of are a response to circumstances consumption, parenting styles, surrounding us stressors, religious preferences, etc. - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (R. - All of us are born into or are socially Sternberg, 1996): Type of located and may move up or down a intelligence known as “contextual class system intelligence” as the ability to - Depending on socially and understand what is called for in a individually created limits and situation opportunities Analytic Intelligence 3. Culture Mental steps or components used to solve - Often referred to as a blueprint or problems guideline shared by a group of people that specifies how to live. Creative Intelligence - Teaches us how to live in a society Use of experience in ways that foster insight - Allows us to advance. New generations benefit from the Practical Intelligence solutions found and passed down Ability to read and adapt to the contexts of from previous generations everyday life - Is learned from parents, schools, churches, media, friends, and others throughout a lifetime → What External Factors affect Human - Serves to help members function in Development? their society - Ideas about what is right and wrong - What to strive for  - What to eat - How to speak - What is valued - What kinds of emotions are called for in certain situations → Periods of Development 1. Prenatal 2. Infancy 3. Childhood 4. Juvenile Era 5. Pre-Adolescence 6. Early Adolescence 7. Late Adolescence 8. Adulthood → Conclusion Developmental Psychology is the scientific study of changes that occur in human beings throughout their lives. This field examines change and development across a broad range of topics and contexts 1. Physical Development: Motor Skills and other Psycho-Physiological processes 2. Cognitive Development: Problem- Solving, Language Acquisition 3. Social and Emotional Development 4. Self-Concept and Identity Formation Much of what is known concerning the lifespan has been gathered through research CHAPTER 2: Developmental Theories → Scientific Theory of Development  - A set of logically related concepts or statements that seek to describe and 3. Cognitive explain development and to predict - Cognitive Stage Theory the kinds of behavior that might occur - Sociocultural Theory under certain conditions - Information Processing Approach - It organizes and explains data and information gathered by research 4. Contextual - Hypotheses: Explanations or - Bioecological Approach predictions that can be tested by further research PSYCHOANALYTIC → 2 Basic Issues → Psychosexual Development Sigmund Freud | Reactive, Qualitative 1. Active or Reactive? - Do people absorb experiences that - Proposed the provinces of the mind: shape them over time? Or do they Id, Ego, Superego create these experiences for - Newborns are governed by the Id themselves? - First year or so = Ego, which - Mechanical Model: People are like represents reason, and develops machines that react to environmental gradually input. It results from the operation of - 5-6 years old = Superego, which biological parts in response to includes conscience and external or internal stimuli incorporates socially approved - Organismic Model: Sees people as behavior to the child’s system active, growing organisms who set - 5 Stages of Psychosexual their own development in motion. Development: They initiate events; they do not just - The first three stages are crucial for react. Thus, the driving force for personality development as they are change is internal. Environmental at risk of fixation influences do not cause - These fixations can show up in adult development, though they can speed personality or slow it. 1. Oral Stage: Mouth 2. Continuous or Discontinuous? - Mouth is vital for eating - Is development continuous, that is - Infant derives pleasure from oral gradual and incremental? Or stimulation through gratifying discontinuous, that is abrupt or activities such as tasting and sucking uneven? - Quantitative Change: A change in 2. Anal Stage: Anus number or amount, such as height, - Primary focus of the Libido was on weight, or vocabulary size controlling bladder and bowel - Qualitative Change: Is discontinuous movements and marked by the emergence of - Anal-Expulsive: Messy, wasteful, new phenomena that could not be destructive easily predicted on the basis of past - Anal-Retentive: Stringent, orderly, functioning rigid, obsessive → Theoretical Perspectives 3. Phallic Stage: Genitals - Children begin to discover the differences between males and 1. Psychoanalytic females - Psychosexual Development - Oedipus Complex: Wanting to - Psychosocial Stages possess mother; Castration Anxiety - Electra Complex: Wanting to possess father; Penis Envy 2. Learning - Behaviorism 4. Latent Stage: Inactive - Classical and Operant Conditioning - Social Learning Theory  - Children develop social skills, values, - Develop self-confidence in abilities and relationships with peers and when competent or sense of adults outside of the family inferiority when not - Superego continues to develop while the Id’s energies are suppressed 5. Adolescence (12-18 years) - Identity VS Confusion → Psychosocial Development - Virtue: Fidelity - Experiment with and develop identity Erik Erikson | Reactive, Qualitative and roles - Extended Freudian Theory by 6. Early Adulthood (19-29 years) emphasizing the influence of society - Intimacy VS Isolation in developing personality - Virtue: Love - Covers 8 stages across lifespan - Establish intimacy and relationship - Each stage involves a crisis in with others personality – a major psychosocial challenge that is particularly 7. Middle Age (30-64 years) important during that stage - Generativity VS Stagnation - These crisis must be satisfactorily - Virtue: Care resolved for healthy ego - Contribute to society and be part of a development family - Puts the person in a particularly good position to address the next 8. Old Age (65 onward) crisis - Integrity VS Despair - Erikson highlighted the “Social Clock” - Virtue: Wisdom – the conventional, culturally - Assess and make sense of life and preferred timing of important life meaning of contributions events - Explained that development is a LEARNING lifelong process 1. Infancy (0-1 year) → Behaviorism | Mechanistic - Trust VS Mistrust - Virtue: Hope - Describes observed behavior as a - Trust/Mistrust that basic needs, such predictable response to experience as nourishment and affection, will be - Considers development as both met reactive and continuous - Holds that human beings at all ages 2. Early Childhood (1-3 years) learn about the world the same way - Autonomy VS Shame/Doubt other organisms do; by reacting to - Virtue: Will conditions or aspects of their - Develop a sense of independence in environment that they find pleasing, many tasks painful, or threatening - Focuses on Associative Learning 3. Play Age (3-6 years) where a mental link is formed - Initiative VS Guilt between two events - Virtue: Purpose - Take initiative on some activities → → Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) May develop some guilt when - Type of learning in which a response unsuccessful or boundaries (salivation) to a stimulus (a bell) is overstepped elicited after repeated association with a stimulus, that normally elicits a response (food) 4. School Age (7-11 years) - John B. Watson – claimed that he - Industry VS Inferiority could mold any infant in any way he - Virtue: Competence chose - “Little Albert” Experiment: He taught an 11-month old baby known as  “Little Albert” to fear furry, white chunks together intro complex new objects behavior patterns - Albert was exposed to a loud noise - Self-Efficacy: Confidence in their when he started to stroke a rat. The ability noise frightened him, and he began to cry. After repeated pairings of the COGNITIVE rat with the loud noise, Albert whimpered with fear when he saw the → Cognitive Stage Theory rat. Albert also started showing fear Jean Piaget | Organismic responses to white rabbits and cats, and the beards of elderly men. The - Reintroduced the concept of scientific study, though unethical, inquiry into mental states demonstrated that fear could be - Viewed development as the product conditioned. of children’s attempts to understand and act upon their world → Operant Conditioning (BF Skinner) - This cognitive growth occurs through three interrelated processes: - Type of learning where an individual 1. Organization: Tendency to learns from the consequence of create categories, such as “operating” the environment birds, by observing the - Involves consequences rather than characteristics that individual the predictors of behavior members of a category, such - Skinner argued that an organism – as sparrows and cardinals, animal or human – will tend to repeat have in common a response that has been reinforced 2. Adaptation: Piaget’s term for by desirable consequences and will how children handle new suppress a response that has been information in light of what punished they already know - Reinforcement: Process by which a - Assimilation: Taking in behavior is strengthened, increasing new information and the likelihood that the behavior will be incorporating it into repeated existing cognitive - Punishment: Process by which a structures behavior is weakened, decreasing the likelihood of repetition - Accommodation: - Both can be positive or negative Adjusting one’s cognitive structures to → Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura) fit the new information 3. Equilibration: Constant striving for a stable balance; - Suggested that the impetus for Motivates the shift between development is bidirectional called assimilation and “Reciprocal Determinism”: The accommodation person acts on the world as the world acts on the person - Maintains that people learning → Sociocultural Theory (Lev Semenovich appropriate social behavior chiefly by Vygotsky) observing and imitating models; or in short, by watching people is called - Believed that children learn “Observational Learning or collaboratively through social Modelling” interaction and shared activities - Social Cognitive Theory: Updated - Believed that there are many ways to version of SLT and reflects great develop as there are different emphasis on cognitive processes as cultures and different experiences central to development - Adults or more advanced peers must - Cognitive processes are at work as help direct and organize a child’s people observe models, learn chunks learning of behavior, and mentally out the  - “Zone of Proximal Development” or 1. Microsystem: Everyday ZPD: The gap between what they are environment of home, work, already able to do by themselves, school, or neighborhood and what they can accomplish with 2. Mesosystem: Interlocking assistance influence of microsystems - “Scaffolding”: The supportive 3. Exosystem: Consists of assistance with a task that parents, interactions between a teachers, or others can give to a child microsystem and an outside - Vygotsky’s ideas have grown in system or institution stature and prominence as their 4. Macrosystem: Consists of implications for education and overarching cultural patterns, cognitive testing have become more such as dominant beliefs, apparent ideologies, and economic and political systems → Information-Processing Approach 5. Chronosystem: Represents the dimension of time Developmental Psychologists | Continuous - Seeks to explain cognitive → development by analyzing the processes involved in making sense of incoming information and performing tasks effectively - Theorists focused on processes such as attention, memory, planning strategies, decision errors, decision- making, and goal-setting - NOT a single theory, but a framework that supports a wide range of theories Evolutionary/Sociobiological (Charles and research - Some theorists compare the brain to Darwin) a computer: There are certain inputs (such as sensory impressions) and - Influenced by Darwin’s Theory of certain outputs (such as behaviors) Evolution - Noted age-related increases in the - Draws on findings of anthropology, speed, complexity, and efficiency of ecology, genetics, ethology, and mental processing and in the variety evolutionary psychology to explain of material that can be stored in the adaptive, or survival, value of memory behavior for an individual or species - Natural selection is defined as the CONTEXTUAL differential survival and reproduction of different variants of members of a species and is the tool the natural → Bioecological Theory (Urie world uses to shape evolutionary Bronfenbrenner) processes – “Survival of the Fittest” - Ethology: Study of the adaptive - Generally represented as a set of behaviors of animal species in rings with the developing child in the natural contexts middle - Evolutionary Psychology: Focus on - Child is not seen as just an outcome humans and apply Darwinian of development, but an active shaper Principles to Human Behavior of development - Despite arguing that reproductive - To understand development, we success is the key feature driving our must see the child within the context adaptations, does not propose that of the multiple environments people are consciously seeking to surrounding them maximize their reproductive output - 5 Levels of Environmental Influences:  → Intelligence: The Nurture Side or Environmental Side - Environment plays a significant role in a person’s mental ability - Education, SES, nutrition, parents’ CHAPTER 3: Heredity, Prenatal behavior, alcohol use, criminal Development, and Birth behavior, emotional adaptation, amount of time spend reading or Nature VS Nurture watching television (Flynn, 1992) “Intelligence is a product of BOTH nature → Heredity: The Epigenetic Framework and nurture” “There is a constant interplay between the → The Human Genome Project two forces. We cannot isolate the root of - Is an intentionally funded effort to any single behavior as a result solely of map the locations of human genes nature or nurture” and understand the role these genes play in development, health, and - Nature: Heredity plays the most illness important role in bringing about that feature Genes: Are segments of chromosomes vary - Nurture: Environment is most in length significant in shaping the way we are - 46 strands of a chemical substance called DNA contained in the nucleus Almost all human features are: of each human cell - Polygenic: Result of many genes “Understanding the role of genes in health - Multifactorial: Result of many factors, and illness can bring about both harm and both genetic and environmental good.” (Weitz, 2007) - Genetic make-up sets up a range of possibilities → Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins - Genes may or may not be realized depending upon one’s environmental Monozygotic/Identical Twins experiences - Occur when a single zygote or - There is a bidirectional interplay: fertilized egg split apart in the first two - Environment affects the expression weeks of development of genes just as genetic predispositions can impact a Dizygotic/Fraternal Twins person’s potentials (Gottlieb, 1998, - Two eggs or ova are released and 2000, 2002) fertilized by two separate sperms - Environmental circumstances can trigger symptoms of a genetic disorder → Genotypes and Phenotypes → Intelligence: The Nature Side or the Genotype - The genetic complement, coded in Genetic Side DNA inherited from parents - No two people have identical - Heritability: A statistic that represents genotypes EXCEPT identical twins proportion of phenotypic variance that is due to genetic differences Phenotype - Intelligence is inherited in a person’s - The expression of genes in genetics behavioral traits that we can measure - Maternal effects Model - Estimates of Heritability: 80% Some genes are: (Bouchard et al., 1990) | 50% (Plomin - Dominant: They express themselves 1990, 1995) in the phenotype even when paired with a different version of the gene  - Recessive: Express themselves only cannot metabolize phenylalanine, an when paired with a similar version amino acid. Left untreated intellectual gene deficits can occur. PKU is easily - “Incomplete Dominance”: When a detected and is treated with a special dominant gene does not entirely diet suppress the recessive gene. - Albinism is when an individual lacks melanin and possesses little to no pigment in the skin, hair, and eyes. Vision problems can also occur → Behavioral Genetics Behavioral Genetics - Is the scientific study of the interplay between the genetic and environmental contributions to behavior Most characteristics are polygenic. They are - “Genotype-Environment not the result of a single gene; but of several Correlations”: Refer to the processes genes. by which genetic factors contribute to variations in the environment → Chromosomal Abnormalities and Genetic (Plomin, DeFries, Knopik, and Disorders | Table Genetic Disorders Niederhiser, 2013) Your Genes + Your Environment & Lifestyle Chromosomal Abnormality: = YOU - Occurs when a child inherits too many or too few chromosomes - If the abnormal number occurs on Types of Genotype-Environment Correlation: pair 21 or pair 23, the individual may have certain physical or other 1. Passive abnormalities (Trisomy 21/Down - Children passively inherit the genes Syndrome) and the environments their family - When the abnormality is on Pair #23, provides the result is a Sex-Linked - Given both the genes and Chromosomal Abnormality environmental encouragement (Klinefelter, males | Turner, females) - Most of the known genetic disorders 2. Evocative are dominant-gene linked. - Social environment reacts to - Vast majority are not severe individuals based on their inherited disorders characteristics - Ex. Someone more outgoing or shy Autosomal Dominant Disorders will affect how he or she is treated by (Heterozygous) others - Tourette Syndrome is a tic disorder which results in uncontrollable motor 3. Active and vocal tics as well as body jerking - Individuals seek out environments and opportunities that support their Recessive Disorders (Homozygous) genetic tendencies - Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) is a condition in which the red blood cells Genotype-Environment Interactions in the body are shaped like a sickle - Involve genetic susceptibility to the (like the letter C) and affect the ability environment of the blood to transport oxygen. Carries may experience some effects, but do not have the full Children whose biological parents with condition psychopathology → Exhibited significantly - Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a metabolic disorder in which the individual fewer behavioral problems → When their  adoptive parents used more structured parenting than unstructured → Prenatal Development Periods of Prenatal Development: 1. The Germinal Period - Major structures of the body are 2. The Embryonic Period taking form 3. The Fetal Period - Time when organism is most 4. Prenatal Brain Development vulnerable to damage if exposed to harmful substances - Potential mothers are not often aware of the risks → Fetal Period - Organism is referred to as a Fetus - Develops hair, nails, teeth, and the excretory and digestive systems - By the 12th week, the fetus has all its body parts including external genitalia - During the 4th-6th month, eyes become more sensitive to light, → The Germinal Period hearing develops, respiratory system - Starts at conception continues to develop, reflexes such - Zygote (fertilized egg): Contains as sucking, swallowing, and combined genetic information from hiccupping, cycles of sleep and both parents wakefulness are present, the first - After 5 days of mitosis, there are 100 chance of survival outside the womb, cells, which is now called a known at the age of viability “blastocyst” - Between the 7th and 9th month, primarily preparing for birth, exercising its muscles, lungs begin to → Embryonic Period expand and contract, developing fat - Begins once the multi-cellular layers under the skin, the layer of fat organism is implanted in the uterine serves as insulation and helps the wall baby regulate body temperature after - Placenta: A structure connected to birth the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the → Environmental Risks during Prenatal embryo via the umbilical cord - Growth during prenatal development Development occurs in two primary directions: 1. Cephalocaudal Development: Teratology From head to tail - Study of Factors that contribute to 2. Proximodistal Development: congenital disabilities From midline outward - Factors influencing prenatal risks (Berger, 2004): a. Timing of the Exposure: Critical Periods of Development (structures are vulnerable during formation) b. Amount of Exposure: Substances are harmful in amounts that reach a certain level  c. Dose-Related Relation: Higher - Most women over 35 who become teratogen exposure = more likely pregnant are in good health and have fetus will suffer damage healthy pregnancies d. Genetics - But mothers over 35 are more likely e. Being Male or Female: Males are to have an increased risk of: more likely to experience damage - Fertility Problems due to teratogens than are females - Miscarriages - Placenta Previa - Cesarean Section/Premature Birth - Stillbirth - High blood pressure/Diabetes - Baby with genetic disorder/other congenital disabilities - Why? Because a woman is born with all her eggs. Environmental teratogens can affect the quality of Critical Periods: the eggs as women get older Maternal Factors: a. Teenage Pregnancy: Higher risk for having pregnancy complications including anemia, and high blood pressure b. Low Socioeconomic Status: Low SES contributes to lack of access to prenatal care, proper nutrition, and often social support → Teratology: Some Teratogens c. Paternal Impact: According to Nippoldt (2015), offspring of men over 40: Autism, congenital Teratogen disabilities, achondroplasia (bone - Agent that can cause birth defects or growth disorder), and schizophrenia abnormalities in a developing embryo d. High Blood Pressure (Hypertension): or fetus upon exposure Premature birth, low birth weight, - Some examples are: placental abruption, and mothers can a. Alcohol: One of the most develop preeclampsia commonly used teratogens, e. Stress: Feeling stressed is common followed by Tobacco during pregnancy, but high levels of b. Others: Prescription/Over the stress can cause complications Counter drugs; Common illicit f. Depression: Premature, having a low drugs (cocaine, ecstasy, birth weight, being more irritable, less heroin, marijuana); Pollutants active, less attentive, and having (Toxoplasmosis: Raw meat) fewer facial expressions c. Diseases: STDs, HIV, Rubella → Pregnancy and Childbirth → Prenatal Assessment The Apgar (Dr. Virginia Apgar, 1952) - Conducted one minute and five minutes after birth to assess the newborn’s overall condition - Five measures are assessed: 1. Heart Rate 2. Respiration → Maternal Factors 3. Muscle Tone (Quickly assess by a skilled nurse when the  baby is handed to them or by touching the baby’s palm) 4. Reflex Response (Babinski reflex is tested) 5. Color → Assessing the Neonate a. Skin to Skin Contact After Birth - Skin to skin contact is highly recommended for all infants especially within the first hour after birth - Refers to the parent, most typically the birth mother, having skin contact with the newborn - Benefits between mother and infant psychosocially, physically, behaviorally, and neurobehavioral (Widstrom, Brimdyr, Svensson, Cadwell, and Nissen, 2019) - Mother and Baby can feel lower stress levels → Conclusions  - Branching extensions that collect information from other neurons - Undergoes a period of exuberance - By age 2, a single neuron might have thousands of dendrites > Synaptogenesis - The formation of connections between neurons (connections between neurons are synapses) - Continues from prenatal period - It forms thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood - This period of rapid neural growth is referred to as “Synaptic Blooming” - Synaptic Blooming is followed by a period of “Synaptic Pruning”, where neural connections are reduced, thereby making those that are used much stronger - Another significant change: CHAPTER 4: Infancy to Toddlerhood Development of Myelin Sheath, a coating of fatty tissues around the Changes during this time are so dramatic axon of the neuron and noticeable. What happens during these - By age 2, most of the neural activity years provides a foundation for one’s life to is occuring in the Cortex, or the thin come. outer covering of the brain involved in voluntary activity and thinking → Physical Development > Primary Motor Areas - Develop earlier than Primary Sensory Overall Physical Growth and Body Areas Proportions - Development Average birth weight of > Prefrontal Cortex a Filipino newborn is 2.8 to 3kg (6 to - Located behind the forehead, is the 6.6lbs) (PSA, 2021) least developed - For the first few days of life, infants - As the prefrontal cortex matures, the typically lose about 5% of their body child is increasingly able to regulate weight as they eliminate waste and or control emotions, to plan activities, get used to feeding (this weight loss strategize, and have better judgment is temporary) - Maturity continues throughout - It is followed by a rapid period of childhood, adolescence, and into growth adulthood - 4 months old = Usually doubles in weight > Lateralization - 1 year = Tripled its birth weight - Process where different functions - 2 years = The weight has become localized primarily brain quadrupled hemisphere - In the womb, the head makes up about 50% of our entire length > Neuroplasticity - At birth, it makes up to 25% of our - The brain’s ability to change length (physically and chemically), to - By age 25, it comprises about 20% enhance adaptability to environment, and to compensate for an injury → The Brain in the First 2 Years → Motor Development > Dendrites  - Occurs in an orderly sequence > Fine Motor Skills - From reflexive reactions to more - More precise movements (use advances motor functioning smaller muscle groups) of hands, - Development Principles: fingers, and wrist - Cephalocaudal (Head to Tail) - 4 months: Infant can reach for an - Proximodistal (From midline object (first with both arms and within outward) a few weeks, with only one arm) - Grasping an object involves fingers > Motor Development Reflexes and palm, but no thumbs - 9 months: Infant can watch a moving a. Rooting object, reach for it as it approaches, - Provoked by: Stroking infant’s cheek and grab it - Action: Head turns in the direction of touch, infant opens mouth for feeding → Sensory Development b. Gripping > Vision - Provoked by: Something placed in - Newborns cannot see greater than 8- the infant’s hand 16 inches away, difficulty keeping a - Action: Infant grasps item and hold moving object within their gaze, on very well – almost enough to detect contrast more than color support own weight differences - 2 or 3 months: Seek more detail when c. Toe Curling exploring an object visually, show - Provoked by: Stroking of the inner or preferences for unusual images over outer sole of infant’s foot familiar ones (patterns > solids/ faces - Action: Inner sole = toes curl, Outer > patterns/ 3D objects > flat images) sole = toes spread out - Between 2 and 4 months: Discrimination between colors as well d. Moro or Startle as do adults - Provoked by: Sudden noise or - About 2 months: Sense depth as movement binocular vision develops - Action: Infant throws head back, - By 6 months: Infant can perceive arms and legs out, and then cries depth perception in pictures e. Galant > Hearing - Provoked by: Stroking of infant’s - Infant’s sense of hearing is very keen lower back, next to the spinal cord at birth: Starting 5th month prenatal - Action: Infant curves toward side that - 1 month: Distinguish between very was stroked similar sounds and familiar and unfamiliar voice > Gross Motor Skills - 7 to 8 months: Some of this ability - Voluntary Movements will be lost as a child becomes more - Use of Large Muscle Groups familiar with the sounds of a - Typically large movements of arms, particular language legs, head, and torso - Newborns prefer their mother’s - These skills begin to develop first: voices: - Lift head, prop up body, roll, sit, - Infant prefer over another female crawl, stand, walk when speaking the same material - In Utero: Register mother’s voice > Touch and Pain - Immediately after birth, a newborn is sensitive to touch and temperature, and is also highly sensitive to pain, responding with crying and cardiovascular responses (Balaban and Reisenauer, 2013) > Taste and Smell  - Newborns can distinguish between sour, bitter, sweet, and salty flavors, → Cognitive Development and show preference for sweet flavors > Piaget’s Six Substages of the - Newborns prefer the smell of their Sensorimotor Stage mothers. 6 days old: Turns towards its own mother’s breast pad 1. Substage 1: Simple Reflexes - First month of life > Sleep and Nutrition - Various reflexes that determine infant’s Sleep interactions with the world are - Infants need sleep at the center of its cognitive - Variation during the first few years life due to changes that happen with - The sucking reflex causes the feedings, socialization, and cultural infant to suck at anything patterns placed in his or her lips - Sleep problems can be behavior related (inconsistent routines, refusal 2. Substage 2: First Habits and Primary to sleep), physical (hunger or diaper Circular Reactions change), or medical (breathing, - From 1 to 4 months illness) - Infants begin to coordinate - “Bed-sharing” or “co-sleeping” is a what were separate actions decision made based on family into single, integrated customs, environmental conditions, activities and culture - An infant might combine - Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: grasping an object with Identified when the death of a healthy sucking on it, or staring at infant occurs suddenly and something with touching it unexpectedly, and medical and forensic investigation findings 3. Substage 3: Secondary Circular (including autopsy) are inconclusive Reactions - Accidental Suffocation and - From 4 to 8 months. Strangulation in Bed: Suffocation by - Infants take major strides in soft bedding; another person rolling shifting their cognitive on top or against the infant while horizons beyond themselves sleeping/infant being wedged and begin to act on the between two objects outside world. - - Child who repeatedly picks up a rattle and shakes it in Nutrition different ways to see how the sound changes is demonstrating her ability to modify her cognitive scheme about shaking rattles. 4. Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions - From 8 to 12 months. - Infant begins to use more calculated approaches to producing events, coordinating several schemes to generate a single act. They achieve Object Permanence during this stage. - Infant will push one toy out of the way to reach another toy that is lying, partially exposed, under it.  > Infant Memory 5. Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions Infant memory is rather fleeting and fragile. - From 12 to 18 months. As a result, older children and adults - Infants develop what Piaget experience infantile amnesia: the inability to regards as the deliberate recall memories from the first few years of variation of actions that bring life. desirable consequences. Rather than just repeating - Infants older than 6 months of age enjoyable activities, infants can retain information for more appear to carry our miniature extended periods of time experiences to observe the - Part of their learning is attributed to consequences. Joint Attention: The ability to focus on - Child will drop a toy objects or individuals in social repeatedly varying the interactions position from which he drops - Infants pay attention to the stimuli it, carefully observing each that seem of interest to significant time to see where it falls. others 6. Substage 6: Beginnings of Thought → Language Development - From 18 months to 2 years. - Major achievement is the > Newborn Communication capacity for mental representation of symbolic 1. Intentional Vocalizations thought. Piaget argued that - Cooing initially involves making only at this stage can infants vowel sounds. Later, consonants are imagine where objects that added they cannot see, might be - Children can even plot in their - “Oooo” → “Nonono” heads unseen trajectories of objects, so that if a ball rolls 2. Elaborate Vocalizations under a piece of furniture, - Guttural sounds, clicks, consonants, they can figure out where it is and vowel sounds likely to emerge on the other - Ability to repeat sounds characteristic side of the language heard > Piaget and Sensorimotor Intelligence 3. Intentional Vocalizations - About 7 months, infants begin Object Permanence babbling. Consonant-vowel repeated - A critical milestone during the sequence sensorimotor period. - 1 year old babbling uses primarily the - The understanding that even sounds of the language they are if something is out of sight, it learning still exists - “Ma-ma-ma”, “Da-da-da” (Bogartz, Shinskey, and Schilling, 2000) 4. Gesturing - Seems to be easier than vocalization Stranger Anxiety for some toddlers - Around the same time children - Sign language is sometimes taught to develop object permanence enhance one’s ability to - A fear of unfamiliar people (Crain, communicate by making use of the 2005) ease of gesturing - Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from the 5. Understanding stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or - 10 months, infants understand more by attempting to reach their arms than he or she can say: Receptive towards familiar faces such as language parents - 6 months: Own name  - 6 to 9 months: Infants shake their Social Pragmatics head “no” - Refers to the language and - 9 to 12 months: Wave “bye-bye”, communication that individuals use flying kiss during social interactions - 10 to 12 months: “bottle”, “mama” - Pre-linguistic Skills such as pointing - Context Clues: Speaker’s emotional or turn-taking expression Brain Areas for Language 6. Holophrastic Speech - For the 90% of people who are Right- - 12 to 13 months: First words Handed, language is stored and - Holophrastic Speech: One-word controlled by the left cerebral cortex. Expressions (Ju = Juice) For some Left-Handers, this pattern - Someone who has spent time with is reversed the child can interpret the meaning - Broca’s Area: Speech Production - Wernicke’s Area: Language Comprehension 7. Language Errors → Psychosocial Development - Overextension: Child may think that a label applies to all objects that are > Temperament and Infant Emotions similar to the original object - Ex. All animals are “doggies” Temperament - Innate characteristic of the infant, 8. First Words and Cultural Influences including mood, activity level, and - Child labels objects such as a cup, emotional reactivity, noticeable soon ball, or other items that they regularly after birth interact with - 1956 Landmark Study (Chess and - Different emphasis is given to objects Thomas, 1996): Evaluated 121 based on culture (nouns vs verbs) children’s temperament based on parental interviews (Referred to as 9. Vocabulary Growth Spurt the New York Longitudinal Study. - 1 year old: 50 words Result: Three General Types of - Toddlers: 200 words or more Temperament) - Begin putting words together in - A caregiver’s ability to work well and telegraphic speech accurately read the child will enjoy a Goodness-of-Fit, meaning their 10. Two-Word Sentences and styles match and communication and Telegraphic (Text Message) Speech interaction can flow (Thomas and - Telegraphic Speech: Occurs when Chess, 1977) unnecessary words are not used - “Give baby ball” is used rather than 3 General Types of Temperament: “Give the baby the ball” 1. Easy Child (40%) - Able to quickly adapt to routine and 11. Infant-Directed Speech new situations, remains calm, is easy - Involves exaggerating the vowel and to soothe, and usually in a positive consonant sounds, using a high- mood pitched voice and delivering the phrase with great facial expression 2. Difficult Child (10%) (Clark, 2009) - Reacts negatively to new situations, - Infants are more attuned to tone of has trouble adapting to routine, is voice rather than content of the words usually negative in mood, and cries frequently > Linguistic Considerations 3. Slow-to-Warm-Up Child (15%) Critical Periods - Has a low activity level, adjusts - Children learn languages easily and slowly to new situations, often naturally negative in mood - If not exposed to language early in their lives, they will likely never learn Parenting is Bidirectional  - Not only do parents affect their - Infants become emotionally detached children, but children also influence from other people including caregiver their parents - If caregiver returns, infant will - Child characteristics, such as disregard or ignore her temperament, affect parenting - Infants are no longer upset when behavior and roles caregiver leaves > Forming Attachments Attachments formed during childhood have an important impact on adulthood. Harlow’s Research: Surrogate Mother Experiment - Harlow took infant monkeys from their biological mothers, gave them two inanimate surrogate mothers: 1. Simple construction of wire > Erikson: Trust VS Mistrust and wood 2. Covered in foam rubber and soft terry cloth - Infant monkeys went to the wire mother for food - Overwhelmingly preferred and spent significantly more time with warm terry-cloth mother which provided no food but provided comfort - Contact Comfort: The infant’s need for physical closeness and touching > Erikson: Autonomy VS Shame and Doubt and is believed to be the foundation for attachment - Harlow’s studies confirmed that babies have social as well as physical needs John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory - Integrated Object Relations Theory with Evolutionary Perspective - Infused knowledge of ethology (Konrad Lorenz’ idea of early bonding to mother-figure) - Study childhood directly and not rely > Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation on distorted retrospective accounts Technique from adults - His theory came from observations of - A technique developed for human and primate infants determining the type of attachment style John Bowlby’s Three Stages of Separation - A stranger interacts with the infant as Anxiety the mother leaves - Critical behavior: How the infant 1. Protest reacts when the mother returns - When caregivers are out of sight, infants cry, resist soothing done by The Strange Situation Technique: Three others Attachment Styles 2. Despair 1. Secure - Infants become apathetic, quiet, sad, - When mother returns, infants are passive, listless happy and initiate contact - Infants are confident in the 3. Detachment accessibility and responsiveness of caregiver  2. Anxious-Resistant - Infants are ambivalent. When mother leaves, infants become unusually upset, when mother returns, they seek contact but rejects being soothed 3. Anxious-Avoidant - Infants stay calm when mother leaves, accepts stranger, when mother returns, infant ignores and avoids her > Measuring Infant Development Infancy is a vulnerable stage. It is not enough that babies receive good care. The care must be excellent.