Eukaryotes, Prokaryotes, and Viruses Overview
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary purpose of vaccines?

  • To prepare the immune system to recognize specific antigens (correct)
  • To treat infections caused by bacteria
  • To provide immediate immunity through antibiotics
  • To kill harmful pathogens directly

How does herd immunity function to prevent disease spread?

  • A large population vaccinated reduces virus spread (correct)
  • Only vaccinated individuals are immune
  • Only the elderly contribute to herd immunity
  • It works by directly killing pathogens in the environment

What type of immunity is innate immunity categorized as?

  • Targeted and temporary
  • Adaptive and slow to activate
  • Specific and long-lasting
  • Non-specific and immediate (correct)

Which type of white blood cell is primarily involved in phagocytosis?

<p>Neutrophils (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the first step in the process of phagocytosis?

<p>Chemotaxis signaling to attract phagocytes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of white blood cell differentiates into macrophages?

<p>Monocytes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of memory B cells in the immune system?

<p>They remember previous encounters with pathogens for a quicker response. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structure is characteristic of fungi?

<p>Chitin cell wall. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of pathogen does humoral immunity primarily target?

<p>Extracellular pathogens. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of cytotoxic T cells in the immune response?

<p>They destroy infected cells. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main benefit of fungi in medicine as mentioned?

<p>Antibiotics that inhibit bacterial growth. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure of fungi is responsible for producing spores?

<p>Sporangia. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the thread-like structures that make up the body of a fungus called?

<p>Hyphae. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do saprophytic fungi primarily do?

<p>Decompose dead organic matter. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of immune cell helps decide if a cell is good or bad?

<p>T helper cell. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of MHC I and MHC II molecules in the immune response?

<p>They identify self and present antigens. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of diluting a bacteriophage sample?

<p>To determine the concentration of the original phage sample (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method does NOT describe how viral nucleic acid can enter a host cell?

<p>Budding (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'lysis' refer to in the context of viral infection?

<p>The destruction of the host cell releasing new viruses (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of vaccine contains a real, inactive virus that cannot replicate?

<p>Inactivated Vaccine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do some bacteria develop resistance to lysozyme?

<p>By modifying their peptidoglycan layer (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of viral entry involves the viral envelope fusing with the host cell membrane?

<p>Fusion (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which step immediately follows the injection of viral RNA into the host cell?

<p>Replication of viral genetic material (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of vaccine uses genetic instructions to prompt an immune response?

<p>mRNA Vaccine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is observed on an Ouchterlony plate to indicate antibody-antigen interaction?

<p>Visible precipitation line (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a method for how a virus can exit a host cell?

<p>Injection (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary nutritional mode of algae?

<p>Autotrophic (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group of protists is primarily characterized by its ability to undergo photosynthesis?

<p>Algae (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is NOT a key feature of protozoa?

<p>Cell wall presence (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method of movement is NOT associated with protozoa?

<p>Cellular streaming (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of cytokines during an inflammatory response?

<p>Dilate blood vessels and attract phagocytes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of the Giardia protozoa is known for being the active feeding and reproducing form?

<p>Trophozoite (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes adaptive immunity from innate immunity?

<p>Specific targeting of pathogens (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about fungi is true?

<p>Fungi have a cell wall made of chitin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of algae is most likely found in deeper waters?

<p>Red algae (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the sticky ends in the context of bacterial restriction enzymes?

<p>Overhanging complementary ends of cut DNA. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main role of the capsid in a virus?

<p>To protect and enclose the viral genetic material. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the pore size of agarose gel influence electrophoresis for DNA analysis?

<p>Low % agarose is suitable for analyzing large DNA molecules. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a disadvantage of enveloped viruses compared to non-enveloped viruses?

<p>They have limited survival outside the host. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What describes the host range of a virus?

<p>The specific types of organisms and cells a virus can infect. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between lytic and lysogenic infections?

<p>Lytic infections lead to immediate production of new virus particles. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic is essential for RNA viruses during replication?

<p>They use their own RNA polymerase enzyme. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes the concept of specificity in viruses?

<p>It determines how well a virus can attach to a host cell's receptors. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is true about plaque formation in bacteriophage titer assays?

<p>Plaques are clear areas caused by the lysis of bacterial cells. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Eukaryotic Kingdoms

The four kingdoms of life within the eukaryotes are: Protista, Plants, Fungi, and Animals. This classification focuses on differing characteristics and their relationships in the evolutionary tree.

Protista: Two Major Groups

Protista is a diverse kingdom that includes two main groups: Algae and Protozoa.

Algae Classification

Algae are photosynthetic organisms within the Protista kingdom that are further classified based on the specific wavelengths of light they absorb. This classification includes Green Algae (shallow water), Golden Algae (moderate depths), Brown Algae (shallow to moderate depths), and Red Algae (deep waters).

Protozoa Characteristics

Protozoa are heterotrophic organisms within the Protista kingdom that lack photosynthesis but exhibit movement and decomposer behavior. They lack cell walls.

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Protozoa Locomotion

Protozoa exhibit three modes of movement: Flagella (long, whip-like structures), Cilia (short hair-like structures), and Pseudopods (false feet).

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Giardia Life Stages

Giardia, a protozoan parasite, has two life stages: Trophzoite (active, feeding, growing, and reproducing stage) and Cyst (dormant, encapsulated stage for survival).

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Fungal Characteristics

Fungi are multicellular, except for yeast (unicellular). They are sessile (non-motile) and grow in a direction toward their food source.

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Lymph Node Function

Lymph nodes filter lymph fluid, specifically blood, before it returns to the heart and lungs. They contain lymphocytes (B and T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells.

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Innate Immunity Responses

Innate immunity is the body's first line of defense against pathogens and operates through three main responses: inflammation, phagocytosis, and fever. Inflammation dilates blood vessels, attracts phagocytes, and initiates repair. Phagocytosis engulfs and digests pathogens. Fever slows pathogen growth and enhances immune response.

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Antibody

A Y-shaped protein produced by B cells in response to a specific antigen. It binds to the antigen, tagging it for destruction by other immune cells.

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Humoral Immunity

The type of immunity that involves antibodies produced by B cells to fight extracellular pathogens.

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Macrophage

A white blood cell that engulfs and destroys pathogens, also presenting antigens to T cells.

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Helper T Cell

A type of T cell that helps activate other immune cells, deciding whether a cell is harmful or not.

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B Cell

A type of white blood cell that produces antibodies when activated by an antigen.

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Cellular Immunity

The type of immunity that involves T cells directly attacking infected cells or cancerous cells.

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Cytotoxic T Cell

A type of T cell that directly kills infected cells, recognizing them through MHC I proteins.

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MHC I

A protein found on all cells that displays fragments of proteins produced inside the cell, acting as a 'flag' for the immune system.

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MHC II

A protein found on immune cells (APCs) that displays fragments of engulfed pathogens, presenting them to T cells.

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B Cell Clonal Expansion

The process where a B cell activated by an antigen creates many copies of itself, producing a large number of antibodies.

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Restriction enzymes

Proteins produced by bacteria that identify and cut DNA at specific sequences known as recognition sites.

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Sticky ends

Overhanging complementary ends created by restriction enzyme cuts.

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Blunt ends

Straight cuts by restriction enzymes, creating blunt ends.

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Plasmids

Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria, often used in genetic engineering to insert foreign genes.

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Transformation

The process of introducing foreign DNA into a host organism, often using plasmids.

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Lytic infection

A type of viral infection where the virus replicates quickly and causes the host cell to burst, releasing new viral particles.

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Lysogenic infection

A type of viral infection where the viral genetic material integrates into the host genome and remains dormant, replicating only when the host cell divides or is under stress.

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Plaque

A clear area on a bacterial culture plate where bacterial growth has been inhibited by a virus.

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Host range

The range of organisms and cells that a particular virus can infect.

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Specificity

The specific feature(s) that determine a virus's ability to infect a specific host.

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Adaptive Immune Response

An immune response that is specific to a particular pathogen and involves specialized cells like lymphocytes (B and T cells). This response is slower to activate but provides long-lasting protection.

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Phagocytosis

The process by which a cell engulfs and digests foreign particles, such as dead cells or pathogens. It's a key part of the immune system's defense.

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Innate Immunity

The body's natural defenses against infection, including physical barriers like skin and chemical barriers like stomach acid. It's a non-specific response and acts immediately.

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Herd Immunity

When a large population is vaccinated, the spread of a virus is reduced due to the immunity provided by vaccination. It protects those who are not vaccinated.

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Viral Infection Cycle

A viral infection cycle describes the steps a virus takes to replicate and spread. It involves attachment, entry, replication, assembly and release.

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Viral Attachment

The process by which a virus attaches to a host cell. It's like a lock and key interaction where the virus binds to specific receptors on the host cell's surface.

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Viral Entry

The way a virus enters a host cell. Methods include injecting its genetic material, being engulfed by the cell in a vesicle (endocytosis), or fusing with the cell membrane.

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Viral Replication

The process where the virus uses the host cell's machinery to create more copies of its own genetic material.

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Viral Assembly

The stage where newly made viral components assemble into complete virus particles.

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Viral Release

How a virus exits a host cell. This can happen through budding, where the virus takes a piece of the cell membrane with it, or lysis, where the cell bursts releasing new viruses.

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Plaque-Forming Unit (PFU)

A measure of the number of viable virus particles in a sample. Plaque-forming units (PFU) are counted on a plate and are used to determine the concentration of the virus.

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Vaccine

A substance that stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies.

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Attenuated Vaccine

A type of vaccine that contains a weakened version of the virus. It can still trigger an immune response but is less likely to cause disease.

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RNA or mRNA Vaccine

A type of vaccine that contains the genetic instructions for a specific viral protein, prompting the body to produce an immune response.

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Study Notes

Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes

  • Eukaryotes are divided into four kingdoms: Protista, Plants, Fungi, and Animals
  • Protista has two main groups: Algae (photosynthetic) and Protozoa (heterotrophic)
  • Protozoa can move using flagella, cilia, or pseudopods
  • Fungi are multicellular (except yeast) and sessile, feeding externally
  • Fungi use spores for reproduction and decompose organic matter
  • Fungi are used in medicine (e.g., antibiotics, statins)

Virus Structure and Function

  • Viruses are composed of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat (capsid)
  • Some viruses have an outer envelope (enveloped virus)
  • Spike proteins on the virus surface allow attachment to host cells
  • Lytic infection leads to cell lysis and release of new viruses
  • Lysogenic infection involves viral DNA integration into host DNA replication
  • Viruses reproduce within host cells using host cell machinery

Virus Replication and Vaccine Types

  • Viral nucleic acid enters the host cell via injection, endocytosis, or fusion
  • Inside the cell, viral genetic material is used to create new viruses
  • New viruses assemble and leave the host cell through lysis or budding
  • Vaccine types include attenuated, inactivated, and mRNA vaccines
  • Vaccines stimulate the immune system to fight the infection without causing illness

Immune System, Innate & Adaptive Immunity

  • Innate immunity is the body's immediate, non-specific defense against pathogens via physical (skin, mucous membranes), chemical ( enzymes, etc.) barriers, and internal responses (inflammation, phagocytosis)
  • Adaptive immunity involves specific responses to particular pathogens
  • White blood cells (e.g., neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes) perform various roles in both innate and adaptive immunity
  • Phagocytosis is the process where cells engulf and destroy foreign material
  • Active immunization involves introducing antigens to create immunity (vaccination)
  • Passive immunization involves introducing antibodies to provide temporary protection

Bacteriophages and Restriction Enzymes

  • Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria
  • Bacteriophages can be studied using a plaque assay to determine the virus titer (concentration)
  • Restriction enzymes are bacterial enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences
  • Restriction enzymes and electrophoresis are used to analyze DNA fragments

Lysozyme and Antibodies

  • Lysozyme is an enzyme that targets the cell walls of certain bacteria.
  • Lysozyme can be found in body fluids like tears and saliva
  • Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system that target specific antigens
  • Various techniques can be used to measure antibodies against antigens (e.g., ELISA, Ouchterlony plates)

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Description

This quiz explores the fundamental differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes, including their classifications and roles in ecosystems. It also covers the structure, function, and replication of viruses, alongside vaccine types and their importance in medicine. Test your knowledge on these essential biological concepts.

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