A Comprehensive Introduction to PRE-ISLAMIC Arabic Poetry_ARA 101 MIDTERM PDF

AUS ARA 101: Introduction to Arabic Heritage Pre-Islamic Poetry ARA 101: Introduction to Arabic Heritage Pre-Islamic Poetry  Over a period of 1400 years. Arabic Literary history is generally divided into 6 periods: 1) The Jahiliyyah, or pre-Islamic (500-622); 2)...

AUS ARA 101: Introduction to Arabic Heritage Pre-Islamic Poetry ARA 101: Introduction to Arabic Heritage Pre-Islamic Poetry  Over a period of 1400 years. Arabic Literary history is generally divided into 6 periods: 1) The Jahiliyyah, or pre-Islamic (500-622); 2) The early Islamic and Umayyad (622-750); 3) The Abbasid (750-1258); 4) The Hispano-Arabic in Muslim Spain (750- 1492); 5) The post-Abbasid (1258-1800),and 6) The modern renaissance (1800 to the present)  The status of poetry in the Arabic literary tradition Poetry occupies a prominent place in the Arabic literary tradition. Since earliest times Arabs tended to consider poetry the literary form par excellence (Sermons, epistles, proverbs, and legends come second). The vast body of poetry composed by classical Arab poets is generally regarded as one of the most important elements of Arabic intellectual heritage.  What do we mean by ‘classical’ Arabic poetry? In the context of Arabic poetry, the term ‘classical’ is conventionally applied to the period extending from the early 6th century C.E. to the end of the ‘Abbasid caliphate (13th century C.E.). It was during this period that the stock genres, themes and stylistic techniques emerged. By contrast, the later medieval/Ottoman period tends to be characterised by imitation of the classical models and a general lack of innovation and creativity.  The origins of Arabic poetry: The earliest extant examples of Arabic poetry appear to date from the first half of the 6th century C.E (though they weren’t actually written down until the 8th century C.E.). Although such poetry seems to have emerged out of nothing it was clearly the product of a long-established oral tradition.  The role of the poet in pre-Islamic Arabian society: In pre-Islamic Arabia poetry was closely linked to the nature of tribal society. The poet was typically the spokesman of his clan, and his craft was a means of preserving the collective memory of the clan’s deeds and individuals in an otherwise ephemeral environment.  The poet’s status: The role of tribal poet was therefore seen as an important one, as indicated in the following well-known quote from a medieval Arab critic: “They [the Arab tribesmen of pre-Islamic times] used not to wish each other joy but for three things: the birth of a boy, the coming to light of a poet, and the foaling of a noble mare.” (Ibn Rashīq (d. 1065), Kitāb al-‘Umda fī maḥāsin al-shi‘r)  The Rogue Poets The Arab Tribe: Exceptions ‫ ﺻﻌﻠوك‬al-su‘luk, pl. ‫ ﺻﻌﺎﻟﯾك‬al-sa‘ālīk Poets who went against the traditions of their tribes and were considered rogue. The word Su’luk refers to one being poor and living in hardship. This resulted in those poets revolting against their society. Their poetry talks about their life, pride, bravery and their challenge to others to match their chivalry and courage. ‫ـرى‬ َ َ‫ﺷ ْﻧﻔ‬‫ اﻟ ﱠ‬al-Shanfarā (d. c. 540) ‫َـرا‬ ‫طﺷ‬ َ ‫ ﺗـﺄﺑﱠ‬Ta’abbata Sharran (d. c. 550)  Poets and jinn: Poetry was also seen as having a supernatural power. Poets were often thought to be inspired by their own personal jinn. Owing to the nature of poetry and the poets’ inclinations to exaggerate all the time, poets are referred to in the Qur’ān: As for the poets, the erring follow them. Have you not seen how they stray in every valley, and how they say that which they do not do? (Qur. 26, 224-26)  The 2 basic categories of early Arabic poem: In terms of their basic structure the earliest examples of Arabic poetry fall into 2 main categories: - qit‘a (‘piece’), short poem on single theme - more complex qaṣīda (‘ode’), comprising a number of thematic sections  The origins of the Qaṣīda: According to medieval Arab critics (al-Jāḥiẓ, for example), the qaṣīda format was invented by Muhalhil ibn Rabī‘a (early 6th century C.E.), but its most famous early exponent is Muhalhil’s nephew, Imru-l-Qays. The opening section, or nasīb, in particular of Imru-l-Qays’s Mu‘allaqa came to be regarded as the model, or locus classicus, which others would follow.  The characteristic features of the Qaṣīda: The qaṣīda is a highly conventionalised genre in terms of structure, progression, recurrent themes, motifs and tropes. Structural characteristics: – typically around 30 – 100 lines in length – each line is divided into hemistichs – adheres throughout to one of a fixed set of syllabic metres (codified in the 8th century C.E. by al-Khalīl ibn Aḥmad al-Farahidi) – monorhyme, i.e. each line ends in the same rhyming element  The conventional thematic progression of the Qaṣīda: A classical qaṣīda typically consists of a series of thematic sections: a) the nasīb, or amatory prelude; characterised by the poet’s melancholic nostalgia for a past love affair. Such nostalgia is usually prompted by his encountering and describing the traces of his beloved’s abandoned encampment. (in pre- Islamic times nomadic Arabs would often form brief romantic attachments but these would always take second place to tribal loyalty).  The conventional thematic progression of the Qaṣīda: b) the raḥīl, or journey, an opportunity for the poet to flaunt his descriptive powers by praising the qualities of his horse and describing the flora and fauna of the desert c) All of the foregoing is typical (though not in the case of Imru-l-Qays’s Mu‘allaqa) a prelude to the poem’s main theme (al-gharaḍ al-ra’īsī)  Traditional Themes There existed a set number of conventional themes, many of which were connected with the poet’s role as spokesman of his clan: Madīḥ (panegyric, praise poetry) Hijā’ (lampoon, satire) Rithā’ (lament) Fakhr (bravado, self-glorification, tribal pride) ḥikma (wisdom, homiletic meditations on life’s transitory nature) waṣf (poetic description)  Terminology: Bayt : a line of poetry Shaṭr : a half-line or hemistich Al-rawī : the final letter of each line  The Mu‘allaqāt A collection of ten pre-Islamic qaṣīdas (albeit compiled in the 8th century C.E.) which were widely regarded as the best of their kind. The story behind the supposed derivation of the term Mu‘allaqa – namely that they used to be hung on the Ka‘ba as a mark of esteem – is probably nothing more than a legend.  The Mu‘allaqāt 1. Imru’ al-Qays ‫اﻣرؤ اﻟﻘﯾس‬ 2. َ Tarafa ‫ط َرﻓﺔ‬ 3. Zuhayr ‫زھﯾر‬ 4. ‘Antara ‫ﻋﻧﺗرة‬ 5. ‘Amr b. Kulthum ‫ﻋﻣرو ﺑن ﻛﻠﺛوم‬ 6. al-Harith b. Hilliza ‫اﻟﺣﺎرث ﺑن ِﺣ ِﻠّزة‬ 7. Labid ‫ﻟﺑﯾد‬ (al-A‘sha ‫)اﻷﻋﺸﻰ‬ (al-Nabigha ‫)اﻟﻨﺎﺑﻐﺔ‬ (Abied ibn Al-Abras ‫)ﻋﺒﻴﺪ ﺑﻦ اﻷﺑﺮص‬  Imru-l-Qays Imru-l-Qays ibn Ḥujr (d. circa 550) was a prince of the Kinda tribe. He is generally regarded as one of the most outstanding Arab poets of the pre-Islamic period. He was known for his excessive dedication to lewd drinking parties and scandalous pursuit of women Legend has it that following his father’s death at the hands of the Banī Asad, Imru-l-Qays put aside the pursuit of youthful pleasures and devoted his life to avenging his father, a mission that led him to seek the aid of the Byzantine emperor, Justinian, on whose command Imru-l-Qays was later poisoned as punishment for seducing the emperor’s daughter or a woman in the emperor's court. However, most historians downplay the likelihood of this account, in favor of the story that Imru' al-Qais actually died from a chronic skin disease, a disease which he mentioned in one of his poems. He died and was buried in Analotia, Turkey.  The Mu‘allaqa of Imru-l-Qays Imru-l-Qays’s fame rests chiefly on his Mu‘allaqa. Though the opening section of this qaṣīda is often regarded as the archetypal nasīb, the poem as a whole departs in a number of respects from the standard pattern. The theme of love, for instance, is not confined to the deserted campsite motif alone but is continued in a lengthy section in which the poet boasts of his many amorous conquests; and rather than leading to a clearly recognisable main theme, the Mu‘allaqa ends suddenly and enigmatically with a vivid description of a desert thunderstorm and its aftermath. ‘ANTARA  Al-Khansāʾ (“The Snub-Nosed”) Her name is Tumāḍir ibn al-Sharīd. She was one of the greatest Arab poets, famous for her elegies. The deaths of two of her kinsmen—her brother Muʿāwiyah and her half-brother Ṣakhr, both of whom had been tribal heads and had been killed in tribal raids sometime before the advent of Islam—threw al-Khansāʾ into deep mourning. Her elegies on these deaths and that of her father made her the most celebrated poet of her time. When al-Khansa’s tribe as a group accepted Islam, she went with them to Medina to meet the Prophet Muhammad, but she persisted in wearing the pre- Islamic mourning dress as an act of devotion to her brothers. When her four sons were slain in the Battle of Qādisīyah (637), the rightly guided caliph ʿUmar ibn al- Khattab is said to have written her a letter congratulating her on their heroism and assigned her a pension.  Caliphal Succession: The al-Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates al-Khulafa al-Rashidun “Rightly Guided Caliphs” The Question of Leadership was the first question to engage the Muslim community. What did the Prophet Muhammad say about this? Abu Bakr “al-siddiq ” “hurub al-ridda” the apostasy wars r. 11-13/632-634 (around two years). ‘Umar b. al-Khattab “al-faruq ” futuhat - “the great conquests” Syria, Iraq and Egypt r. 13-23/634-644 (around ten years) ‘Uthman b. ‘Affan The compilation of the Quran Futuhat - “the great conquests” Iran, North Africa and Central Asia r. 23-35/644-656 almost 12 years ‘Ali b. Abu Talib fitna - “political strife/discord” r. 35-40/656-661  The Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad dynasty (Arabic: ‫ ﺑﻧو أﻣﯾﺔ‬Banu Umayya), whose name derives from Umayya b. ‘Abd Shams, the great- grandfather of Mu‘awiyah I, was the first dynastic Muslim Caliphate, 660–750.  The Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad family (also known as the Banu Abd-Shams) and the Prophet Muhammad both descended from a common ancestor, ‘Abd Manaf. The Prophet descended from ‘Abd Manaf via his son Hashim, while the Umayyads descended from ‘Abd Manaf via a different son, ‘Abd Shams, whose son was Umayya. The two families are therefore considered to be different clans (those of Hashim and of Umayya, respectively) of the same tribe (that of the Quraysh).  The Umayyad Caliphate Following Mu‘awiya's death in 680, he was succeeded by his son, Yazid I. The hereditary accession of Yazid was opposed by a number of prominent Muslims, most notably ‘Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr, son of one of the Companions of the Prophet, and Husayn b. Ali, grandson of the Prophet and younger son of Ali. The resulting conflict is known as the “Second fitna”.  The Umayyad Caliphate In 680 Ibn al-Zubayr and Husayn fled Medina for Mecca. While Ibn al-Zubayr would stay in Mecca until his death, Husayn decided to travel on to Kufa to rally support. However, an Umayyad army intercepted and routed his party at the Battle of Karbala. Yazid’s army lay siege to Mecca and at some point during the siege, the Ka‘aba was badly damaged in a fire. The destruction of the Ka‘aba became a major cause for censure of the Umayyads in later histories of the period. Yazid died while the siege was still in progress, and the Umayyad army returned to Damascus, leaving Ibn al- Zubayr in control of Mecca.  The Umayyad Caliphate Yazid was succeeded at first by his son, Mu‘awiya II (683-84), but he seems never to have been recognized as caliph outside of Syria. Two factions developed within Syria: the Confederation of Qays, who supported Ibn al- Zubayr, and the Quda’a, who supported Marwan (2AH-65AH), a descendant of Umayya via Wa’il b. Umayya. The partisans of Marwan triumphed at a battle at Marj Rahit, near Damascus, in 684, and Marwan became caliph shortly thereafter.  The Umayyad Caliphate Marwan's first task was to assert his authority against the rival claims of Ibn al-Zubayr, who was at this time recognized as caliph throughout most of the Islamic world. Marwan recaptured Egypt for the Umayyads, but died in 685, having reigned for only nine months. Marwan was succeeded by his son, ‘Abd al-Malik (685-705), who reconsolidated Umayyad control of the caliphate. In 691 Umayyad troops reconquered Iraq, and in 692 the same army captured Mecca. Ibn al-Zubayr was killed in the attack.  The Umayyad Caliphate The second major event of the early reign of ‘Abd al-Malik was the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.  The Umayyad Caliphate ‘Abd al-Malik is credited with centralizing the administration of the caliphate, and with establishing Arabic as its official language. He also introduced a uniquely Muslim coinage, marked by its aniconic decoration, which supplanted the Byzantine and Sasanian coins that had previously been in use.  The Umayyad Caliphate Following ‘Abd al-Malik’s death, his son, al-Walid I (705-15) became caliph. Al-Walid was also active as a builder, sponsoring the extension of al-masjid al- nabawi in Medina and the construction of the Great Mosque of Damascus.  The Umayyad Caliphate A major figure during the reigns of both al-Walid and ‘Abd al-Malik was the Umayyad governor of Iraq, al- Hajjaj b. Yusuf. Many Iraqis remained resistant to Umayyad rule, and al-Hajjaj imported Syrian troops to maintain order, whom he housed in a new garrison town, Wasit.  The Umayyad Caliphate “Expansion”  The Umayyad Caliphate “The Arab Aristocracy” The Umayyad caliphate was marked both by territorial expansion and by the administrative and cultural problems that such expansion created. Despite some notable exceptions, the Umayyads tended to favor the rights of the old Arab families, and in particular their own, over those of newly converted Muslims who were non-Arabs (mawali). Therefore they held to a less universalist conception of Islam than did many of their rivals.  The Umayyad Caliphate “From Caliphs to Kings” According to one common view, the Umayyads transformed the caliphate from a religious institution (during the rashidun) to a dynastic one. However, one of the greatest Caliphs ever to rule the Muslim empire was an Umayyad, namely, Omar ibn Abdul-Aziz. His piety, justice, righteousness earned him the title “the 5th Rightly Guided Caliph” Umayyad Caliphate falls in 750 Non Arab converts resented inequality Arabs of Iraq resented Syrian influence in political affairs. Pious Muslims felt that the Umayyad Caliphs were not religious enough Kharjites and Shiites attacked Umayyad family's legitimacy. Constant rebellions and calls for a member of the Prophet’s family (Abbas not Ali) brought down the Umayyads. However, one branch escapes to Spain and establishes Umayyad rule there).  Poetry in the Early Islamic and Umayyad Period Radical transformations in the Arab world that affected the literature of this period 1. The Qur’an: The study of the Qur’an led to the creation and the development of various Qur’anic disciplines such as lexicography, biography, theology, philosophy and law. Also the tone of the Qur’an, imagery and vocab influenced the literature of this era. 2. The emergence of politico-religious parties like kharijite parties and Shiite. 3. Growth of wealth and luxury in the main cities. It should be noticed that within a 100 years: The Arabs had conquered the Sassanian empire, North Africa and southern Spain. Expelled the Byzantines from Syria Poetry during the life of the prophet  Poetic tradition suffered temporary decline  Yet when leading Arab poets converted to Islam, poetry regained its prestige.  Leading Arabian poets during the life of the prophet include: Hassan bin Thabit and Ka’b bin Zuhayr.  The poets who lived in both pre-Islamic and Islamic period are called “mukhadramun”, singular: “mukhadram”.  For example one of the famous qasidas by Ka’ab bin Zuhayr,: َ َ‫ﺳﻌﺎدُ ﻓَﻘَﻠﺒﻲ اﻟﯿ‬ ‫ﻮم َﻣﺘﺒﻮ ُل‬ ُ ‫ ﺑﺎﻧَﺖ‬ ‫ﺛﺮھﺎ ﻟَﻢ ﯾُﻔﺪَ َﻣﻜﺒﻮ ُل‬ َ ‫ُﻣﺘَﯿﱠ ٌﻢ ِإ‬ ‫ﯿﻦ ِإذ َر َﺣﻠﻮا‬ِ َ‫ﺳﻌﺎدُ ﻏَﺪاة َ اﻟﺒ‬ ُ ‫ َوﻣﺎ‬ ‫ﺮف َﻣﻜﺤﻮ ُل‬ ِ ‫ﻄ‬ َ ‫َﻀﯿﺾ اﻟ‬ ُ ‫ِإ ّﻻ أَﻏ ﱡَﻦ ﻏ‬ Su'ad is gone, my heart stunned, lost in her traces, shackled, unransomed. What was Su'ad the morning they set off, but a faint song, languor in the eyes, kohl It is an example of classical Arabic qasidah. It has three themes: nasib, rihla and madih  During the reign of the Caliphs poetry continue to flourish and poets such as Hassan bin Thabit in addition to hundreds other poets wrote short and long qasidas in praise of the leaders and the Muslim armies who contributed to the expansion of Islam and conquered new lands.  The Umayyads (661 – 750 CE) Prose: “nathr” 1) Oration (khatabah: ‫)ﺧطﺎﺑﺔ‬: religious and political 2)Epistolary Writing (Letter Writing) suited to the needs of the court and the administration  The Umayyads (661 – 750 CE) Poetry: “Shi‘r” Two genres of poetry prevailed during this time:  “Ghazal ” 1. The Hijazi school with main representative ‘Umar bin Abi rabi’a whose love poetry was daring, sensous and profane 2. The ‘Udhri school with main representative Jamil Buthayna and Qais Layla whose poetry was chaste pure and sublime.  “Naqa’id ”, literary means “contradictions”, it is poetical contests where, it is a form of poetry, tribal or personal insults are exchanged. These poems usually coming in pairs, employing the same meter and rhyme. It belongs to the genre of hija’ The spirit of the time  Yet we are told that “it was mainly political poetry and love lyrics that most eloquently expressed the spirit of the age”  Arabic literature at this time reverted to its state in al- Jahiliyyah, with markets such as Kinasa near Kufa and Mirbad near Basra, where poetry in praise and admonishment of political parties and tribes was recited.  The literature of this period was limited in that it served the interests of parties and as such was not a free art form Political poetry  Several poets advocated Umayyad, Shi’ite, Zubayrite and Kharijites parties. Yet the most prominent were Al- Akhtal, Jarir and al-Farazdaq. Their naqa’id are important to the study of political history of their period.  Al-Akhtal the panegyric poet of Abdul Malik, Jarir of al-Hajjaj and al-Farazdaq also of Umayyad dynasty.  Nevertheless, one of the best eulogies to ‘Ali bin al- Husayn is attributed to al-Farazdaq.  At-Tirimmah and ‘Imran bin Hittan expressed Kharijite revolutionary and egalitarian beliefs  Governed by musical considerations, the poetic form was simplified. Poetry and music became inseparable as shown by hundreds of examples by the famous Kitab al-Aghani by Abu al-Faraj al-Asfahani.  ‘Udhri love poetry ‫اﻟﻌﻔﯾف‬/‫اﻟﺣب اﻟﻌذري‬ The case of Qays ibn al-Mulawwah, known as majnun Laila (Laila’s Madman). For after Laila was married off to a man from another tribe, Qays spent the rest of his life roaming the wilderness, mourning his love. The story of Qays ibn Dharih and Lubna. Perhaps the best known among them is Jamil ibn Maʿmar, known as Jamil Buthayna, whose love for Buthaina lasted all his life, until his death in Egypt.  Sareeh love poetry ‫اﻟﻐزل اﻟﺻرﯾﺢ‬ In the cities of Hijaz, now flourishing with a new wealth and great resurgence in the arts of music and song, people knew well how to enjoy life. Led by ʿUmar ibn Abi Rabiʿa.  Poetry in the Umayyad Period  Tammām b. Ghalib (Abū Firās) al- Farazdaq “the lump of dough”, famous Arab satirist and panegyrist, died at Basra.  Born in Yamāma (Saudi Arabia), this poet was descended from the tribe of Tamīm.  Endowed with a prodigious memory and precocious talent, seems very soon to have made himself known in his tribe by laudatory compositions in the Bedouin style.  Poetry in the Umayyad Period  Al-Farazdaq was more or less in disgrace in the period of al-Hajjaj but nevertheless he dedicated a number of laudatory poems to and to some members of his family.  Under Walīd I, al-Farazdaq became the official poet of the caliph, as witness numerous panegyrics dedicated to him and to his two sons. Under Sulaymān he enjoyed the same favor. It was otherwise on the accession of ‘Umar II (‘Umar Ibn ‘Abd al- ’Aziz), when al-Farazdaq was rather in the shade.  Poetry in the Umayyad Period  Jarīr b. ‘Atiyya b. al-Khatafa b. Badr was among the most important hijā’ -writers of the Umayyad period and may be considered one of the greatest Islamic-Arabic poets of all time.  He was born in Yamama (Saudi Arabia). He belonged to the Tamīm tribe.  Poetry in the Umayyad Period  After they had abused each other from a distance for some time, Jarīr went to ‘Irāq and met al-Farazdaq for the first time in Basra. There were such scenes that the authorities had to put a stop to the meetings—although without any lasting success.  Jarīr began his public career by writing poems in praise of an official of the governor of ‘Irāq, al-Hajjaj and wrote a series of qasīdas to praise him.  Poetry in the Umayyad Period  Afterwards, Jarīr was sent to ‘Abd al-Malik's court in Damascus. He was first rejected, then graciously received by ‘Abd al-Malik. But in the long run their relationship was not particularly good, for the caliph favoured the Taghlibī Christian al-Akhtal (“al-Akhtal is the poet of the Umayyads!”) who took al-Farazdaq's part against Jarīr and Jarīr’s relations with ‘Abd al-Malik's successor al-Walīd were even worse.  Poetry in the Umayyad Period  However he was on a rather better footing with ‘Umar II (‘Umar Ibn ‘Abd al-Aziz) who, as a pious man, took no very passionate interest in either eulogies or satires, and remained courteously neutral. Nevertheless he does seem to have preferred Jarīr to his rivals.  Finally, in old age he retired to the Yamāma and he died there when over eighty or a little later, shortly after the death of his opponent al-Farazdaq.  Poetry in the Umayyad Period  al- Akhtal “the talkative”, was the nickname of the Arab poet Ghiyāth b. Ghawth b. al-Salt.  He belonged to the great tribe of the Tag̲h̲lib of northern Syria, which remained entirely Christian.  He remained a Christian all his life, and was unmoved by the efforts of prominent members of the Umayyad dynasty to convert him to Islam.  Poetry in the Umayyad Period  All his life al-Akhtal followed the fortunes of the reigning dynasty. During the reign of Mu‘āwiya, he became embroiled in political affairs. He was the close companion of Yazīd I, whom he praised in his panegyrics, and of other men of rank such as al- Hajjaj. Under ‘Abd al-Malik, he actually became official poet to the Caliph and he remained in the service of the successors of ‘Abd al-Malik, attacking all opponents of the dynasty in his poetry.  Poetry in the Umayyad Period  The poet's whole career was dominated by verbal warfare with his contemporary, the poet Jarīr.  In his diatribes he was supported by the poet al- Farazdaq who, although a fellow Tamīmi like Jarīr, was in antagonism with his fellow-tribesman.  It is almost impossible to dissociate here the accounts of these three men.  Al-Farzdaq, al-Akhtal and Jarīr perpetuated the pre- Islamic tradition and simply expressed the sentiments of their particular group.  Poetry in the Umayyad Period  Naqā’id, meaning “contradicting poems, flytings”, pl. of naqida (from the verb naqada “to destroy, undo, rebut, oppose”) which was a form of poetic dueling in which tribal or personal insults are exchanged in poems, usually coming in pairs, employing the same metre and rhyme. It is thus part of critical poetry or hij̲a’. Such duels were an established form in pre-Islamic times, and had their origin in the exchange of insults between members of different clans or tribes which took the place of, or formed the preliminaries for battle.  Poetry in the Umayyad Period  The genre reached its peak in the Umayyad period with the naqā’id of al-Akhtal, Jarīr and al-Farazdaq, which were popular with rulers and common people, and remained so because of their highly entertaining content and their poetic and linguistic skill. Sometimes the poems are short but very often they are long poems in qasīda form, with a peculiar positioning of different themes: amatory, praise and critical verse. They are rich in historical, political and social allusions, but on the whole their political significance is second to their role as entertainment.  Poetry in the Umayyad Period  This they provide by means of funny descriptions, powerful imagery, grotesque exaggerations and gross obscenities; expressed in a variety of styles of language ranging from the elevated to the simple near-colloquial. The “rebutting” implied by the term naqīda does not consist in a point-by-point refutation of the opponent's poem. Rather than defending himself against slander and abuse, the replying poet attacks in his turn.