Prison Notes FINALS PDF

Eukaryotes: 4 kingdoms of life: 1. Protista 2. Plants 3. Fungi 4. Animals Two components. Lymph nodes filters fluid particularly blood before it re-enters the groups of Protista: 1. Algae is autotrophic. It gives rise to plants. It is heart and lungs. Lymph nodes contain:...

Eukaryotes: 4 kingdoms of life: 1. Protista 2. Plants 3. Fungi 4. Animals Two components. Lymph nodes filters fluid particularly blood before it re-enters the groups of Protista: 1. Algae is autotrophic. It gives rise to plants. It is heart and lungs. Lymph nodes contain: lymphocytes (B and T cells) photosynthetic. It has cellulose as cell wall 2. Protozoa is heterotrophic or macrophages dendritic cells. 3 main responses of innate immunity: 1. mixotrophic. Give rise to fungus and animals. It lacks photosynthesis but shows Inflammation – when tissue is damaged it releases cytokines to dilate blood motility and decomposer behavior. It doesn’t have cell wall. New ability protists vessels to increase blood flow. It attracts phagocytes to the site of infection for perform that allowed for greater genetic diversity is sexual reproduction, this repair. 2. Phagocytosis – engulf and digest pathogens. 3. Fever- slowing the growth allows diversity. Algae is classified or group depends on the wavelength of light of pathogens and enhance the body’s immune response. Margination is sticking they can absorb: 1. Green algae found in shallow water. 2. Golden algae found in of phagocytes to the inner lining of blood vessels in response of inflammation. moderate depths. 3. Brown algae found in shallow to moderate depths. 4. Red Diapedesis is cytokines will loosen the tight junctions so WBC can squeeze algae can live in deeper waters. 3 Methods or ways protozoa move: 1. Flagella through gaps between endothelial cells to reach the infected area. (long, whip-like structures). 2. Cilia (short hair-like structures). 3. Pseudopods (false feet). 2 life form stage of protozoa Giardia: 1. Trophozoite is the active/free- Adaptive immunity: it’s specific, slower but powerful defense system. Antigen is swimming stage where they feed, grows and reproduce. 2. Cyst is the dormant any substance that can trigger immune response (virus or bacteria). Primary stage where it is encapsulated in a protective protein capsule to survive harsh response: 1. Initial response to fight infection 2. Making antibodies 3. Getting rid conditions outside. Characteristics of fungus: 1. Multicellular except yeast of initial infection. Secondary response: 1. Faster and stronger immune response (unicellular). 2. Sessile (non-motile (stay fixed in one place and grow towards their 2. Quicker and more ecective defense 3. Based on immune system’s memory of food source). 3. They have fruiting bodies. 4. Can do sexual or asexual previous encounters with pathogen. Antibody is a Y-shaped protein produced by B reproduction. 5. Decomposer of organic matter. 6. Has chitin as their cell wall. 7. cells in response to a specific antigen. It tags and designs to find the antigen to Produces spores (haploid reproductive cells). Fungi dissolve their food mark it for destruction. Humoral immunity: targets extracellular pathogens externally (external digestion) by releasing strong digestive enzyme to dissolve produces antibodies through B cells memory B cells remember pathogen for their food. saprophyte is a fungus that breakdown living things. symbiotic quicker response cell type: 1. Macrophage – engulf, APCs 2. T helper – decides relationship. parasitic. Benefits of fungus are: 1. Medicine: Antibiotics that kill good or bad cells 3. B cells – if it’s bad it will produce antibodies. 4. MHC II or inhibit the growth of bacteria and help treat infections. Statin which helps Cellular immunity – targets intracellular pathogens or cancer cells cell types: 1. lower cholesterol level. cyclosporine which prevents organ rejection after Helper T cel helps determine if its good or bad cell, cytotoxic T cells target transplant. 2. Fungi decompose organic dead matter into simpler substances. infected cells, T killer cell works independently and will destroy infected cells right Structures of fungus: 1. Hyphae is a thread-like structure making up the body of away. B cell clonal expansion – creating many copies of antibodies when B cell fungus 2. Mycelium is a network of hyphae that forms the whole fungus (large becomes activated. MHC I found in all cells and identifies “self”. MHC II found fungus). 3. Sporangia is the structures where spores are produced (small fungus). on APCs (the surface protein used to present the antigen). 4. Spore is a haploid reproductive cell that fungi release to spread and grow into new fungi. Organic molecule = carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Lab 24- restriction enzymes/electrophoresis: bacterial restriction enzymes are proteins produced by bacteria that recognize and cut DNA at specific sequences Virus: nucleic acid is DNA or RNA which contains the instructions for making known as recognition sites. sticky ends- overhanging complementary ends. new viruses. capsid is a protein coat made of capsomere subunits that encloses blunt ends – straight cut through both DNA strands. Plasmids is useful to get nucleic acid. spike protein are glycoproteins that protrudes from the outer foreign gene in and out and is then introduced into a host organism through surface of virus (naked virus), has membrane around the capsid (enveloped virus). transformation. The thickness and concentration of the gel determines the pore It helps the virus attach to and enter host cells. The unique thing about RNA virus size. low % agarose is useful for large DNA high % agarose is ideal for analyzing is their replication mechanism – they have their own RNA polymerase enzyme to short DNA fragments. the correlation of DNA band results to the restriction copy new RNA and to convert to a complementary DNA. Advantage/disadvantage enzyme is small pieces travel farther and larger pieces stay close to the well. of non-enveloped vs enveloped virus: advantages: NEV is more durable and can DNA runs red (-); the samples have to be always opposite of the red lead. survive outside harsh environment. EV can evade the immune system by mimicking host cell disadvantages: NEV is less adaptable to immune evasion Lab 25 bacteriophage titer: lytic infection creates more plaque because the virus due to its simpler structure. EV has limited survival outside the host because its replicates quickly causes cell to lyse releasing new virus’s particles because there fragile and can be destroyed by detergents, and heat. Host range of a virus refers is no dormant phase. Lysogenic viruses the genetic material is into the host to the specific types of organisms and cells a virus can infect. specificity is what genome and remain dormant, replicating only when host cell divides or exposed determines a virus’s “host range”, example is the spike proteins has to be specific to stressor. plaque is a clear area of no growth due to the lyse of bacterial cells by to a receptor. General steps of a lytic infection: 1. Attachment (lock and key bacteriophage. PFU is plaque-forming unit is a measure of the number of viable interaction). 2. Entry – virus injects its RNA into the host cell or through virus particles. It can also be used for concentration. why do we dilute endocytosis. 3, replication by using its own RNA polymerase to make copies of its bacteriophage sample? we dilute them down to able to a plate with countable genetic material. 4. Assembly new virus and leaves cell. 5. Lysis and release – plaques. the purpose of dilution is to determine the concentration of the original host cell lyses releasing new virus particles into the surrounding. Ways viral phage sample. nucleic acid can enter the cell: 1. Injects its nucleic acid directly into the cell. 2. Endocytosis – virus binds to the cell surface and is engulf by the cell in a vesicle. Lab 26 Lysozyme: lysozyme targets the NAG NAM bond. It works against gm+ Once inside, the viral nucleic acid is released into the cell. 3. Fusion (enveloped virus) viral envelope fuses with the host cell membrane allowing the viral nucleic bacterial cell wall. lysozyme can be found in body fluids (tears, saliva, mucus acid to enter the cell. 2 ways virus can leave the cell: 1. Budding (exocytosis) when membranes). S. epi and S. aureus evolved and developed resistance around virus exits the cell taking the membrane when it buds oc. 2. Lysis is when the cell modifying their peptidoglycan layer, (add acetyl groups to the NAM in is destroyed as the new viruses burst causing to break open and release the viral peptidoglycan) to counteract lysozyme’s action. In lab we evaluate the ecects of particles. lysozyme by making a lot of bacteria and tried to drip dicerent lysozyme concentration (1 mg and 10 mg) along with saliva, and egg white to see if there’s Vaccine: is an artificial way to induce the humoral immunity. 3 dicerent types of dicerent growth or not. vaccine: 1. Attenuated is real-inactive virus (cannot replicate). 2. Unattenuated is a real-non-altered virus (diluted) 3. RNA or mRNA is a genetic instruction. It’s Lab 27 antibodies: the Ouchterlony plate method is used to study antibody- getting the sequence of the RNA that codes for the spike protein and put it in a antigen interaction. the visible precipitation line indicates that the antibody is membrane vesicle and injects into the body. Principle of vaccine is to teach specific to the antigen. In lab we use 3 dicerent antibodies, but we only have 1 immune system to recognize and fight a virus or bacteria. Ecects of vaccines: antigen. wells in the center is filled with cow albumin (antigen) and the prevent illness herd community. Antibody is a protein produced by the immune surrounding wells are antibodies specific to cow, horse, and pig albumin. cow system to fight oc harmful pathogens like virus or bacteria. Herd immunity is albumin reacted to the cow’s antibody by seeing the precipitation line formation. when a large population is vaccinated, a virus will be less likely to spread due to immunity from the vaccine. Compare/contrast vaccines and antibiotics: vaccines prevent infections by preparing the immune system and helps reduce the risk of disease spreading. Antibiotics treat infections by targeting and killing bacteria and to help fight infections that have already occurred. Innate immunity: body’s ability to resist or fight infection and diseases. 3 lines of defenses: 1st line of defense is physical 1. Skin. 2. Mucous membrane. 3. Earwax. 4. Urine. 5. Vomiting. Chemical 1. Sebum. 2. Gastric juice enzyme. 3. Resident microbiota. 4. Lysozyme enzyme. 5. Vaginal secretions. 2nd line of defense is innate immune response: non-specific immediate born with it. 3rd line of defense: adaptive immune response: highly specific take longer to activate long-lasting protection. WBC types: neutrophils – non-specific, 1st to respond innate immune), aggressive, short-lived, most abundant. lymphocytes – antimicrobial, involves B and T cells. monocytes – becomes macrophages, phagocytosis (engulf pathogen during innate), APCs (present it in the lymph nodes then B cells produce antibodies), larger, long-lived, acts slowly but provide lasting defense. eosinophils – combats infection that is caused by parasites. basophils – involved in allergic reactions and inflammations, least. Phagocytic WBC: 1. Neutrophils 2. Macrophages 3. Eosinophils. Phagocytosis is the process by which a cell engulfs and digest foreign particles such as dead cells. Steps of phagocytosis: 1. Chemotaxis – sending signal attract phagocytes. 2. Adherence – attachment of a phagocyte to the surface (MHCI or II). 3. Ingestion formation of vesicle called phagosome (opsonization – coated with serum proteins making it easier to digest). 4. Digestion – phagosome vesicle fuses with lysosome vesicle becomes phagolysosome which breaks down the pathogen into smaller