Medical Laboratory Science Education Midterm Reviewer PDF

**Medical Laboratory Science Education** - **Curriculum** -Comes from the **Latin word** ***currere*** which means **to run** O **Knowledge** and **skills students** are **expected to learn** o Learning standards or Learning Objectives they are expected to meet o **Units** and **Lessons** the...

**Medical Laboratory Science Education** - **Curriculum** -Comes from the **Latin word** ***currere*** which means **to run** O **Knowledge** and **skills students** are **expected to learn** o Learning standards or Learning Objectives they are expected to meet o **Units** and **Lessons** the teachers teach o **Assignments and projects** given to students o **Books, materials, presentations, educational videos** and other materials for learning - **Medical technology Curriculum** **CHED** was established on **May 18, 1994** through the **passage of RA 7722** (Higher Education Act of 1992). Under CHED is the **Technical Committee for Medical** **Technology Education (TCMTE)**, which has the academicians and practitioners responsible for **assisting** **the commission in setting standards among institutions** **offering BS Medical Technology or Medical Laboratory** **Science.** - **COMPONENTS OF A CURRICULUM** ü the **units and lessons** that teachers teach ü the **assignments and projects** given to students; ü the **books, materials, videos, presentations, and readings used in a course;** and ü the **tests, assessments** and ü other methods used to **evaluate student learning**. **BSMT/BSMLS** Four-year program First 3 years - Composed of general education and professional courses. Last year -- Clinical Internship in training laboratories     - **Critical Thinking** q Critical thinking in the **21st century** is described as the "**ability to design and manage projects, solve problems, and make effective decisions using a variety of tools and resources"** ([Fullan, 2013]). q It **highlights the challenge of designing educational experiences** that **address local issues and real-world problems** for which there may be no clear answer. -Thinking critically **requires students to** "acquire, process, interpret, rationalize, and critically analyze large volumes of often conflicting information to the point of making an informed decision and taking action in a timely fashion - **Communication** q Communication in a **21st century** context refers not only to the ability to "**communicate effectively, orally, in writing, an** **d with a variety of digital tools" but also to "listening skills**" (Fullan, 2013, p. 9). q Many **frameworks** include **information and digital literacy** in the concept of communication. q Other **frameworks** have **distinct information, media, and technology skills**. Some **jurisdictions** (e.g., England, Norway) include **information and communications technology (ICT)** skills with literacy and numeracy as foundational curriculum. q **Digital tools and resources** represent a new realm of communications interaction in which the ability to navigate successfully is essential for success in the 21st century. q **Each tool** has its **own rhetoric** (e.g., an **effective blog** post is different from an effective tweet or persuasive essay). q **The issue** is not just learning to use new communication tools but **mastering many forms of rhetoric -- a more challenging task** - **Collaboration** q Collaboration in a **21st century context** requires the ability to "**work in teams, learn from and contribute to the learning of others, \[use\] social networking Skills**, \[and demonstrate\] empathy in working with diverse others" (**Fullan, 20 13**, ) q Collaboration also **requires students to develop collective intelligence and to co-construct meaning**, becoming creators of content as well as consumers. New skills and knowledge are necessary to enable team members to collaborate digitally and contribute to the collective knowledge base, whether working re motely or in a shared physical space. - **Creativity and Innovation** Many studies demonstrate the importance of creativity for social development, the a**bility to compete in business, and the ability to generate economic growth**.Creativity is often described as: the **pursuit of new ideas, concepts, or products** that meet a need in the world. Innovation contains elements of creativity and is often described as the **realization of a new idea** in order to make a useful contribution to a particular field. Creativity **includes concepts** of "**economic and** **social entrepreneurialism**... and leadership for action" (Fullan, 2013) **Outcome-based education (OBE)** is an **educational theory** that **bases each part of an educational system around goals (outcomes).** q By the end of the educational experience, **each student should have achieved the goal.** q There is **no single specified style** of teaching or assessment in OBE; instead, **classes, opportunities, and assessments** should all help students achieve the specified outcomes. q The role of the faculty adapts **into instructor, trainer, facilitator,** and/or mentor based on the outcomes targeted.v Students are given grades and rankings compared to each other. v **Content and performance** expectations are based primarily on what was **taught in the past to students**. v The goal of this education was to **present the knowledge and skills of an older generation to the new generation of students,** and to provide students with an environment in which to learn. **Differences from traditional education** **Methods Benefits of OBE** - **Clarity** The **focus on outcomes** creates a c**lear expectation of what needs to be accomplished** by the end of the course. **Students** will **understand what is expected of them** and **teachers** will know **what they need to teach** during t he course. - **Flexibility** instructors will be **able to structure their lessons** around the student's needs. OBE does not specify a specific method of instruction, **leaving instructors free to teach their students using any method.** Instructors will also be **able to recognize diversity among students** by using various teaching and assessment techniques during their class. **-OBE is meant to be a STUDENT-CENTERED LEARNING model.** Teachers are **meant to guide and help the students understand the material in any way necessary**, study guides, and group work are some of the methods instructors can use to facilitate students learning **Benefits of OBE** - **Comparison** OBE can be compared across different institutions. On an individual level, institutions can look at what outcomes a student has achieved to decide what level the student would be at within a new institution. On an institutional level, institutions can compare themselves, by checking to see what outcomes they have in common, and find places where they may need improvement, based on the achievement of outcomes at other institutions. - **Benefits of OBE Involvement** Student involvement in the classroom is a key part of OBE. Students are expected to do their own learning, so th at they pp. Increased student involvement allows students to fe el responsible for their own learning, and they should learn more through this individual learning. Other aspects of involvement are parental and comm unity, through developing curriculum, or making changes to it. OBE outcomes are meant to be decided upon within a school system, or at a local level. Parents and commu nity members are asked to give input in order to uph old the standards of education within a community a nd to ensure that students will be prepared for life aft er school. **Benefits of OBE Licensure Examination** Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) Professional Regulatory Board for Medical Technology **1 chairman** -- licensed pathotologist **2 chairperson** -- licensed medical technologists **Licensure Examination**  - **Licensure Examination** To pass the licensure examination, an examinee must: Receive a general weighted average of 75% Have no rating below 50% in any major courses, and Pass in at least 60% of the courses computed according to their relative weights **Licensure Examination** If an examinee passed the examination: -21 years old and above -- issued with certificate of registration and PRC license -Younger than 21 years old -- he/she will be register ed as a professional after his/her 21st birthday **Licensure Examination** -If an examinee failed to pass the licensure exam 3x, he or she **needs to enroll in a refresher course b efore retaking the examination** \- If an examinee **got a 70-74.9% of average, he/she m** **ay apply for certification as a medical laboratory** **technician** - **Program Goals and Learning Outcome** The program outcomes of BSMT/BSMLS degree expect students to: 1**. Demonstrate knowledge and technical skills needed to correctly** perform laboratory testing and ensure reliability of test results. 2\. Be **endowed with professional attitude** and values enabling them to work with their colleagues and other members of the health care delivery system. 3\. **Demonstrate critical thinking and problem solving skills** when confronted with situations/problems/conflicts in practice. 4\. **Actively participate in self-directed life-long learning** activities to be updated in current trend in the profession 5\. **Actively participate in research** and community-oriented activities 6\. Be endowed with **leadership skills** 7\. **Demonstrate collaboration, teamwork, integrity**, and respect when working in a multicultural environment - **Assessment** Involves **planned, systematic, and organized way of testing, measuring, collecting and obtaining necessary information** 1**. Provides feedback on the progress** of students in learning 2\. **Identifies flaw** in the psychomotor skills and deficiencies in theoretical knowledge 3\. It **serve as diagnostic tool** to determine the c**apabilities** of the students 4\. It **serves as motivation** to further **improve a students'** skill 5\. It provides students **response to a particular learning strategy** 6\. It provides **information to the teacher** if there is need to improve teaching and learning strategies - **Types of Assessment** 1**. Formative Assessment** Ø Determine whether the student is achieving the outcomes of the topic being discussed (quizzes, reflection papers, recitations) 2\. **Summative Assessment** Ø Done at the end of instruction, grading period (prelim, midterm, finals) or comprehensive examination 3**. Diagnostic Assessment** Ø Given prior to instruction. It is used to gauge what the students know and do not know about the topic on hand. **Assessment Tools** 1\. Teacher-made written tests 2\. Reflection papers 3\. Portfolios 4\. Performance tasks 5\. Oral examinations and presentations 6\. Rubrics **WEEK 8** **Nature of Clinical Laboratory** -A place **where specimens (blood and other body fluids)** **collected from individuals are processed, analyzed,** **preserved, and properly disposed.** -A facility subdivided into **different sections** where common **diagnostic procedures are done by specialized health professionals.** -RA 4688 or Clinical Laboratory Law of 1966 -- aims to **ensure the health of the general public** by **preventing the operation of substandard laboratories.** \- Assigns the DOH -- Bureau of Research and Laboratories nowadays known as Bureau of Health Facilities and Services **Administrative order 59 S f 2001** **-ACCORDING TO FUNCTION** - **CLINICAL PATHOLOGY LAB** Hematology Chemistry Microbiology Parasitology Mycology Clinical Microscopy Immunohematology Immmunoserology Laboratory Endocrinology Toxicology and Therapeutic Drugs Monitoring - **ANATOMIC PATHOLOGY LAB** Surgical Pathology Immunohistopathology Cytology Autopsy Forensic Pathology **ACCORDING TO INSTITUTIONAL CHARACTER** - Hospital Based - Non-Hospital Based (Free standing) -A clinical laboratory that operates within a hospital -A laboratory that operates on its own, outside of a hospital **ACCORDING TO OWNERSHIP** **Government-owned** San Lazaro Hospital Jose R. Reyes Memorial Medical Center Philippine General Hospital **Privately-owned** St. Lukes Medical Center Makati medical Center Fatima University Medical Center **ACCORDING TO SERVICE CAPABILITY** - **Examinations Performed** - **PRIMARY** Hematology Routine Urinalysis Routine Fecalysis Blood Typing (Hospital Based) Quantitative Platelet Determination (Hospital Based) - **SECONDARY** Routine Primary Laboratory Examinations + Routine Chemistry Blood Typing and Crossmatching - **TERTIARY** Secondary Laboratory Examinations + Special Chemistry Special Hematology Immunology and Serology Microbiology - **Minimum Space Required** PRIMARY 10 sq. m SECONDARY 20 sq. m TERTIARY 60 sq. m - **Minimum Facilities Required** - **PRIMARY** Centrifuge Hematocytometer Microhematocrit centrigue Microscope with OIO Hemoglobinometer Diff count cell counter (or their equivalent) - **SECONDARY** Primary Lab equipment + Refrigerator Photometer Water bath Timer (or their equivalent) - **TERTIARY** Secondary Lab equipment + Incubator Trip/Analytical Balance Rotator Serofuge Autoclave Drying oven Biosafety cabinet - **ACCORDING TO FUNCTION** **-According to Ownership** a\. Government b\. Private **-According to Function** a\. Clinical Pathology b\. Anatomic Pathology **Accdg. To Institution Character** a\. Institution Based b\. Free-standing - **ACCORDING TO SERVICE CAPABILITY** - **Primary Category** Routine Hematology Routine Urinalysis Routine Fecalysis Qualitative Platelet det Blood typing (HB) - **Secondary Category** Primary Labs + Routine Chemistry Quantitative platelet det Crossmatching (HB) Gram staining/KOH (HB) - **Tertiary Category** Secondary Labs + Special Chemistry Special Hematology Immunology and Serology Microbiology a\. Aerobic (HB) b\. Anaerobic (NHB) **Additional notes** 1\. **Limited Service Capability** (Dialysis centers, social hygiene clinics) 2\. **Special Laboratories** (Fertility labs, molecular and cellular lab, molecular biology lab, research facilities) 3\. **National Reference Laboratories** -- laboratories in **government hospitals** which has been **designated by the DOH** to **provide special functions and services** such as the following: a\. Confirmatory testing d\. Training and research b\. Surveillance e\. Evaluation of kits and reagents c\. Resolution of conflicts f\. External quality assessment program Additional notes 4\. **Satellite Testing Sites** \- any **testing sites that performs lab examinations under the administrative control** of a licensed laboratory but outside the physical confines of the institution's laboratory 5\. **Mobile Clinical Laboratory** \- Any **testing unit that moves from one testing site to another. Temporary location** \- shall be licensed as part of the main clinical laboratory and is permitted to collect specimens only \- shall be allowed to operate only w/I 100km radius from the min laboratory - **Requirements and Procedures for Application of Permit to Construct and License to Operate** - **Application for Permit to Construct** -**Letter of Application** to the Director of BHFS -**4 sets of Site development and Floor plans** -DTI/SEC Registration for Private Clinical laboratory Requirements and Procedures for Application of Permit to -Construct and License to Operate -Application for New license -A duly notarized application form **"Petition to Establish, Operate and Maintain a Clinical Laboratory**", shall be filed by the owner/representative at the BHFS - **Application for Renewal of license** -A duly notarized application form "Application for Renewal of -License to Establish, Operate and Maintain a Clinical -Laboratory", shall be filed by the owner/representative at the BHFS -Application for renewal of license shall be filed within 90 days before the expiry date of license - **Clinical laboratories are inspected** **every two years** or as necessary Sections of Clinical Laboratory -Department of Pathology -Clinical Chemistry -Microbiology -Hematology and Coagulation -Clinical Microscopy -Blood Bank/Immunohematology -Immunology and Serology -Histopathology and Cytology -Special sections: Molecular Biology, Toxicology, \-\-- -Biotechnology Clinical Chemistry -Whole Blood, Serum, Plasma, Urine Body fluids Analyzes soluble chemicals including waste products of the body - **For detection of diabetes:** -Fasting Blood Sugar (FBS) -Glycosylated Hemoglobin (HBA1c) -Lipid panel: Total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, TAG -Total Protein, Albumin, Globulin **Kidney function**: BUN, Creatinine, Uric Acid -Liver Function: Enzymes, Bilirubin -Electrolytes Tertiary level - Clinical Chemistry -Whole Blood, Serum, Plasma, Urine, Body fluids, hair, nails -**Hormones** -- TSH, T3, T4 -Therapeutic Drug Monitoring -Illegal/Controlled Drugs -Toxicology Microbiology Almost all anatomic parts, secretions, and excretions of the body - **Subdivided into 4 sections**: Bacteriology, Mycobacteriology, Mycology, Virology, and Parasitology -**Microscopic visualization of microorganisms after staining,** isolation and identification of bacteria and fungI -Hematology and Coagulation -Blood and other body fluids -Enumeration of cells in the blood (mostly) and other body fluids. **Complete Blood Count**: Red blood cell count, White blood cell count and differential count, Platelets count, Hemoglobin and Hematocrit. **Bone marrow examination for Leukemia.** **Coagulation** -- analyzes function and number of platelets and coagulation Factor **Clinical Microscopy** -Urine, Stool, other body fluids (sputum, semen, CSF, amniotic fluid) **Urinalysis** -- color, transparency, specific gravity, chemical analysis, microscopic elements **Fecalysis** -- color, consistency, presence of parasites or fungi **Blood Bank/Immunohematology** Blood and other blood products Blood typing, Crosmatching, Compatibility testing, Donor screening, Transfusion medicine. **Immunology and Serology** Serum, Whole blood -Analyses of serum antibodies in certain infectious agents (primarily viral agents) -- Hepatitis B profile, syphilis, Dengue **Histopathology and Cytology** Tissues and Cells from body fluids Biopsy ,Autopsy ,Immunohitochemistry Preparation of tissues for examination **Molecular Biology and Biotechnology** Detection of genetic abnormalities, Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome. Paternity testing DNA testing  **Quality Control (QC) and Quality Assurance (QA)** **Internal Quality Control** -- **Laboratory personnel evaluation**, standard laboratory methods including reagents and supplies, maintenance and monitoring of equipments as well as quality control reference materials. **External Quality Control** -- **aka Proficiency testing** **External Quality Assurance Program (EQAS**) given by designated **National Reference Laboratory (NRL**). For renewal of license. NRL assess the method performance of a clinical laboratory **WEEK 9** **Bioethics/ethical principles/moral issues** **Philosophy** Which means to pursuit wisdom GREEK WORDS:''PHILOS'' -- love ''SOPHIA'' -- knowledge, wisdom **Ethics** Greek word: ''ethicos'' -- moral duty The study of **human action or conduct from a moral** **perspective** as to whether they are **good or bad** **Bioethics** **Medical ethics**, biomedical ethics **Branch of ethics** that is **concerned with issues surrounding** **health care and biological science** Challenge arising from modern biological science **Ethics** The nature of the good The nature of human person Criteria of judgment **Morality** Fundamental convictions of human agent Character of moral agent Use of norms Situational analysis **Ethical relativism --** or **moral relativism**, ethics anchored to the **norms of a particular culture** **Ethical Pragmatism** -- theory on knowledge, truth, and meaning rather than morality. **Ethical Utilitarianism --** rightness or wrongness of actions is determine dby their consequences **Health Care Profession** ØIs a **special calling**, a **service characterized by a** **trusting and caring relationship** which cannot be measured in momentary terms ØIt is a vocation Ø**Relationship-** not a contract, it is a **covenant**.Patient Every person has an obligation to care for his own health, therefore he has the right to seek and receive healthcare **A sick individual becomes a patient if:** **1.** He admits that he is sick 2\. That he can no longer take care of himself **Patient** **HCP-** protect, give care, and teach how to care for himself **Patient- accept responsibility for his care**, cooperate by telling the truth and **doing best to** **follow the instruction** **Health Care Provider** -He is **committed to healthcare services** -Invested authority but with corresponding responsibilities to patients his profession, and the society -He must be a **patient advocate** -Must always **be understanding, humane and** **compassionate** -As an **authority**- must **contribute to knowledge**, conduct himself in an ethical profession always serve as a role **model** Universal Principles of BioMedical Ethics **1. VERACITY** **2. AUTONOMY** **3. BENEFICENCE** **4. NONMALEFICENCE** **5. ROLE FIDELITY** **6. CONFIDENTIALITY** **7. JUSTICE**VERACITY Binds the health practitioner and the patient in an association of truth **PATIENT-** tell the truth in order that appropriate care can be provided **HCP-** needs to disclose factual information **AUTONOMY** -Greek ''autos'' -- self -''nomos'' **-- governance** - It is the capacity for **self determination** Implies that **one should be free from coercion in deciding** **to act.** - Exercised through the process of obtaining informed consentInformed consent q Gives **valid permission to others** q Any **procedure to be done** on any person may only be **administered with his free and informed consent** q Introduced into patient care as a **means of protecting a** **patients personal integrity** q It **means to morally justify the burdens** given to them by their agreement to accept such burdens **Two main function of Informed consent** 1\. **PROTECTIVE**- to **safeguard against** instruction of integrity 2\. **PARTICIPATIVE-** **to be involved in medical decision** **making** -With the production of informed consent in healthcare, there has been a shift from the **paternalism** of '*'doctor* *knows best and decides*'' to '*'patient knows best and* *decides* **Paternalism** -Intentional limitation of the autonomy of one person by another, in which the person who limits autonomy appeals to grounds of benefits to the other person **Proxy Consent** The patient family, or guardian or representatives provides the informed consent Decisions by proxy should be based on what thee patient would have chosen when he been competent **BENEFICENCE** -Traditionally understood as the ''first principle of morality'' -It means ''to do good, & to provide a benefits'' Acts of mercy and charity It hinge on other duties such as fair play, keeping promises, role commitments**.** **NONMALEFICENCE** -It means to do no harm (doing no harm/doing no evil) -''primum non nocere'' -- first do no harm. It makes action almost impossible in a world where even the best action may have some harmful results **NONMALEFICENCE** **Harm may be:** *Physical* *Mental* *Psychological* *Social* *Financial* *Spiritual* **ROLE FIDELITY** **Whatever the assigned role**, the ethics of health care require that the **practitioner practice faithfully within the constraint of the role** **CONFIDENTIALITY** -**Important aspect of trust** that the patient place in health care professionals -If the **patient felt that information** in regard to his body or condition was subject of public conversation -It **harms patients, profession, and society**, which depends on the service we provide **JUSTICE** **-**Also **termed as fairness** -Means to **give to each one what he deserves** or what is his due **-Distributive justice-** principle of equality distribution of scarce resources **-''equals must be treated equally and un-equals** **must be treated unequally''JUSTICE** **COMPENSATORY JUSTICE-** in which individuals **seek compensation for a wrong that has been** **done** **RETRIBUTIVE JUSTICE-** calls for **equal suffering** '' an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth'' very little to do with any form of behaviour suitable for the health care arena. **ETHICAL PRINCIPLES :**Principle of double effect When an act is foreseen to have both good and bad effects **-**There is a clash between the two universal norms of ''do good'' and ''avoid evil' **'Cooperation** qIs the participation of one agent with another to produce a particular effect or joint effect q**Cooperation may be:** q**FORMAL-** when the secondary agent willingly participates q**MATERIAL-** when the secondary agent does not willingly participate q**IMMEDIATE-** when the action of the secondary agent is inherently bound to the performance of the evil action**.** **Totality** qIt refers to the **whole** qEvery person must develop, use, care for and preserve all his parts qThis principle **dictates that the well being of** **the whole person must be taken into account** **Solidarity** -To be one with others In the provision of healthcare, it is important for the provider to be in solidarity with the patient when seeking always **Stewardship** -This means we are responsible for the bodies, our life, our human nature and everything in this earth are given by the dominion over -We should not harm but rather improve and care for them -Virtues of health care provider -Virtues are habits to do what is morally right -They are traits of character that dispose to act accordingly **1. Fidelity-** faithfulness. **Keep his promises** and keep the patients best interest in mind **2. Honesty-** truthfulness, it is telling the patient, the family, colleagues, and society the truth about an illness **3. Integrity-** acting in the same way ones says he should Act 4**. Humility-** recognizing ones capabilities and limitations. Accepting deserved praise graciously and denying undeserved praises **5. Respect-** paying attention to others **6. Compassion-** is loving kindness, feeling for those who suffer. **7. Prudence- is foresight.** A habitual deliberateness, caution and circumspection in action consider how diff. options may affect others before making a decision **8. Courage-** one sees as right without undue fear, or standing up against what one sees as wrong even if it means standing up alone **9.Pride-** is inordinate self-esteem, conceit. It is behaviour of superiority over others **10. Greed-** is inordinate acquisitiveness often for wealth but also for power or position **Problems and concerns in the medical technology practice** **NEGLIGENCE-** it is a general term that denotes the conduct of practice is lacking in due care. Carelessness and deviation from the standard of care that a reasonable person uses in a particular set of circumstances **MALPRACTICE**- it is a professional negligence by act or omission of a health care provider in which care provided deviates from the accepted standards of practice in the medical community. To be liable for malpractice, the person committing the wrong is a professionalIn order to prove negligence or malpractice: **A duty has owed-** a legal duty exists whenever a hospital or health care provider undertakes care or treatment of a patient -A duty was breached- the health care provider failed to conform to the relevant standard of care **The breach causes an injury-** the breach of duty was the proximate cause of injury **Damages-** may be economic (lost earning capacity, medical expenses) and non-economic damages can be physical (loss of vision, organ, limbs etc.) and psychological (severe pain, emotional distress )Moral issues and ethical Considerations **Stem cells** -Stem cells are **master cells of the body**; cells from which other cells with specialized functions are created. -Stem cells **divide to form more cells called daughter cells**. -These cells may become which can be used to generate and repair diseased or damaged body tissues **Sources of stem cells** **EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS-** these stem cells come from the embryos (4-5 days old), called blastocyst, with about 150 cells. This cells have the greatest potential to divide **ADULT STEM CELLS OR SOMATIC CELLS-** these stem cells are found in bone marrow of adult and in placentas and umbilical cords of infants. This stem cells have been successfully used to treat rare genetic diseases **AMNIOTIC FLUID STEM CELLS-** the stem cell found in the amniotic fluid, a fluid that fills the sac that surrounds and protects a developing fetus in the uterus; these are sample of cells that are drawn from pregnant women, such procedure is called amniocentesis **Risk of stem cell therapy** qIt must be certain that stem cells will **differentiate the specific cell type desired** qThey **can be tumour cells** and travel to other parts of the body qThey also **trigger the immune response** which the body attack the stem cells as foreign invaders qThey may **fail to function normally** qThey may **contain abnormalities due to environmental hazards, toxins or errors** during replicationMoral implication of stem cell therapy -These stem cells coming from embryos is a person, creating and **killing embryos** for instrumental use is seriously and **morally wrong** **-**Some consider that creation of early embryo as a **cluster of cells or as human tissue** is lacking in moral status - **Euthanasia** Greek word- ''eu'' easy ''thanatos'' death Refers to the **practice of ending a life** in a manner which **relieves pain and suffering**. Easy death which also called mercy killing It is carried out for someone who is terminally ill and suffering from prolonged and unbearable pain - **Types of Euthanasia** **Euthanasia by commission** -**The active euthanasia** -Refers to the ''positive'' act of causing death that is geared towards termination of pain and suffering **Euthanasia by omission** -The passive euthanasia -Refers to the '' negative'' act of causing death that is geared towards termination of pain and suffering - **Classification of euthanasia** **Voluntary euthanasia-** euthanasia **conducted with the consent** of the patient is termed voluntary euthanasia. Voluntary euthanasia is legal in **Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Switzerland and the U.S**.. Assisted suicide is used **Non-voluntary euthanasia-** euthanasia conducted where the consent of the patient is unavailable. Ex. Is child euthanasia Involuntary euthanasia- conducted against the will of the patient **Passive euthanasia-** entails the withholding of common treatment such as antibiotics, necessary for the continuance of life **Active euthanasia-** entails the use of lethal substances or that which forces to kill and is the most controversial means Death- to be able to determine the exact point in time when a person is dead **Several definitions of death** -**Physiological def.-** a person is dead when the heart stop beating -**Religious def.-** death means separation of body and soul -**Brain death definition-** a condition where brain is completely destroyed -**Cellular def.-** disintegration and breakdown of the metabolic process - **Moral implication of euthanasia** **Religious opponents of euthanasia,** they believe that life is given by GOD, and only GOD should decide when to end ones life **Genetic Engineering** Controversial ethical issue because it involves genetic manipulations that are perceived to be against moral standards set by the society. **Genetic screening-screen, choose**, select the genes for proper detection of genetic disease **Genetic Engineering** **Genetic interventions** -- genetic control, therapy and surgery (control bad genes) - **Cloning** qIt is the **creation of a genetic copy** of a sequence of DNA or the entire genome. Refers to as Somatic Cell NuclearTransfer (SCNT) qFrom oocyte they can make an embryo. qDolly, the sheep was the first mammal to be cloned - **Possible uses of cloning** **Therapeutic cloning-** cloning for therapy will be the most promising application of the SCNT. **Reproductive cloning-** cloning for creating human embryo with the intentions of gestating them in full-grown human beings. - **Moral implication of cloning** **-Embryos for cloning are created for instrumental use only;** they are treated as a **mere clone,** which means**, it is incompatible with a respectful attitude toward embryo** **-Embryos resulting from SCNT do not have the same moral status given to normal embryo** **-One ethical concern is the exploitation of women. They become objects of commercialization of oocytes** - **Contraception** -Also known as **birth control** Can be obtain by the use of devices, sexual practices, or medications to reduce pregnancy **Three main routes to prevent pregnancy** **Contraception-** the prevention of fertilization of ovum by the sperm cells **Contragestion-** the prevention of implantation of the blastocyst **Abortion-** the chemical or surgical induction of the developing embryo or fetus **Moral implication of contraception** -Contraception is not only a **moral issue; it is also a** **religious issue.** **-**Moral philosophers are concerned with ordinary and natural experiences of all h uman beings In vitro fertilization AKA Laboratory fertilization **Controversial to some religions** as it appears as a deviation of the natural process of fertilization. - **Organ transplant and blood donation** An organ transplant is the '' moving of an organ from one body to another''Reasons for donation and its ethical issues **Living related donors-** donation of organ among family members **''paired exchange''-** a technique of matching willing donors to compatible recipients **Good Samaritan- '**'altruistic'' is giving a donation to someone not well-known to the donor **Compensated donation-** donors get money or other compensation in exchange for their organs **Allocation of donated organs-** deceased family member requests an organ be given to a specific donor **Forced donation-** varies authorities harvest organs from those who are deemed undesirable, such as the prison population