Midterm Study Guide PDF

MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE Social psychology Social psychology is a science that studies the influences of our situations, with special attention to how we view and affect one another The scientific study of Social thinking How we perceive ourselves and others What we believe Judgments we make Our attitude...

MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE Social psychology Social psychology is a science that studies the influences of our situations, with special attention to how we view and affect one another The scientific study of Social thinking How we perceive ourselves and others What we believe Judgments we make Our attitudes Social influence Culture and biology Pressures to conform Persuasion Groups of people Social relations Helping Aggression Attraction and intimacy Prejudice Ross and Samuel’s (1993) Wall Street Game V. Community Game Competitive undergrads and cooperative undergrads invited to play a game in which they took turns allocating money between themselves and others Interested in whether how students played the game depended on personality or what the game was called The Wall Street Game The Community Game MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 1 Principles of contemporary social psychology emphasize: The power of the situation The importance of cognition and construal The power of the person Personality psychology is more about Individual differences Private, internal functioning Correlational methods are often employed Social Psychology is more about the role of the situation/ social influence Avoids the fundamental Attribution Error Psychological processes shared by most people that make them susceptible to social influence Experimental methods are often used Internal forces like personal attitudes and dispositions matter Dispositions Internal factors such as beliefs, values, personality traits or abilities that guide a person’s behavior Every psychological event is also a biological event Evolutionary psychology A relatively new branch of psychology that seeks to investigate the potential role of genetic factors in various aspects of human behavior Social neuroscience An integration of biological and social persepctives that explores the neural and physiological bases of social and emotional behavior Social psychology includes the scientific method is an approach to understanding the world that involves systematic observation, meashrement, experimentation and formulation Consists of: Set of methods MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 2 Set of values Accuracy Objectivity (Be aware of naturalistic fallacy (just because something is natural doesn’t mean its good)) Skepticism Open-mindedness Common sense explains Invoked AFTER we know the outcome Hindsight Bias (knew it all along phenomenon) Different competing explanations Little agreement about which explanation is correct Cannot verify which is correct Social Psychology explains Focused on predicting what will happen Employs scientific method to determine which explanation is correct Reliability Yields consistent information Ex. Test-retest, inter-rater(testing again and again) (consistency among others), internal consistency (comparing questions to each other) (e.g. Cronbach’s a) Validity Measures what it is supposed to measure Content validity (ex. face validity) Criterion validity (ex. convergent validity) Experimental validity (ex. internal validity, external validity) Collecting data: Archival Analysis A form of observational method, whereby the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture Data is coded by judges MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 3 Advantages Good validity, relatively easy to conduct Disadvantages Poor validity and reliability (data inaccuracies, missing data, rater biases); no causal conclusions Naturalistic Observation Technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements of their behavior Takes place in the field Ex. Bullying on the school playground Varies in the extent to which the observer interacts with the people being observed Ex. hidden camera Advantages Good external validity Relatively easy to conduct Disadvantages Poor validity Structured observation A technique whereby a researcher cues the behaviors of interest and observes participants responses in a laboratory Ex. Bandura’s Bobo doll experiements Survey Methods Research in which a representative sample of people are asked questions about their thoughts, feelings, and behavior Ex. questionnaires, interviews Ex. Experience sampling Social thinking We construct our social reality MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 4 We like to explain our behaviors and our surroundings We want to have order and control Our social intuitions are often powerful, sometimes perilous Our intuitions can shape our views Our susceptibility to our intuitions can be costly Social influences Social influences shape behavior We are social beings and want to belong We act in response to our social connections and social environment Dispositions shape behavior Our personality affects what we do Our attitudes influence our actions Social relations Social behavior is also biological behavior We are a result of “nature+nurture” Social neuroscience Relating to others is a basic need We derive positivity (or negativity) from our relationships Applying social psychology Social psychology’s principles are applicable to everyday life Explicit ways Values influence research topics Values vary by time and culture Values influence the analysis of data Implicit ways Forming concepts Labelling Naturalistic fallacy MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 5 Hindsight bias Tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one’s ability to have foreseen it Theory An integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events Hypothesis A testable proposition that describes the relationship that may exist between events Experimental research Ability to control Variables Setting Timing Etc. Experimenter manipulates the independent variable Random assignment Each participant has an equal likelihood of being assigned to each condition of an experiment Equivalent groups Observed effects are not due to extraneous factors Experimenters randomly assign people to either: A condition that receives the experimental treatment A control condition that does not Process of random assignment gives confidence to researcher that any later difference would be caused by the treatment (manipulation) The self Self-concept Who am I? Self-esteem MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 6 My sense of self-worth Self-knowledge How can I explain and predict myself Social self My roles as a student, family member, and friend; my group identity Self-Concept Self-schema Beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information “mental templates” Social comparisons Social comparison online is often based on incomplete information E.g., people tend to highlight only the best and most exciting parts of their lives Spotlight effect See ourselves as if we are on “center stage” Illusion of transparency Our worry about being evaluated negatively, especially when we feel selfconscious Individualism Independence, autonomy e.g., Western cultures Collectivism Relationships, environments E.g., Eastern cultures Independent self Stable self-concept Personal self-esteem MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 7 Interdependent self Malleable self-concept Relational self-esteem Individualistic: More personal self-esteem, less relational Persist longer on tasks when succeeding Downward social comparisons Self-evaluations biased positively Collectivistic: Relational and malleable self-esteem Persist longer on tasks when failing Upward social comparisons Self-evaluations as balanced Self-Knowledge Predicting behavior Planning fallacy Predicting feelings Affective forecasting MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 8 Impact bias Dual attitudes Implicit attitudes Automatic Change slowly, with practice that forms new habits Explicit attitudes Consciously controlled May change with education and persuasion Self-Esteem An individual’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth E.g., (I am a good writer) Low self-esteem associated with: Anxiety, loneliness, eating disorders Can you have too much self-esteem? Narcissism Self-efficacy A belief in one’s own competence E.g., (I am good at writing) Example: high self-efficacy vs. low self-efficacy Different from self-esteem Re:reflects how much a person likes themselves Examples Self-serving Bias Explaining positive and Negative events The tendency to attribute personal failure to external forces and personal success to internal forces Self-serving attributions MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 9 Tendency to attribute positive outcomes to yourself and negative outcomes to other factors Most people consider themselves better than average Variety of dimensions Subjective behavior dimensions more susceptible e.g. discipline vs. punctual Unrealistic Optimism Predisposed to optimism Believing you are competent Unrealistic optimism towards future events Supported by being pessimistic about others’ futures BUT: Illusory otpimism Increases vulnerability Defensive pessimism Helps people prepare for problems False consensus effect Overestimating the commonality of one’s opinions and one’s undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors False Uniqueness effect Underestimating the commonality of one’s abilities and one’s desirable or successful behaviors Self-Presentation What are different ways that we present ourselves? Self-Handicapping Protecting one’s self-image with behaviors that create an excuse for later failure Impression Management Re: We want to present our desired image to the world MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 10 Familiar vs. unfamiliar situations Self-Monitoring Being attuned the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting the performance to create the desired impression High self-monitors Low self-monitors Self-Presentation Theory Suggests that we are eager to present ourselves in ways that make a good impression We are motivated to impress others, but we have self-doubts Thus, we feel social anxiety Over-personalizing Situations Concerning for people who are shy, anxious, or self-conscious Views incidental events as relevant to themselves Tendency breeds anxious concern and possibly paranoia Especially prone to spotlight effect Overestimating extent to which others are watching and evaluating them Perceived self-control Learned helplessness Occurs when an individual feels like they have no control over negative events; become passive Self-efficacy A belief in your own competence Learned helplessness When individuals experience uncontrollable bad events, they learn to feel helpless and resigned Too much freedom and self-determination can have negative effects such as decreased life satisfaction, depression, and regret MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 11 People tend to feel more satisfied when they have a sense that their choice was final Self-awareness The understanding that you exist as an entity with internal states The “Looking-glass self” How others see us and treat us influence our sense of self We internalize what we think are these opinions Situationism The situation affects our sense of self Cultural values Can shape how people construe and experience the self Cultural self-construals Influence how we perceive our social worlds in many different ways Self-Knowledge and Introspection The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives But introspection can lead to errors when explaining our own behavior Our attention is not often focused inward Even with introspection, the reasons for feelings and behaviors can be hidden from conscious awareness Prediction People often make prediction errors Ex. Planning fallacy Tendency to understimate how long it will take to complete a task Ex. Affective forecasting errors Why? Impact bias (overestimating the enduring impact of an emotioncausing event) Immune neglect MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 12 Underestimating the speed and strength of the “psychological immune system” What is the Basis of Self-Esteem Basic and fundamental human need to maintain or enhance self-esteem because Buffers social rejection (Sociometer Hypothesis) Buffers anxiety (Terror Management Theory) Culture also impacts the basis of self-esteem Interdependent self: relational; more balanced self-evaluations Independent self: personal; self-evaluations more positvely biased Consequences of Self-Esteem Low self-esteem tends to be correlated with negative outcomes Ex. loneliness, risk of some internalizing psychological disorders, etc.* High self-esteem tends to be correlated with positive outcomes , but High, but unstable (or fragile) self-esteem Ex. Aggression & bullying, narcissism High, but contingent self-esteem Ex. negative impact on academics Self-Enhancement Motive Basic and fundamental human need to maintain or enhance self-esteem; sometimes this is called the Self-enhancement motive Overconfident Judgments People tend to be overconfident when predicting our own behavior Automatic Processing Functions automatically and out of awareness Often called “intuition” or a “gut feeling Influences more of our actions than we realize Controlled processing MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 13 Requires conscious attention and effort Explicit and deliberate Priming Activating particular associations in memory E.g., watching a scary movie and interpreting household noises as an intruder Embodied cognition E.g., hot/iced coffee in elevator Influences our thoughts and actions Intuitive judgments “Intuitive management” Priming research suggests that much of our behavior is unconscious Power of intuition Schemas Emotional reactions Expertise Blindsight Subliminal perception Intuitive judgments: Limitations Minor effects for subliminal stimuli Error-prone hindsight Capacity for illusion Overconfidence phenomenon Tendency to be more confident than correct Overestimating the accuracy of one’s beliefs Applies to factual information, judgments of others’ behavior, judgments of own behavior MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 14 Fed by incompetence and underestimation of the importance of situational forces Confirmation Bias Tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions Possible solutions for overconfidence Prompt feedback Break up a task into subcomponents Consider disconfirming information Heuristics Thinking strategies that enable quick, efficient judgments “Mental shortcuts” Representativeness heuristic Tendency to presume that an individual (or item) belongs to a particular group, if resembling a typical member Availability heuristic Cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory Counterfactual thinking Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but did not Underlies our feelings of luck Typically more regret over things not done Ex: If only I could have Illusory thinking Illusory correlation Perception of a relationship where none exits, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists Illusion of control MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 15 Perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one’s control or as more controllable than they are Regression towards the average/mean Misinformation effect Incorporating “misinformation” into one’s memory of an event, after witnessing the event and receiving misleading information about it Potential for the creation of false memories e.g., false confessions Reconstructing past attitudes Misremembering previous attitudes The construction of positive memories brightens our recollections Rosy (or not rosy) retrospections Situational attribution Physical and social circumstances Dispositional attribution Motivation and ability Spontaneous trait inference Misattributions Mistakenly attributing a behaviour to the wrong cause Attribution theory how do we explain people’s behaviors A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people’s behavior We can make dispositional (internal) attributions or situational (external) attributions Sometimes we make misattributions Mistakenly attribute a behavior to the wrong cause(s) Fundamental attribution error MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 16 The tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences AND overestimate dispositional influences on other’s behavior Actor-observer difference Cultural differences Individuals from Eastern cultures may be more aware of situational factors and less inclined to “blame.” Attribution errors as by-products of adaptive thinking People do not always make attributions absolutely We can benefit from greater awareness Why is it so pervasive? Perceptual Salience (the information that is the focus of people’s attention) We tend to focus our attention on the person, not, not the situation around them Often situational causes are invisible to us or difficult for us to interpret Actors have more information available about themselves than do observers Leads to Actor-Observer Difference MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 17 Self-fulfilling prophecy Beliefs that lead to their own fulfillment Experimenter bias Participants may live up to what they believe experimenters expect of them Behavioural confirmation A type of self-fulfilling prophecy Individual’s social expectations lead them to act in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations. Direct Experience We can collect information firsthand, through direct experience, & we tend to rely on this information We have a tendency to trust firsthand information, but sometimes it can be misleading because... The information is unrepresentativeThe information is unrepresentative Ex. Confirmation biasEx. Confirmation bias The information is inaccurate Ex. Pluralistic ignorance MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 18 Ex. Self-fulfilling prophecies Pluralistic ignorance A false impression of how other people are thinking, feeling or responding Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Beliefs that lead to their own fulfillment Behavioral confirmation Social cognition How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions We have different modes of processing information We simultaneously use bottom-up and top -down processes to perceive and understand our social world Bottom-up processes “Data-driven” mental processing, in which an“Data-driven” mental processing, in which an individual forms conclusions based on stimuli individual forms conclusions based on stimuli encountered in the environment encountered in the environment Top-down processes “Theory-driven” processing, in which an individual“Theory-driven” processing, in which an individual filters and interprets new information in light of pre-filters and interprets new information in light of pre- existing knowledge and expectations existing knowledge and expectations Automatic thinking (System 1) Quick, effortless, non-conscious, unintentional, involuntary, habitual Ex. Intuitive thinking Controlled thinking (System 2) Conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful Requires cognitive resources (ex. attention) One purpose is to check automatic thinking MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 19 Schemas Remember that information is organized in the form of Schemas Mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about, and remember Multiple schemas for making judgements and understanding our social world (ex. explaining behavior) Which one will be used? The most accessible schema The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds, and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world used when making judgments about the social world Chronic accessibility vs. temporary accessibility (priming) Much of our social information processing is automatic because schemas can be primed outside of conscious awareness and control Subliminal priming Even physical sensations can prime social judgments and vice versa Automatic Thinking Even though automatic thinking can allow the efficient processing of vast amounts of information, errors can occur Does not mean that all of our social perceptions, beliefs and inferences are incorrect Availability Heuristic A mental rule of thumb whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind Can lead to accurate judgments, but also errors Representativeness Heuristic A mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case Can lead to accurate judgments, but also errors MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 20 Base rate fallacy Tendency to ignore base rate information Mood Mood strongly influences how we think about and perceive the social world Ex. Mood congruence effects We are more likely to store or remember positive information when in a positive mood and negative information when in a negative mood How do we decide which attribution to make? Spontaneous trait inference An effortless automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone’s behavior Kelley’s Covariation model Theory stating that, in order to form an attribution about what caused a person’s behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence (or absence) of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs Consensus Information about the extent to which other people behave the same way as the actor does toward the same stimulus Distinctiveness Information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli Consistency Information about the extent to which the behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 21 Kelly’s Covariation Model Assumes people make attributions in a rational, logical fashion But people Do not use consensus information as much as Kelley thought Rely more on distinctiveness and consistency information Often do not have access to all 3 types of information Ex. Visiting the store for the first time We exhibit the Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) Attitudes cannot be observed directly Measures can be explicit vs. implicit Explicit attitudes Self-reports, measures, etc MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 22 Implicit attitudes Implicit Association Test (IAT) Facial muscle responses, physiological measures, etc Involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times, nonconscious Implicit Association test (IAT) It uses reaction times to measure how quickly people associate concepts Assumptions Unbiased Uncovers “unconscious” attitudes Theory of reasoned action Reasoned, deliberative behavior An individual’s intention is a determinant of their behavior Intention as the motivation to act Influenced by two factors Attitude and Norm It also uses Explicit measurement Motivation to comply with others often not measured Role of self-efficacy Revised to include whether people believe they can perform behavior When Attitudes are potent Many behaviors are automatic, driven by routines and habits When do attitudes better predict behaviors Opportunity to review past actions Highlighted self-awareness Attitude formed through experience Role playing Actions expected of those who occupy a particular social position Our roles shape our attitudes MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 23 Impact of social situation Stanford prison experiment Zimbrado (1971) Prison simulation study with guards and prisoners in a prison simulation Planned two-week study forced to stop after only six days Foot-in-the-door phenomenon Tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with larger request “low-ball technique” Door-in-the-face technique Tendency for people who have declined a large request to agree to a smaller request “Request then moderation” procedure Explaining behaviors influencing attitudes includes Self-presentation Re: impression management Concerned with making a good impression to gain social and material rewards, to feel better about ourselves, to become more secure in our social identities, etc. Wanting to appear consistent Self-justification Selective exposure We prefer to expose ourselves with information that agrees with our point of view Cognitive dissonance WE feel tension (dissonance) when we are aware that we have two thoughts that are inconsistent or incompatible Also when behavior is inconsistent with our attitudes A feeling of discomfort caused by the realization that one’s behavior is inconsistent with one’s attitudes or that one holds two conflicting MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 24 attitudes We are motivated to maintain consistency among our cognitions Otherwise, we will experience dissonance We experience dissonance after making a decision between two equally attractive alternatives Typically reduces by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives Insufficient justification effect Reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one’s behavior when external justification is “insufficient” Ex. Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) In simple terms, the Insufficient Justification effect occurs when someone does something that goes against what they believe in, but doesn't have a strong outside reason for doing it. Because they can't say "I did it because of the big reward" or "I did it to avoid something bad," they start to change their own beliefs to make their action seem okay in their mind. For example, imagine someone who thinks eating healthy is very important, but they end up eating a lot of junk food. If there's no strong outside reason for eating the junk food (like they weren't at a special party or didn't have to eat it), they might start thinking, "Maybe eating healthy isn't that important after all," to feel better about eating the junk food. This change in belief helps them feel less bad about doing something that goes against their original beliefs. Dissonance theory When an individual’s actions are not fully explained by external rewards or coercion, they will experience dissonance, which can be reduced by believing in what they have done Self-perception Self-Perception Theory (Bem, 1972) Suggests we make similar inferences when we observe our own behaviour MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 25 When our attitudes are weak or ambiguous , we are in the position of someone who observes us from the outside Cognitive dissonance process We have to choose between two equally attractive (or equally unattractive) alternatives The undesirable features of the chosen alternative and the desirable features of the rejected alternative remain Dissonance is created We “manage” this dissonance by upgrading the chosen alternative and downgrading the rejected alternative Over justification effect When individuals do something they enjoy, without reward or coercion, they attribute their behavior to their love of the activity External rewards undermine intrinsic motivation by leading people to attribute their behavior to incentive MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 26 Attitudes A favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone, exhibited in one’s beliefs, feelings or intended behavior Ex. Person: yourself (self-esteem) your mother Ex. Object: Chocolate cake Ex. Idea: capital punishment Attitudes can be positive, negative, or ambivalent Tripartite Model Tripartite Model (or ABC Model)- Attitudes have 3 components Affective Emotional reactions towards the attitude object Behavioral Actions or observable behavior toward the attitude object Cognitive Thoughts and beliefs about the attitude object How do we measure Atittudes? Explicit Just ask people how positively or negatively they feel towards an attitude object MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 27 Implicit Implicit Association Test (IAT)- Measures the strength of associations between concepts by comparing reaction times Faster to respond when responses match how they are associated in memory Discovery of implicit attitudes supports “dual processing” capacity (automatic vs. controlled) Where do attitudes come from? Attitudes are learned through experience Ex. Conditioning (classical and observational learning) Ex. Mere exposure effect Repeated exposure to a novel stimulus leads to positive evaluations of the stimulus Ex. heuristics How do attitudes become stronger? Once formed attitudes can become stronger through: Greater accessibility (repeated activation/use) Surrounding oneself with others who share the same attitudes (ex. false consensus effect) Gather evidence to confirmation attitude (ex. confirmation bias) Greater connection to core values & beliefs (ex. self-concept) When will attitudes predict behavior Attitudes do not always predict behavior Ex. Batson et al. & “moral hypocrisy” Appearing moral without actually being so Ex. attempts to change behaviour by changing attitudes do not always work Ex. sex education programs Attitudes will predict behavior MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 28 When social influences are minimal People may not always honestly report their explicit attitude because they want to present themselves in a positive light (remember impression management) So, we measure their implicit attitudes Can predict a range of behaviours (both in conjunction with explicit attitudes & uniquely) But debate about validity & reliability of the IAT When other influences are minimal Attitude and behavior are at the same level of specificity Principle of aggregation The effects of an attitude on behavior become more apparent when we look at a person’s aggregate (average) behavior rather than isolated acts Theory of planned behavior Suggests that the best predictors of a person’s behaviours are their behavioural intentions and, Best predictors of behavioural intentions are attitudes toward specific behaviours subjective norms perceived behavioural control MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 29 Attitudes will also predict behavior When the attitude is potent The attitude is accessible Remember chronic accessibility and temporary priming Ex. Snyder and Swann (1976) Ex. Objective self-awareness (and self-consciousness) Accessible attitudes are more likely to guide behavior The attitude is strong Strong attitudes are more likely to guide behavior Behavior can affect attitudes Our behavior can also determine out attitudes When we occupy social roles, over time, we may come to internalize those roles and the associated norms Ex. Zimbardo’s (1972) Stanford Prison Experiment When we lack compelling external explanations for our words, saying can become believing Esp. when we make public commitments Ex, when we acquiesce to a request Also happens with immoral acts MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 30 An early, seemingly innocuous, negative act can make it easier for us to perform a worse act later Harming an innocent victim can lead aggressors to further (and escalating) harmful acts Self-Presentation (Impression Management) Remember that we want to make a favorable impression on others We may (pretend to) express attitudes that are consistent with our behavior Cognitive-attitudinal advocacy The process that occurs when a person states an opinion or attitude that runs counter to their private belief or attitude Cognitive-attitudinal advocacy refers to actively supporting or promoting a particular belief or attitude through one's thoughts and actions. It's like not only believing in something but also standing up for it and trying to convince others about it. Public commitment could make them feel strongly about this belief If there is a minimum external justification the attitude will change in the direction of the public statement i.e., the person feels some responsibility After having committed a cruel act people may reduce dissonance disliking, derogating or dehumanizing the victim May result in the rationalization trap Potential for dissonance reduction to produce a succession of self justifications that ultimately result in stupid or immoral acts Can avoid this trap by giving people a chance to self-affirm Self-affirm Self-affirmation refers to the practice of reminding yourself of your values and achievements to maintain a positive self-view. It's like giving yourself a pep talk or focusing on your strengths and accomplishments. This can be especially helpful when you're facing challenges or criticisms, as it helps to reinforce your sense of self-worth and confidence. For example, if you're feeling down after a tough day at work, you might self-affirm by thinking about your past successes or qualities that you're MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 31 proud of, like being a good friend or having a strong work ethic. This process helps to balance out any negative thoughts and feelings, allowing you to maintain a positive attitude about yourself. Self-Perception Theory Theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs Alternative to dissonance theory We don’t change our attitude, we infer our attitude Can explain the over justification effect Ex. Liking a hobby but liking it less once u get paid for it The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their action as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 32 Is it dissonance or self-preception that leads to attitude change? Dissonance-reduction when behavior is inconsistent with attitudes that are clear-cut Self-perception when behavior is inconsistent with attitudes that are vague How do we perceive our social world? 91-98 Preconceptions and Social Perception: Our assumptions and preconceived notions shape the way we perceive and interpret the social world. We tend to view events and information through the lens of our existing beliefs, often overlooking the impact of our predispositions. Effect of Prejudgments: Prejudgments can lead us to interpret neutral or ambiguous information in a biased way, consistent with our existing attitudes. This effect is evident in various social scenarios, such as political perceptions, where individuals perceive media coverage as biased against their viewpoint. Belief Perseverance: Once a belief is formed, it can be resistant to change, even in the face of discrediting information. This phenomenon is known as belief perseverance, highlighting the tenacity of initial beliefs. Influence of Social Persuasions: Our sense of self-efficacy is strengthened by social persuasion and mastery experiences. Witnessing others succeed or achieving personal success can reinforce our belief in our own capabilities. MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 33 Memory Construction: Memories are not perfect recordings of events; they are constructed from fragments of information, current knowledge, and feelings. Memory is more akin to writing a book from fragmentary notes than retrieving a readymade story. Misinformation Effect: Incorporating "misinformation" into one’s memory of an event, after witnessing it and then receiving misleading information about it, can lead to false memories. Reconstructing Past Attitudes and Behaviors: Our current feelings and attitudes can reshape how we remember past events and our past selves, often in a self-enhancing direction. This includes revision of past behaviors and attitudes to be more consistent with our present views or to reflect perceived improvement. Self-concept influences behavior: Individuals who view themselves as hardworking and successful perform better in challenging tasks than those who see themselves as failures. Imagining positive possibilities can lead to more effective planning and strategy enactment. Learned helplessness: A condition where beings (both animals and humans) learn to act helplessly in situations where they actually have the power to change their circumstances. This concept was first studied in dogs but has been linked to human behavior, particularly in cases of depression and oppression. Impact on health: Learned helplessness and stress have been shown to lower the body's resistance to diseases by affecting the immune system. Experiences of uncontrollable stress can make individuals more susceptible to illnesses. Stress and disease: Stressful experiences do not directly cause diseases but can weaken the immune system, making individuals more vulnerable to infections and diseases. The text cites studies showing increased vulnerability to colds, heart attacks, and tumor development under stress. Self-control and health: Practicing self-control can improve various aspects of life, such as eating habits, alcohol consumption, and study habits. Starting with small acts of self-discipline can lead to broader improvements in life. Importance of personal control: Experiments and studies (e.g., with elderly patients in nursing homes) have shown that having a sense of personal control and making decisions can lead to improved health, happiness, and overall life satisfaction. MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 34 Self-efficacy and health management: Systems that promote a belief in personal competence (self-efficacy) contribute to better health and happiness. Examples include the impact of control over one's environment in prisons, work flexibility, and educational control. Social and self-persuasion: Building self-efficacy through social persuasion ("You can succeed") and self-persuasion ("I think I can") along with modeling (seeing others succeed) and mastery experiences (achieving success) are crucial for personal development and health. Praise and self-esteem: Effective praise is tied to recognition of good performance rather than being unconditional. This approach encourages selfesteem growth aligned with actual achievements and behavior improvement. MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 35