GCE 101 Lecture Notes Series 1 & 2 PDF

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN GCE 101 Psychological Foundation of Education LECTURE NOTE SERIES 1 By D. A. Adeyemo (Ph.D) Department of Guidance and Counselling University of Ibadan, Ibadan 1 2 3 ...

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN GCE 101 Psychological Foundation of Education LECTURE NOTE SERIES 1 By D. A. Adeyemo (Ph.D) Department of Guidance and Counselling University of Ibadan, Ibadan 1 2 3  LECTURE ONE The Concept of Educational Psychology Introduction Psychologists attempts to explain the science of human behaviour by formulating theories, principles and facts that guides the understanding of human behaviour. There are different types of psychology that explains the various aspects of human psychology such as; Developmental Psychology, Educational Psychology, Counselling Psychology, Clinical Psychology etc. The introductory aspect of Educational Psychology will be the focus of this lecture. Objectives At the end of this lecture, students should be able to; 1. Explain the term Psychology 2. Highlight the different aspects of Psychology 3. Explain the term Educational Psychology 4. Identify the scopes of Educational Psychology Pre-Test 1. What is Psychology? 2. Mention the different aspects of Psychology 3. What is Educational Psychology? 4. Identify the scopes of Educational Psychology CONTENT To have a better understanding of the concept of educational psychology, a clear description of what psychology is all about as well as the various branches of psychology will be required. Letus first examine what psychology is all about. 4 Definition of Psychology Humans are rational beings because they think, feel and act in ways that can be generally acceptable as a way of life. They act uniquely as no two individuals behave exactly the same way and in most cases, these behaviours are governed by the intent of our thoughts. Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour which involves how we think, feel, act and interact individually and in groups. It is also the science that attempts to describe and explain human behaviour and in most cases with the aim of modifying undesirable behaviours. Psychology is considered a social and behavioural science because it deals with both human behaviour and the mental processes that govern behaviour. Types of Psychology Psychology is all encompassing because it studies the entirety of human beings and even animals. In this regard, many psychologists have taken interest in various aspects of psychology, making discoveries of different areas human problem and developing a repertoire of knowledge to proffer solutions to these problems. Different areas of psychology among others are; Developmental Psychology Developmental psychology or the Psychology of development as it implies, is a scientific study that examines the process of change that occurs in human beings from the moment they are conceived in the womb to the point of death. This psychology reveals the complex processes of human growth which begins from the conception, to infancy, childhood, adolescence, early and late adulthood and even till death. Psychologists in this field seek to know, understand andexplain why and how people change throughout life. They are curious about; how children are formed in the womb, how these children gradually become adults and how they eventually grow old and feeble as well as the behavioural changes that accompanies these physical changes. In seeking answers to their curiosity, they study the physical, emotional, social, perceptual, and the personality development of individuals. Clinical Psychology Clinical psychology is that aspect of psychology that is concerned with the assessment and treatment of mental illness, abnormal behaviours and psychiatric related problems. Psychologists in this field of psychology have the understanding that some abnormal behaviour can not entirely be cured using behavioural approaches but also with the help of some medical interventions. Psychologists in this field do not limit themselves to the study of human behaviour alone but 5 explores the biological makeup of an individual that initiates the behaviour. Using their repertoire of knowledge, they can easily dictate an abnormal behavior, dictate the possible neurotic cause and proffer solutions where possible. Counselling psychology Counselling psychology is a psychological specialty that encompasses research and applied work in several broad domains: counseling process and outcome; supervision and training; career development and counseling; and prevention and health. Some counselling psychologists focus on other aspects as assets and strengths, person–environment interactions, educational and career development, brief interactions, and a focus on intact personalities. Personnel psychology Personnel psychology is the area of industrial or organizational psychology that deals with the recruitment, selection and evaluation of personnel, and other job aspects such as morale, job satisfaction, and relationships between managers and workers in the workplace. It is the field of study that concentrates on the selection and evaluation of employees; this area of psychology deals with job analysis and defines and measures job performance, performance appraisal, employment testing, employment interviews, employee selection and employee training What is Education? Education is the process of training and developing knowledge, skill, mind, character, etc especially through formal schooling; teaching; training. This definition shows that through aformal training, individuals experience development in several areas of their lives; knowledge and mind (cognitive development), skills (psychomotor and cognitive development combined), and character (affective development). These different areas of development are all embodied ina single organism which is the learner and they are interrelated to each other within the context of the learner’s world. The main aim of education is to mould and shape the behaviour of thepupils or students, by way of producing desirable changes in them for the all-round development of their personality. Educational Psychology Educational psychology is the systematic application of psychological principles to teaching and learning. educational psychologist bring two discipline together by showing how psychological theories and methods can be applied to improve learning in individual students and in the whole classrooms and to improve the process of teaching itself. Educational psychology is aimed at helping the teacher to understand the development of his pupils, the range and limits of their capacities, the processes by which they learn and their social relationships. 6 Educational psychology is also referred to as a branch of applied psychology that is concerned with the application of the principles, techniques and other resource of psychology in proffering solutions to the many problem confronting teachers in their attempt to impact knowledge, skills and positive attitudes to the students. The main focus of educational psychologist however, is to understand; The child, his development, his need and his potentialities The learning situation including group dynamics as it affects learning The learning process; its nature and the ways to make it effective Scopes of Educational psychology The scope of educational psychology is all encompassing as it entails the entirety of the learner in the process of teaching and learning. The scope of educational psychology is ever-growing with the increasing nature of research in this field. The scopes include; 1. The Learner: the learner is the major focus of educational psychologist. Their interest is in knowing the learner as well as the techniques they could adopt in knowing the learner. Their major interests are; the innate abilities and capacities of the individuals, individual differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of his growth and development and each stage beginning from childhood to adulthood. 2. The Learning Experiences: the learning experiences of individuals differ at every stage of development. At childhood, the learners experience is different from that of the adolescent and the adulthood. Educational psychology helps in deciding what learning experiences are desirable, at what stage of the growth and development of the learner, so that these experiences can be acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction. 3. Learning Process: the process of learning is scientific because it is governed by laws and principles. Educational psychology reveals the laws, principles and theoriesgoverning learning. Other items in the learning process are remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning, problem solving, transfer of learning, ways and means of effective learning etc. 4. Learning Situation or Environment: this is the environment where the process of teaching and learning takes place. Learning can be hampered or enhanced by the nature of its environment. Educational psychology in this regards deal with the environmental factors and learning situations which come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroom climate and group dynamics, techniques and aids that facilitate 7  learning and evaluation, techniques and practices, guidance and counselling etc. for the smooth functioning of the teaching-learning process. 5. The Teacher: the teacher is a significant personality in the process of teaching and learning. They are expected to impact knowledge, skills and positive attitudes to the learner. However, there are certain factors resident in the teacher that could either impede or promote teacher’s effectiveness. The interest of educational psychology is to examine; his conflicts, motivation. Anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration etc. because it throws light on the essential personality traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc so as to inspire him for becoming a successful teacher. 6. Human Behaviour: psychology deals with the study of human behaviour, while education deals with the modification of undesirable behaviours. Educational psychology encompasses the study of human behaviour as well as behaviour modification. 7. Growth and Development: educational psychology is interested in the process of growth and development that occurs at all stages of life, which is from childhood to adulthood. 8. Individual Differences: it is an established fact that no two individual are exactly the same irrespective of how identical they are. Educational psychology reveals these differences and seeks ways to satisfy individual needs in the classroom. Summary In this lecture, an attempt was made to describe the concept of psychology as well as the various aspects of psychology. Educational psychology was further elaborated upon, which was described as the application of psychological principles and theories to solvingproblems in the classroom. The scopes of educational psychology were highlighted. Post-Test 1. What is Psychology? 2. Mention the different aspects of Psychology 3. What is Educational Psychology? 4. Identify the scopes of Educational Psychology 8 LECTURE TWO Fundamentals of Educational Psychology Introduction Educational psychologists are interested primarily in proffering solutions to the various educational problems using psychological interventions. In this lecture, we will be considering the objectives of educational psychology, the various principles guiding its operations as well as the various perspectives to educational psychology. Objectives At the end of this lecture, the students should be able to; 1. Highlight the objectives of educational psychology 2. Identify the principles of educational psychology 3. Explain the various perspectives to educational psychology Pre-Test 1. What are the objectives of educational psychology? 2. List the principles of educational psychology 3. Describe the various perspectives to educational psychology CONTENT There are several aims of educational psychology to the teachers, student and to the teaching and learning process. These aims will further enlighten us on the benefit of educational psychology for the teachers, the students and the classroom experiences. Objectives of Educational Psychology Educational psychology is aimed generally at the development of ‘wholesome personality’ and ‘continuous growth’ of individuals. It is also aimed at helping teachers provide facts and 9 generalizations in his task of assisting the child to develop a harmonious personality. Specific aims and objectives include; 1. Educational psychology aims at developing right attitudes in the teacher about educational problems. Teachers are taught the right methods required to teach different disciplines and well as the right amount of learning a child can accommodate at everypoint in time. These strategies will help teachers manage educational problems in classrooms and beyond. 2. Educational Psychology aims at assisting the teachers organize the material which will be taught to the child. 3. Educational psychology aims at studying heredity growth and maturation, environmental influences, language, thinking, the development of language and the process of socialisation in relation to their effect on the child as a learner. It assists the teacher to set up appropriate educational situations in order to bring about desirable change. 4. It aims at assisting the teacher in treating their pupils with sympathy and understanding. It also aims at creating positive attitude towards learning. 5. It aims at helping the teacher to understand his own task. Teachers are faced with lots of educational problems in the process of teaching and learning, however, educational psychology develops in the teacher a scientific attitude to solve different problems of education faced by him. 6. Educational psychology aims at teaching, teachers how best to help their pupils to learn more effectively both in and out of class. 7. Educational psychology is aimed at conducting research related to the educational sector. 8. Educational psychology aims at the application of research findings in the learning situation itself. Principles of Educational Psychology There are some behaviours and principles of educational psychology that governs an effective learning time. These principles include; 1. Self-efficacy: by instilling feelings of high self-efficacy, teachers can help students’ master difficult concepts and skills. When students perceive that they will be successfulin and given task, they put in much effort and are persistent in achieving such a task. 10  2. Attribution Theory: By encouraging students to attribute both success and failure to effort rather than to ability or task difficulty, teachers can help them master difficult concepts and skills. 3. Peer tutoring increases effective performance of both the tutor and the tutee. Tutoring involves a one-on-one interaction between the tutee and the tutor, thereby ensuring prompt feedback and close monitoring of the tutee’s performance. 4. Cooperative learning increases learning because it gives students the opportunity to maximize the strength of their peers in improving on their weaknesses. 5. Negative stereotyping and negative teacher expectancies reduce learning. Conversely, positive stereotyping and expectancies enhance learning. Perspectives in Educational Psychology The major fundamental assumptions of formal education is that students retain knowledge and skills they acquire in school and can apply these skills in situations outside the classrooms in solving problems. However, many educational psychologists have different perspectives to how students learn skills and apply them in real life situations. These perspectives are; Behavioural, cognitive, social cognitive and constructivism. Behavioural Perspective Analysts in behavioural science adopt behavioural principles of operant conditioning to enhance learning in the classroom. For instance, these theorists believe that teachers can change an undesirable behaviour or improve on a desirable behaviour through rewards like praises, prizes or gifts. Students are motivated to learn skills and positive attitudes when they are rewarded while they are less motivated to work harder when not motivated. Cognitive Perspective Many educational psychologists are concerned with mental constructs as traits, beliefs, memories, motivation and emotions. Cognitive theorist believe that memory structures determines how information is perceived, processed, stored, retrieved and forgotten. These theorists take cognizance of individual differences that makes every individual distinct and unique in intelligence, creativity, cognitive style, motivation and in their capacity to process information, communicate, and relate it with others. Social cognitive perspective The social cognitive theory is based on the social learning theory of Albert Bandura who is an educational psychologist. His theory is a fusion of behavioural, cognitive and social elements. 11 Bandura emphasized the process of observational learning in which a learner's behavior changes as a result of observing others' behavior and its consequences. The theory identified several factors that determine whether observing a model will affect behavioral or cognitive change. These factors include the learner's developmental status, the perceived prestige and competence of the model, the consequences received by the model, the relevance of the model's behaviors and consequences to the learner's goals, and the learner's self-efficacy. Constructivist perspective Constructivist refers to a category of learning theories that places emphases on the prior knowledge of the learner and often on the social and cultural determinant of the learning process. Educational psychologists’ attempts to show a demarcation between individual or psychological constructivism identified with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, form social constructivism identified with Lev Vygotsky’s work on socio-cultural learning, which describes how interactions with adults, more capable peers and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. Summary This lecture has revealed the objectives of educational psychology of which one of it is to help teacher gain a right attitude towards the educational problems they encounter in the teaching and learning process. This lecture has further exposed us to the principles guiding educational psychology as well as the various aspects to educational psychology. Post-Test 1. What are the objectives of educational psychology? 2. List the principles of educational psychology 3. Describe the various perspectives to educational psychology 12 LECTURE THREE The Process of Teaching and Learning Educational Psychology Introduction Educational psychology seeks to understand and explain human behaviour in the classroom. Educational psychologist are interested in helping teachers identify students with special needs with the aim of helping them learn effectively at their pace. However, teachers must be better informed on the teaching and learning process before adequate measures can be taken in addressing some educational problems. This lecture will examine educational psychology inteaching and learning, the methods used in educational research and the various techniques they use in collecting data for their research. Objectives At the end of this lecture, the student should be able to; 1. Identify the various categories that describes the art of teaching 2. Describe the various methods in educational research 3. Highlight the techniques used in data collection Pre-Test 1. What are the various method used in educational researches 2. Describe the techniques used in data collection CONTENT The art of teaching can be considered as a process, because it involves an active participation by the teacher and the students; it is also regarded as an interpersonal activity because there is an interaction between the teacher and the students and vice versa; and teaching is said to be intentional because it is done on purpose. Therefore, teaching is said to be an interpersonal, interactive activity, typically involving verbal communication, which is undertaken for the purpose of helping or more students learn or change the ways in which they can or will behave. 13 There are several categories that describe the art of teaching; 1. Communication: this goes beyond speaking or writing but it includes body languages, spacing i.e. stepping towards the students and back to the front of the class to ensure they are attentive, voice intonation, eye languages etc. 2. Perception: this involves sensitivity to students and their willingness to adapt. Teachers read cues that describe the emotional context of the class and then adapt their methods to the ‘mood’ of the class. 3. Cooperation: teaching and learning process goes smoothly when teachers and students go along well. 4. Appreciation: both teachers and students love to be appreciated after a job well done. Teachers will like to be commended after he has successfully imparted knowledge and skills to the students and students’ desire appreciation when they successfully complete every task given to them by their teachers. Major research methods in Educational Psychology Teachers are often concerned about the effectiveness of their teaching methods in the teaching and learning process. Students have different and peculiar needs in the classroom and it takes teachers who know the right teaching method to adopt to meet those needs. Many educational researchers conduct researches to proffer solutions to the many problems associated with the teaching and learning process as; effective method of teaching, interpersonal relationship related problems, administrative related problems etc. There are several research methods researchers adopt in carrying out researches in educational psychology, some of these are; Historical, Descriptive, Correctional, Comparative and Experimental research. Historical Research This research involves studying, understanding, and explaining past events. The purpose of this type of research is to formulate conclusions about the causes, effects, or trends of past events that help to either explain current events or predict future occurrences. Researchers in this context make use of available data from the archives not necessarily administering any test or observing any occurring behaviour. Descriptive Research 14 In a qualitative or descriptive research, the investigator examines and reports things the way they are in an attempt to understand and explain them. In this context of research, the investigator does not manipulate the subject of his study; rather he observes and records the subject in its natural state. The researcher collects data to test hypotheses and answer research questions concerning the status of some issues or problems. Correlational Research In this type of research, the researcher attempts to determine if a relationship exist between two or more variables. For example, a researcher may be interested in finding the relationship between anxiety and poor academic achievement, this is does not necessarily mean that anxietyis the ‘cause’ of poor academic achievement. A high correlation indicates that students with high level of anxiety are prone to perform poorly in their examination. Thus, the finding that two variables are highly related does not mean that one variable may have caused the other; rather, a third variable may have a greater influence on both variables. Comparative Research In a comparative research, the researcher searches for causal relations among variables that are compared with each other. This nature of study involves a comparison of groups that are different before the study begins. For example, a researcher may be interested in examining the effect of socioeconomic status on corruption. He will first divide them into the various groups’ i.e. people of the low class, the middle class and the high class, before carrying out a comparison. Experimental research This involves an active manipulation of an independent variable on the dependent variable. This type of study seeks to examine the ‘cause’ and ‘effect’ of variables under study. The independent variable is usually referred to as the experimental, or treatment variable which will initiate a ‘cause’ to bring about an ‘effect’ on the dependent variable. In the context, the independent variables are manipulated so as to effect a change on the dependent variable. Techniques used by researchers Researchers make use of different approaches to collect data for their research. Some of these techniques include; survey, interviews, and observation. Surveys In survey research, the investigator formulates questions about a particular issue he is investigating to an individual or a group of people under study. Before carrying out a research, the researcher has some questions in mind he seeks answers. These questions can be properly constructed inform of a questionnaire or in an interview to get the required answer to his 15 questions. Survey research is used to study teacher, students and several other individuals, particularly to understand their attitudes, beliefs, opinions, and behaviour. Surveys can be administered using questionnaires, interviews, telephone, and mails. One major advantage of a survey is that a great deal of information can be obtained from a large population and it provides a good representation of sources of information. However, there are disadvantages. First, survey methods may not allow very detailed information on the issue being researched, because survey questions are so general. Secondly, survey research can be expensive and time consuming. Thirdly, respondents can fake the response and give wrong answers to the questions. Interviews The interview procedure involves a face-to-face conversation in which an interviewer will ask other individual questions designed to obtain answers relevant to the research problem. In research, interviews are typically categorized as either structured (standardized) or unstructured (unstandardized). In a standardized interview, the interviewer asks questions in which the sequence and wording are fixed. The researcher has limited freedom in the manner of questions he is to ask his respondents. On the other hand, unstandardized interview is more flexible because the researcher is not restricted to the manner of questions he can ask his respondents. The flexibility of the questions asked is an advantage especially for children as the wordings can be rephrased to their level of understanding. On the other hand interviewees responses can be faked and can be misinterpreted be the interviewer. It is also time consuming. Observation Observation method is the most common way we obtain information. Systematic observation also has evolved as a basic scientific tool for gathering data in research on teaching. Observation method requires a careful observation of phenomenon as they naturally occur and taking a careful record of all occurrences. For example, you may be carrying out a study on a child with special needs, with the aim of understanding how they relate with other people. This type of research will require the researcher to keep a close watch on the child on a daily basis to carefully observe all his activities. It is time consuming and energy sapping. However, information gotten through this medium is authentic. 16  Summary Educational psychology in the teaching and learning process, elaborated the several categories that describes the art of teaching and learning. In solving educational problems, many educational psychologists carry out lots of research using various methods. This lecture revealed some of these methods and the techniques they use in collecting data. Post-Test 1. What are the various method used in educational researches 2. Describe the techniques used in data collection 17 LECTURE FOUR The Concept of Learning Introduction The word ‘learning’ is commonly used in our daily routine, because at every point in time, we are expected to learn something new by reason of our daily experiences. Generally, people are fond of saying ‘ I have learned how to cook’ ‘I now know how to ride a bicycle’ ‘I have learned how to play tennis’ etc, learning can either be done consciously or accidentally, it could be planned or unplanned, however way, learning has taken place. Most importantly, many people learn through experiences. For instance, a child may admire the hot wax that flows from a lighted candle stick and desire to play with it. She reaches out her hands to touch the hot wax and discovers it is as hot as the fire on the candle stick. That child has learned that no matter how attractive the hot wax from a lighted candle stick is, it is not the best toy to play with. This is a clear illustration of how individuals learn through practical experiences. Learning takes place at every phase of life. At the childhood stage, children are expected to learn the right pronunciation of words, proper manners, and better relationship with others. This type of learning is done mainly through imitation or role modeling. However, as they grow into adulthood, they are expected to learn more refined social, cognitive, emotional, moral and even physical skills of which in most cases are achieved through life experiences. These descriptions of learning are also applicable in the classroom setting. Objectives At the end of this lecture, students should be able to; 1. Describe learning 2. Identify the factors that affect learning 3. Define transfer of learning 4. Discuss the types of transfer of learning 18 Pre-Test 1. What is learning? 2. What are the factors that affect learning? 3. Define transfer of learning 4. List the types of transfer of learning CONTENT What is learning? Learning is a relatively continuous process in human beings. Human behaviours can be learned, unlearned and modify. Learning is all encompassing because it affects the personality, social behaviour, and development of individuals. Learning can be effortless when it is done through experience. This informs the popular saying that ‘experience is the best teacher’. In general, learning is seen as a process by which people acquire new knowledge. However, psychologists define learning as a relatively permanent change in the behaviour of an organism that occurs as a result of experiences in the environment. This definition of learning has three important parts; experiences in the environment, change in the organism and permanence. This implies that for learning to take place, these vital elements must be involved. Learning is also referred to as the process by which a relatively lasting change in potential behaviour occurs as a result of practice or experience. It is often seen as a process of acquiring modifications in existing knowledge, skills, habits, or tendencies through experience, practice, or exercise. Behaviours are learned either desirable or undesirable, learning in this context means behaviour modification, where individuals with undesirable behaviour can unlearn what theyhave learned and replace it with desirable behaviours. Unlearning undesirable behaviour implies that the individual restructures his pattern of thinking to disliking the undesired action and accepting the desired behaviour. Factors that influences learning 1. Maturation: Maturation refers to mental maturity, social maturity and psychological readiness. Learning takes place at different level of development and students must be ready mentally, physically, socially, emotionally and psychological for learning to effectively take place. Maturation involves the development of the nervous system which comprises of the brain and the spinal cord. And the rate of growth and development varies in individuals; this implies that the mental readiness of children differs irrespective of their ages. For instance, a five year old child who is slow in his growth and 19  development may not be matured enough to compete with his colleagues of his age who are matured to learn. 2. Individual differences: Teachers must take into consideration the differences that exist among his students in terms of their gender, ability, social and emotional competencies. Mental receptivity differs in male and female, just as females are said to be more expressive than the males while the males seem to be more calculative than the females. This implies that teachers should learn to project the strength of his students as this will motivate them to learn. 3. Student’s Prior Conception: Prior conception refers to the ideas about the physical, natural, and social worlds that students have before they begin new instructions on these topics. Students are not empty heads; they have some ideas about the topic they are taught in class. When students prior conception about the topic are conflicting, learning new ideas become difficult but when they are congruent, it makes it easier to learn new ideas. For instance, in a geography class, students are taught that the world is cyclical i.e. it revolves round the sun in a circle. Some of these students have a prior belief that the world is plain because they imagine that if it is cyclical, as it revolves men may have to walk on their heads. In this scenario, the prior knowledge or conception of the student conflicts with the new concept taught in class, thereby making learning very difficult. 4. Interest: Interest in the subject matter and the teacher is a major factor that could affect learning. Interest means the inner disposition of the student towards a subject matter. If students have the right disposition towards the subject matter or the teacher, they are motivated to learn and vice versa. For instance, if a student is not interested in mathematics, he will find it difficult paying attention in class or if he finds any of his teachers unfriendly, he will come to dislike the subject that teacher is teaching, so willnot be motivated to learn. 5. Learning Environment: The environment of learning must be conducive and effective for learning to take place. Effective learning environment are designed to promote; Engagement: this is where students are actively immersed in learning tasks and are absorbed in mastery the concept and strategies needed to succeed at these tasks. Understanding: effective learning environment is designed with the aim of helping students understand important ideas rather than having students simply memorize these ideas or memorize a list of facts. Self-regulated learning: this is aimed at helping students learn how to learn on their own without a constant need for a teacher. Self-regulated learners set their 20  own learning goals and select their own learning strategies that will help them achieve their goals. Transfer: this refers to helping students practically apply what they have learned in the classroom in real life situation. Collaboration: helping students work together. When students work together, they complement their strength and improve on their weakness. Transfer of learning Transfer of learning is the practical application of acquired knowledge in real life situation. People learn through observation, role modeling and experience, but the ability of these individuals to put what they have learned into practice, indicates a transfer of learning. In the classroom, teachers impart knowledge and skills in theoretical form to the student, but the applicability of the theories learned to solving problems in real life circumstances is what is referred to as transfer of learning. Transfer of learning is seen in how a previously learned task facilitates the learning of subsequent tasks, or how what is learned in one subject facilitates learning in other subjects. By implication, we are expected to learn from our previous experiences. For instance, the knowledge of our five senses should facilitate our understanding of the human nervous system or students’ previous knowledge of further mathematics should aid their understanding of their engineering courses or their previous knowledge of biology should aid their understanding of medical sciences etc. Types of transfer of learning Positive transfer of learning Negative transfer of learning Zero transfer of learning Positive transfer of learning Positive transfer of learning occurs when a previously acquired knowledge facilitates the understanding of other constructs. It is simple said to be the applicability of prior knowledge or skills a situation in solving problems in a new and different situation. It is the right application of previous knowledge in real life situation. Ashaye (2000) stipulated that positive transfer of learning occurs when there is an improvement in the performance of an individual as a result of what was either learnt or when there is a progress in the learning of a new thing due to old 21 learning. For instance, consider a situation where an individual’s proficiency in oral English facilitates his performance in news broadcasting. Negative transfer of learning A negative transfer of knowledge occurs when a previously learned task hinders or distorts the learning of a new task or a situation where a previously learned skill affects negatively the acquisition of a new skill. For instance, mother tongue interference, this is a situation where a person’s dialect affects the right pronunciation of words or letters. Or a situation where a child’s ability to write with his left hand makes it difficult to use his right hand to eat or exchange handshakes. Zero transfer of learning This is implied when one’s previous knowledge or skill neither facilitate nor hinders the acquisition of a new skill. Or a situation where by what a person has learned previously has no influence on what he is learning at present. For example, a student of Theater Arts having no proficiency in acting, this implies that what he had learned in school has no impact on his profession as an actor. Summary This lecture described learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience. It highlighted the possible factors that could affect learning. Transfer of learning, which is the application of previous knowledge in a new situation, was discussedas well as the various types. Post-Test 1. What is learning? 2. What are the factors that affect learning? 3. Define transfer of learning 4. List the types of transfer of learning 22 LECTURE FIVE Theories of Learning Introduction Learning has been described as a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience, many psychologist have carried out several experiment to explain how human beings learn as well as their implications to the classroom situation. In this context, we shall examine some of these learning theories. Objectives At the end if this lecture, students should be able to; 1. Define a theory 2. Explain the classical conditioning theory 3. Explain the operant conditioning theory 4. Discuss the social learning theory Pre-Test 1. Define a theory 2. Explain in detail the classical conditioning theory 3. What are the major assumption of the social learning theory CONTENT What is a theory? Theory is generally regarded as a hunch that has no factual basis. Learning theory on the other hand is referred to as a set of interrelated principle that presents a systematic view of learning based on empirical relations among variables. The purpose of a learning theory is to explain the relationship between learning conditions and outcomes. A principle is an explanation of a replicated empirical relationship between two concepts that best fits the data. An integrated explanation of two or more principles is called a theory. 23 Classical Conditioning theory – Ivan Pavlor (1849-1936) Conditioning is a systematic procedure through which associations and responses to specific stimuli are learned. A stimulus is an event, usually a detectable input that has an impact on the organism. A response on the other hand is the reaction of an organism to a stimulus. Many psychologists have discovered relationships between specific stimuli and responses. They observed that there are certain stimuli that elicit a reflect response. For example, they found out that the mouth naturally salivates at the sight of food; the eye lid blinks at a flash light etc. these they observed are unlearned responses which are referred to as reflexes. Conditioned behaviours are learned because the elicited behaviours are not natural responses to the stimulus introducedbut these stimuli are manipulated over time to initiate the desired response. Ivan Pavlor a Russian psychologist, in 1927 discovered a basis principle of learning which is conditioning. His study of conditioning was quite accidental while he was studying saliva and gastric secretions in the digestive processes of dogs. He fore knew that it was natural for dogs to salivate as they ate, but he discovered that even at the sight of the food, the dog salivated. This made Pavlor reason that it was possible that the dog has learned to associate the trainers, who brought them food with food itself. This was what prompted him to begin a research on salivary reflex of dogs. Pavlor began his research on classical conditioning which he described that an originally neutral stimulus, through repeated pairing with a stimulus that naturally elicits a response, comes to elicit a similar or even identical responses. Pavlor’s Experiment Pavlor started his study of conditioning in dogs with a relatively simple experiment, which was teaching the dogs to salivate in response to a bell. First, he surgically moved each dog’s salivary gland to the outside of the dog’s cheek to make the secretions of saliva accessible. He attached tubes to the relocated salivary glands so that he could collect and then measure precisely the amount of saliva produced by the food (unconditioned stimulus). The dog was restrained in a harness and isolated from all distractions in a cubicle. Then Pavlor introduced a bell (the new stimulus). He called the bell a neutral stimulus because the sound of a bell does not naturallymake a dog to salivate but rather to attract the attention of the dog. Pavlor measured the amount of saliva the dog produced when the bell was rung alone; he discovered that the amount was negligible. He began the conditioning process by ringing the bell and immediately placing food in the dog’s mouth. After he did this several times, the dog salivated in response to the sound ofthe bell alone. Pavlor reasoned that the dog had associated the bell with the arrival of food. He termed the bell which produced salivation as a result of learning, a conditioned stimulus. This is illustrated below; Unconditioned stimulus produces Unconditioned response Food Saliva 24 Conditioned stimulus produces no response Bell no response Conditioned + Unconditioned stimulus produces Unconditioned response Bell + Food Saliva Conditioned stimulus produces conditioned response Bell alone Saliva The key characteristics of classical conditioning is the use of an originally neutral stimulus (a bell) to elicit a response (salivation) through repeated pairing of the neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus (food) that elicits the response naturally. Classical conditioning takes place in our everyday lives. For instance, a child who fears injections may associate the pains of injection with the nurse that administers the injection. This means that a child should naturallynot be a frightened at the sight of a nurse, but because he has associate the pains of injection with nurses, begins express fear at the sight of a nurse even when that nurse isn’t with an injection at that moment. Principles of classical conditioning The principles of classical conditioning include; generalization, discrimination, and extinction Stimulus Generalization: this refers to the process by which the conditioned response transfers to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. For example, people who have learned that the red light in the traffic light means to STOP may associate the color red to mean stop in other situation like the break light of a car, the danger signs, or flashing red bulbs. Stimulus generalization is referred to as transfer of learning in the classroom, where teachers expects that students will be able to use the materials they have learned in class in a variety of circumstances. Discrimination: this refers to the process where we learn not to respond to similar stimuli in an identical manner. For example, the manner to which an individual will act towards a soldier in uniform will be different from this manner of action towards a road safety man in uniform. The individual have been able to differentiate their functions even though they are both uniform men. In the classrooms, students will find it difficult to learn if they cannot differentiate circles from curved lines or horizontal lines from vertical lines or differentiate the figure 21 from 12 and 25 from 52. Extinction: this refers to the process by which conditioned responses are lost. In Pavlor experiments, he discovered that presenting the bell alone without food, he could eliminate the conditioned response. 25 Educational Implication of Pavlor’s theory to the classroom 1. Teachers who suspects that a student is nervous in his class should try to discover what circumstances triggered the anxiety (the stimuli) to help the student. 2. Transfer of learning is another educational implication. Teachers should ensure that if they want students to transfer the materials they are presenting to them, then they must provide ample opportunity for them to discover the relationship that the subject has to other situations. 3. Teachers must be able to help student differentiate materials that are alike but looksimilar in meaning or appearance. 4. Teachers can also help prevent responses that encourage misbehaviours. Operant Conditioning – B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) B. F. Skinner in 1930 began to change the way psychologist think about conditioning and learning. He questioned the efficiency of Pavlor’ classical conditioning theory of learning, because he believed that most behaviours can be explained through an operant conditioning not through classical conditioning, Skinner used the term operant conditioning because the organism operates in an environment. Operant conditioning is one which an increase or decrease in the probability that a behaviour will recur is affected by the delivery of reinforcement or punishment as a consequences of the behaviour. In this case, the conditioned behaviour is usually voluntary not reflexive as in the case of classical conditioning. Another difference between the operant and classical conditioning is that a consequence follows after the behaviour. Skinner’ Experiment In Skinner’s operant conditioning experiment, a rat that has been deprived of food is placed in a box, seeking food or a means to escape, eventually; it stumbles on a lever and presses it. Immediately following that action, the experimental delivers a pellet of food into a cup. The rat moves some more and happens to press the lever again; another pellet of food is delivered. Aftera few trials, the rat learns that pressing the lever brings food. A hungry rat will learn to press the lever many times in rapid succession to obtain food. Teaching an organism a complex response takes many trials because most organisms need to be taught in small steps, through shaping. Shaping is the gradual process of selectively reinforcing behaviours that comes closer and closer to a desired response. For example, a father who wants his son to make his bed neatly will at first reinforce an attempt at bed making, even when it wasn’t properly done. Over successful weeks, the father will reinforce only the better attempts, 26 until he finally reinforce only neat bed making. By implication, patience is highly required because it is essential to reinforce all steps towards the desired behaviour, no matter how small. Skinner is of the opinion that the environment (parent, teacher, peers) reacts to our behaviour and either reinforces or eliminates that behaviour. According to him, behaviour was caused through the following links; a) An operation performed upon the organism from without (a child comes to class without having his breakfast) b) Some inner conditions (the child gets very hungry) c) A kind of behaviour (he becomes restless in class) Educational Implication of Skinner’s Operant Conditioning 1. Teachers should learn to react quickly to students’ behaviour before time elapses so that reinforcement or punishment can be effective. If time elapses, students may not know the exact behaviour that they are rewarded for or punished for. 2. Teachers should never assume that they know why their students do what they do. Work with what your students say or do and reinforce appropriately. 3. Teachers should be clear and precise in giving instructions to their students, otherwise, they may reinforce behaviour that may or may not lead to desirable outcomes. 4. Reinforcement should not be too frequent, it not students will only work for the reinforcement which may not bring about an actual change in behaviour. Theory of Connectionism – Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) Thorndike believed that all learning is explained by connections or bonds that are formed between stimuli and responses. These connections occur mainly through trial and error, a process he termed connectionism, or learning by selecting and connecting. Thorndike’ Experiment Thorndike was interested in whether animals could learn tasks through imitation or observation. To test this, Thorndike created puzzle boxes. The puzzle boxes were approximately 20 inches long, 15 inches wide and 12 inches tall. Each box had a door that was pulled open by a weight attached to a string that ran over a pulley and was attached to the door. The string attached to the door would lead to a lever or button inside the box. When the animal pressed the bar or pulled 27 the lever the string attached to the door would cause the weight to lift and the door to open. Thorndike’s puzzle boxes were arranged so that the animal would be required to perform acertain response (pulling a lever or pushing a button), while he measured the amount of time it took them to escape. Once the animal had performed the desired response they were allowed to escape and were also given a reward, usually food. Thorndike primarily used cats in his puzzle boxes. When the cats were put into the cages they would wander restlessly and meow, but they did not know how to escape. Eventually, the cats would step on the switch on the floor by chance, and the door would open. To see if the catscould learn through observation he had them observe other animals escaping from the box. He would then compare the times of those who got to observe others escaping with those who did not, and found that there was no difference in their rate of learning. Thorndike saw the same results with other animals, and he observed that there was no improvement even when he placed the animals’ paws on the correct levers, buttons, or bar. These failures led him to fall back on atrial and error explanation of learning. He found that after accidentally stepping on the switch once, they would press the switch faster in each succeeding trial inside the puzzle box. By observing and recording the animals’ escapes and escape times, Thorndike was able to graph the times it took for the animals in each trial to escape, which eventually resulted in a learning curve. In Thorndike’s learning curve the animals had difficulty escaping at first, but eventually “caught on” and escaped faster and faster with each successive puzzle box trial, until theyeventually leveled off. The quickened rate of escape results in the s-shape of the learning curve. The learning curve also suggested that different species learned in the same way but at different speeds. From his research with puzzle boxes, Thorndike was able to create his own theory of learning. The puzzle box experiments were motivated in part by Thorndike's dislike for statements that animals made use of extraordinary faculties such as insight in their problem solving Thorndike meant to distinguish clearly whether or not cats escaping from puzzle boxes were using insight. Thorndike's instruments in answering this question were learning curves revealed by plotting the time it took for an animal to escape the box each time it was in the box. He reasoned that if the animals were showing insight, then their time to escape would suddenly drop to a negligible period, which would also be shown in the learning curve as an abrupt drop; while animals using a more ordinary method of trial and error would show gradual curves. His finding was that cats consistently showed gradual learning. Thorndike interpreted the findings in terms of associations. He asserted that the connectionbetween the box and the motions the cat used to escape was strengthened by each escape. A similar, though radically reworked idea was taken up by B. F. Skinner in his formulation of operant conditioning. The associative analysis went on to figure largely in behavioral work 28 through mid-century, and is now evident in some modern work in behavior. Thorndike supported Dewey's functionalism and added a stimulus-response component and renamed it connectionism. Thorndike’s Laws of Connectionism Thorndike formulated three laws of learning which are; the law of Readiness, law of Exercise and the law of Effect. Law of Readiness: readiness is an important condition of learning, because satisfaction or frustration depends on the individual’s state of readiness. Thorndike stated that readiness is likean army sending scout ahead of a train whose arrival at one station sends signals ahead to openor close switches. Schools cannot force students to learn if they are not biologically and psychologically prepared. Law of Exercise: Thorndike believed that any connection is strengthened in proportion to the number of times it occurs and in proportion to the average vigor and duration of the connection. Conversely, when a connection is not made between a stimulus and response for some time, the connection strength decreases, because practice makes perfect. Law of Effect: this law states that the responses accompanied by satisfaction are more firmly connected with a situation while responses accompanied by discomfort have their connections weakened. This implies that the greater the satisfaction or discomfort, the greater the strengthening or weakening of the bond. Educational Implication of Throndike’s theory of Connection 1. The teacher should know that the students learn better when their needs and interests are considered; hence the teacher should ensure that the learning activities revolve around the students. 2. Readiness is a prerequisite for learning; the teacher is therefore advised to consider the mental or cognitive capability of the learners when planning the curriculum or instructional contents. 3. The teacher should recognize the fact that the students will like to repeat the actions for which they received positive regards. Hence, the teacher should always use various motivational strategies to sustain the interest of the students in the classroom. 4. The teacher should always present his/her materials in a logical and more coherent way. This is the major way of arresting and sustaining the interest of the learners in pedagogical activities. 29 Social Cognitive learning – Albert Bandura Bandura describes social cognitive learning as the information we process from observing other people, things and events that influences the way we act. In our cultural sense, children learn and develop cultural values by observing experienced people engage in culturally important activities. In the same way, parents and teachers are expected to help children or students act in positive ways by acting responsively before them. Bandura refers to his theory of social learning as an observational learning, and it has implication for classroom practice. Teachers should understand that children do not only do what adults tell them to do, rather they do what they see the adults do. This implies that teachers are potent force in shaping the behaviour of their students with the teaching behaviour they demonstrate in class. Bandura’s assumptions of observational learning are; 1. The observer may acquire new responses 2. Observation of models may strengthen or weaken existing responses 3. Observation of models may cause the reappearance of responses that were apparently forgotten. Bandura’s Experiment Bandura, Ross and Ross (1963) studied the effect of live models, filmed human aggression, and filmed cartoon aggression on pre-school children’s aggressive behaviour. The filmed human aggression portrayed adult models displaying aggression towards an inflated doll. The filmed cartoon aggression portrayed a cartoon character displaying the same behaviour as the humans.The live model displayed aggression identical to that in the film. Later, they discovered that allthe children exhibited significantly more aggression than the young stars in a control group. Modelling Modelling behaviour may be described as one’s person’s observation of another’s behaviour and acquiring of that behaviour in representational form, without simultaneously performing the responses (Bandura, 1977; 1986). The four important processes seen to be involved in observational learning include; Attention, Retention, Motor reproduction processes and Motivational processes. Attention: an individual’s exposure to a model does not ensure an acquisition of behaviour, rather the individual (observer) must attend to and recognize the distinctive features of the model’s responses. In this regards, students who are attracted to the compelling features of desirable models are seen to imitate their clothing, hairstyles, and the mannerism of today’s rock stars, athletics, actors and actresses. 30 Retention: the ability of an individual to reproduce a desired behaviour is a clear indication that he has retained the observed behaviour. When students observe their teacher teach, they form a mental picture or schema of what the teacher is actually doing. This however can only be possible if the students are attentive. Motor reproduction processes: this is the ability of the observer to successfully reproduce what he has observed. In the classroom, teachers can make use of role play to ensure that students have the right mental picture of what is taught. For example, when students act out a novel or a drama in a literature, they are able to from the right mental picture of their models and reproduce their behaviours. Motivational processes: the observer who have successfully reproduced a desired behaviour, will repeat his actions if the conditions are favourable or reinforced. For example, if reinforcement previously accompanied similar behaviour, the individual is likely to repeat it. But vicarious reinforcement (observing a model being reinforced) and self reinforcement (satisfaction with one’s own behaviour) are also powerful human reinforcement. Educational Implication of Bandura’s Observational learning 1. Teachers must understand that learning occurs from observing others even when the observer doesn’t practice the observed behaviour. This implies that teachers must learn to be good models for their students. 2. Role play or dramatization is an effective method of teaching because students will be more attentive when they are expected to imitate a model. 3. Cooperative learning is encouraged in the classroom because it provides students with the opportunity to show each other how to work together. 4. Peer tutoring should be encouraged in the classroom because it encourages one child to imitate another child’s skill in performing a special task. 31  Summary This lecture has been able to examine some major theories of learning and their educational implications in the classroom. Some of these learning theories are; the classical conditioning theory, the operant conditioning theory, the theory of connectionism, and the theory of social learning. Post-Test 1. Define a theory 2. Explain in detail the classical conditioning theory 3. What are the major assumption of the social learning theory 32 LECTURE SIX Discipline in the classrooms Introduction In this lecture, you will be exposed to some explanation that requires you to reflect on key illustrations that influences the behaviour disposition of pupils in the classroom in respect to reinforcement. How reinforcement types and categories could be effectively applied in a classroom setting to increase the likelihood of repeating target desired behaviour. This is because reinforcement effect on a particular behaviour strengthens or increases such behaviour. Also, the misconception of applying punishment in reinforcing or teaching a new behaviour will be dispelled as it only reduces the desire to repeat target behaviour and not necessarily otherwise. Objective At the end of this lecture, you should be able to; 1. Explain the term reinforcement 2. Highlight the various forms and categories of reinforcement 3. Identify reinforcement schedules 4. Describe when punishment application is necessary. Pre-Test 1. What is Reinforcement? Mention examples of reinforcement commonly used in a classroom setting. 2. Explain the types of reinforcement you know? 3. Explain the concepts of a. Primary Reinforcement and b. Secondary Reinforcement. 4. What is Schedule of Reinforcement? Discuss the various forms reinforcement schedule 5. Describe the importance of punishment in reinforcing target behaviour. 33 CONTENT The context of Reinforcement is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to a situation of addition or removal of a stimulus to increase the likelihood of future occurrence of a desired behaviour. It is the procedure of using a reinforcer to increase the rate of behaviour and the most important element of behaviour modification. In a classroom setting, for example, reinforcement might involve presenting praise such as excellent (the reinforcer) immediately after a pupil answer a question correctly (the response). By reinforcing the desired behaviour with praise, the pupil will be more likely to perform the same actions again. Other forms of reinforcement might include getting out of unwanted work, token rewards, extra playtime and fun activities. Types of Reinforcement i. Positive Reinforcement: involves the addition of stimulus or an event to increase a response. It is the consequences of an action that increases the likelihood that action will happen again. Such stimuli are called Positive Reinforcers. What reinforces one person on one occasion may not necessarily reinforce another or even the same person on another occasion. However, there are many reinforcers that work for most human beings. For example, if one makes eye contact with a person who smiles at you in the course of a conversation, one will likely make more eye contact with that person during your conversation. Smiling and making eye contact are the reinforcers in this context. Positive reinforcement is strongest when it occurs just after the target behaviour and weakens the longer its use is delayed. ii. Negative Reinforcement: involves removing stimulus in order to increase a response. It occurs when an aversive experience suddenly stops. It is mostly common in social interactions, such as cancelling a quiz if students turn in all of their homework for the week. By removing the aversive stimulus (the quiz), the teacher hopes to increase the occurrence of the desired behaviour (completing all homework) Categories of Reinforcement a. Primary Reinforcement; It is also referred to as Unconditional Reinforcement and this occurs naturally and may not require learning in order to work. Primary reinforcers often have an evolutionary basis in that they aid in the survival of species. Examples of primary reinforcers include food, air, sleep, water and sex. For example, while one person might find a certain type of food very rewarding, another person may not like that food at all. b. Secondary Reinforcement; It is also known as Conditioned Reinforcement and it involves stimuli that have become rewarding by being paired with another reinforcing stimulus. For example, when training a dog, praise and treats might be used as primary reinforcers. 34  The sound of a clicker can be associated with the praise and treats until the sound of the clicker itself begins to work as a secondary reinforcer. Schedule of Reinforcement Schedule of reinforcement refers to a deliberate plan which determines when and how often reinforcement is given to a student for an appropriate behaviour. Forms of Reinforcement Schedule i. Continuous Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement is the reinforcement of target behaviour every time it is exhibited. This schedule could be used when teaching a student a new behaviour not previously part of the student's repertoire and is especially useful with young students because it is very systematic. It is very effective in establishing an association between the target behaviour and the reinforcement. ii. Ratio Reinforcement Schedule This occurs when target behaviour is reinforced after a number of occurrences. This schedule is useful after having established a contingency between the reinforcement and appropriate behaviour with the continuous reinforcement schedule. It is also a good option when continuous reinforcement may be too cumbersome. Types of Ratio Reinforcement There are two types of ratio reinforcement, namely; fixed ratio and variable ratio reinforcement. Fixed ratio reinforcement is delivered after a given number of occurrences. Examples of fixed ratio reinforcement are reinforcing a child after every fifth math sheet is completed or after every third time a child exhibits sharing behaviour. Fixed ratio reinforcement is a. Useful in establishing a contingency between behaviour and reinforcement, when used consistently, because it is systematic. b. It is also often preferred by teachers to continuous reinforcement as it can be much more easily managed. c. However, research has shown that once a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule is terminated, the gains in positive behaviour will also deteriorate if the behaviour does not continue to be reinforced with some other schedule. 35  d. Furthermore, a student can learn to manipulate this schedule if he or she figures out how often reinforcement is received. For these reasons, it is recommended that a fixed ratio schedule not be used for very long. A variable ratio reinforcement schedule involves delivering reinforcement after an approximate number of times the target behaviour is exhibited. Reinforcement might bedelivered on average after every fifth math sheet is completed but could range in delivery from every third to every eighth sheet. This schedule is a. Useful for beginning maintenance of a reasonable well-established behaviour and can be used when fading out a fixed ratio schedule. Since it is less systematic or consistent than either continuous or fixed ratio reinforcement b. Not good for teaching a new behaviour. iii. Interval Reinforcement Schedule Interval Reinforcement Schedule occurs when target behaviour is reinforced after a period of time. This schedule is useful for behaviours which can be measured in terms of their duration, for example, in-seat behaviour, on-task behaviour, etc. Types of Interval Reinforcement Schedule There are two types of interval reinforcement namely fixed interval and variable interval reinforcement, Fixed interval reinforcement designates a specific interval of time, after which reinforcement is delivered contingent on appropriate behaviour. Example of fixed interval reinforcement involves the delivering of reinforcement after every five minutes of on-task behaviour. This is a very systematic and consistent schedule, excellent in strengthening behaviour. However, as with fixed ratio reinforcement, if reinforcement is simply stopped research shows that the gains made in behaviour will also deteriorate. Variable interval reinforcement is like variable ratio reinforcement in that reinforcement is delivered after an average length of time. This schedule is effective for already established behaviours and can be used when fading out a fixed interval schedule. Punishment Punishment is an aversive event that suppresses ongoing behaviour and causes avoidance or even escape. For example, a dog looking up at its master at the dinner table, if instead of getting a scrap of meat from the table it got a slap on the nose the dog would likely withdraw with a slight yelp. It’s looking up for food would be suppressed, at least momentarily. If it got a slap every 36 time it tried to look up, the act of coming up to the table would eventually be suppressed. If its master came after it with a stick it would try to escape. Punishment does not reinforce anything or teach any new behaviour but merely causes theanimal to stop whatever its doing and try to get away. It works the same way for people. For humans, the threat of punishment is enough to suppress behaviour. To be effective and at the same time humane, the stimulus must be intense enough to reduce the desire to repeat thebehaviour, without causing physical harm or undue discomfort. Timing and consistency arecritical in punishment application. If punishment is not immediately successful at stopping the behaviour, it should not be used at all. Types of Punishment a. Positive Punishment is the application of a stimulus that decreases the chance of a behaviour being repeated. b. Negative Punishment is the removal of a stimulus or event that is positive to lower the probability that behaviour will be repeated. For example, if a dog expects a piece of food for an action and that food is withheld because the dog’s behaviour is inappropriate or not sufficiently accurate, the behaviour will be less likely to be repeated. Summary The context of reinforcement describes the meaning of reinforcement, its types, and its various categories, reinforcement schedule and its forms as well as the use of punishment in stopping or reducing the occurrence of undesired behaviour. Post-Test 1. What is Reinforcement? Mention examples of reinforcement commonly used in a classroom setting. 2. Explain the types of reinforcement you know? 3. Explain the concepts of c. Primary Reinforcement and d. Secondary Reinforcement. 4. What is Schedule of Reinforcement? Discuss the various forms reinforcement schedule 5. Describe the importance of punishment in reinforcing target behaviour 37 LECTURE SEVEN Personality and Learning Introduction Learning takes place in all areas of life, however, many educational psychologists have discovered the relationship that exist between learning and some psychological constructs like self-efficacy, emotional intelligence, self-concept, personality and so on. They are of the belief that an increase or decrease in these psychological construct could either facilitate or hinder learning in the students. This lecture will reveal some of the relationships as it relates to the teaching and learning process. Objectives At the end of this lecture, the students should be able to explain the relationship between; 1. Personality and learning 2. Emotional intelligence and learning 3. Self-concept and learning Pre-Test 1. What is the influence of high self-efficacy on learning? 2. Describe the relationship between emotional intelligence and learning 3. Describe the relationship between self-efficacy and learning 4. Discuss the effect of anxiety on learning CONTENT Human traits to a large extent constitute the behaviour of an individual. These personality traits are what describes our person and determines our attitudes towards others. Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies personality and its variation between individuals. Its areas of focus include: Construction of a coherent picture of the individual and his or her major psychological processes. Investigation of individual psychological differences. 38  Investigation of human nature and psychological similarities between individuals. What is Personality? Personality is a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, emotions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations. Personality also refers to the pattern of thoughts, feelings, social adjustments, and behaviors consistently exhibited over time that strongly influences one’s expectations, self-perceptions, values, and attitudes. It also predicts human reactions to other people, problems, and stress. There is still no universal consensus on the definition of “personality” in psychology. Gordon Allport (1937) described two major ways to study personality: the nomothetic and the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self-actualization or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual. The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology with an abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories include dispositional (trait) perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist, evolutionary and social learning perspective. However, may researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain perspective and instead take an eclectic approach. Research in this area is empirically driven, such as dimensional models, based on multivariate statistics, such as factor analysis, or emphasizes theory development, such that of the psychodynamic theory. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing. In psychological education and training, the study of the nature of personality and its psychological development is usually reviewed as a prerequisite to courses in abnormal psychology or clinical psychology. What is learning? Learning is the act of acquiring new, or modifying and reinforcing, existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines. Progress over time tends to follow learning curves. Learning is not compulsory; it is contextual. It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped by what we already know. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process, rather than a collection of factual and procedural knowledge. Learning produces changes in the organism and the changes produced are relatively permanent. Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling, or training. It may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part of educational psychology, neuropsychology, learning theory, and pedagogy. 39 Self-efficacy and Learning Self-efficacy is a person’s judgment about being able to perform an educational activity. Self- efficacy in relation to learning is the extent or strength of one’s belief in one’s own ability to complete educational tasks and reach goals. Bandura postulates that these expectations determine whether or not a certain behavior or performance will be attempted, the amount of effort the individual will contribute to the behavior, and how long the behavior will be sustained when obstacles are encountered. Self-efficacy expectations, when viewed in relation to learning, refer to a person’s belief regarding “educational and learning behaviors and persistence in the implementation of those tasks”. They are reflected in an individual’s perception about his/her ability to perform a given task or behavior (efficacy expectation) and his/her belief about the consequences of behavior or performance (outcome expectation) (Hackett and Betz 1981). Bandura (1997) identifies four ways in which self-efficacy is learned and self-efficacy expectations are acquired; performance accomplishments, vicarious learning, verbal persuasion, and physical/affective status. Performance Accomplishments: The manner in which accomplishments are received has an influence on an individual’s self-efficacy expectations and actions. In the classroom, for example, poor grades and other negative assessments of ability can lower self-efficacy beliefs while high grades and positive assessment of ability will lead to higher self-efficacy beliefs. Vicarious Learning: Beliefs are often acquired through observation and interpretation. In observing the modeling behavior of others, the learner is able to reflect on past experiences with such behavior and make meaning of its relevance in a new situation. Verbal Persuasion: Beliefs about self are influences by the messages conveyed y others. Encouragement supports career-related self-efficacy, criticism hampers it. Families, friends, and teachers who have their own agendas, may inadvertently (or even overtly) limit the educational and vocational progression by discouraging certain occupational interests, choices, and engagement. Physical/Affective Status: Stress and anxiety have a negative effect on self-efficacy as well as learning. The brain learns optimally when appropriately challenged, but downshifts under perceived threat. It functions best in a supportive environment. Therefore, conditions that cause conflicts may portend low levels of self-efficacy and result in low participation and outcome expectations. The Effect of Self-Efficacy on Learning The success of students in any task has the potency of increasing their self-efficacy while failure can deflate the self-efficacy of students in subsequent task. These implies that when students 40 perform very well in an assigned task, and are well appraised, their success builds a sense of competence in them that gives them the confidence to attempt other tasks even more difficult than the previous ones. On the other hand, failure brings shame that can make a student feel less competent in other tasks, preventing him or her from giving engaging in other tasks to avoid further embarrassment. Teachers are however encouraged to help instill some level of confidence in these students by projecting the strength of these students and not make a caricature of their inefficiencies. Feedbacks especially from teachers are very important to students to boost their self-efficacy. If a teacher for instance tells a student ‘Kelly I know you can do it’ or ‘Kelly you are very good in mathematics’ these compliments from the teacher are motivational that can serve as a driving force for the students towards success. However, teachers are advised to follow through on this encouragement by ensuring that the student’s performance accomplishment meets your expectation and that of the student. The instructional techniques the teacher uses to teach the students should be such that canproperly guide the students on the right strategies to adopt in carrying out a task. A successful accomplishment of a task is assured when students know the best strategies to adopt in carrying out an assigned task and their success on the other hand can influence their self-efficacy. Self-Concept and Learning One’s self-concept (also called self-construction, self-identity, or self-perspective) is a collection of beliefs about oneself that included elements such as academic performance, gender roles and sexuality and racial identity. Generally, self-concept embodies the answer “Who am I?” One's self- concept is made up of self-schemas, and their past, present, and future selves. Self-concept is distinguishable from self-awareness, which refers to the extent to which self- knowledge is defined, consistent, and currently applicable to one's attitudes and dispositions. Self- concept also differs from self-esteem: self-concept is a cognitive or descriptive component of one's self (e.g. "I am a fast runner"), while self-esteem is evaluative and opinionated (e.g. "I feel good about being a fast runner"). Self-concept is made up of one's self-schemas, and interacts with self-esteem, self-knowledge, and the social self to form the self as whole. It includes the past, present, and future selves, where future selves (or possible selves) represent individuals' ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, or what they are afraid of becoming. Possible selves may function as incentives for certain behavior. 41 The perception people have about their past or future selves is related to the perception of their current selves. The temporal self-appraisal theory argues that people have a tendency to maintain a positive self-evaluation by distancing themselves from their negative self and paying more attention to their positive one. In addition, people have a tendency to perceive the past self less favorably (e.g. "I'm better than I used to be") and the future self more positively (e.g. "I will be better than I am now"). Self-Esteem and Learning Self-esteem results from viewing yourself positively within the context of your surroundings. How well you get along with peers and family members and how you judge yourself in comparison with others shapes your self-esteem. Whether at home, school, or the workplace, how well you understand and respond to ever-changing interpersonal demands also shapes your self-esteem. (Self esteem is evaluative and opinionated e.g. “I feel good about being a fastrunner”) It is precisely this area—the area of interpersonal relationships—in which individuals with a learning disability (LD) may have the greatest difficulty. And this can foster feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem. With help and support, however, individuals with LD can build the self-esteem they need to achieve success in any arena. Emotional Intelligence and Learning This is the ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions to discriminate between different emotions among their peers and to use emotional information to guide educational/learning thinking and behavior. If you have high emotional intelligence you are able to recognize your own emotional state and the emotional states of others, and engage with people in a way that draws them to you. You can use this understanding of emotions to relate better to other people, form healthier relationships, achieve greater success at work, and lead a more fulfilling life. Emotional Intelligence Models Early theorist such as Thorndike and Gardner paved the way for the current experts in the field of emotional intelligence. Each theoretical paradigm conceptualizes emotional intelligence from one of two perspectives: ability or mixed model. Ability models regard emotional intelligence as a pure mental ability and thus as a pure intelligence. In contrast, mixed models of emotional intelligence combine mental ability with personality characteristics such as optimism and well being (Mayer, 1999). Currents, the only ability model of emotional intelligence is that proposed by John Mayer and Peter Salovey. Two mixed models of emotional intelligence have been 42 proposed, each within a somewhat different conception. Reuven Bar-on has put forth a model based within the context of personality theory, emphasizing the co-dependence of the ability aspects of emotional intelligence with personality traits and their application to personal well- being. In contrast, Daniel Goleman proposed a mixed model in terms of performance, integrating an individual’s abilities and personality and applying their corresponding effects on performance in the workplace (Goleman, 2001). Salovey and Mayer: An Ability Model of Emotional Intelligence Mayer and Salovey conception of emotional intelligence is based within a model of intelligence, that is, it strives to define emotional intelligence within the confines of the standard criteria for a new intelligence (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, and Sitarenios, 2003). It proposes that emotional intelligence is comprised of two areas: experiential (ability to perceive, respond and manipulate emotional information without necessary understanding it) and strategic (ability to understand and manage emotions without necessarily perceiving feelings well or fully experiencing them). Each area is further divided into two branches that range from basic psychological processes to more complex processes integrating emotion and cognition. The first branch, emotional perception, is the ability to be self-aware of emotions and to express emotions and emotional needs accurately to others. Emotional perception also includes the ability to distinguish between honest and dishonesty expressions of emotion. The second branch, emotional assimilation, is the ability to distinguish among the different emotions one is feeling and to identify those that are influencing their thought processes. The third branch, emotional understanding, is the ability to understand complex emotions (as feeling two emotions at once) and the ability to recognize transitions from one to the other. Lastly, the fourth branch, emotion management, is the ability to connect or disconnect from an emotion depending on its usefulness in a given situation (Mayer and Salovey, 1997). Bar-On: A mix model of emotion intelligence Reuven Bar-on developed one of the first measures of emotional intelligence that used the term “Emotion Quotient”. Bar-on’s model of emotional intelligence relates to the potential for performance and success, rather than performance or success itself, and is considered process- oriented rather than outcome-oriented (Bar-On, 2002). It focuses on an array of emotional and social abilities, including the ability to be aware of, understand, and express oneself, the abilityto be aware of, understand, and relate to others, the ability to deal with strong emotions, and the ability to adapt to change and solve problems of a social or personal nature (Bar-On, 1997). In his model, Bar-On outlines 5 components of emotional intelligence: intrapersonal, interpersonal, adaptability, stress management, and general mood. Within these components are sub- components, all of which are outlined in table below. Bar-On posits that emotional intelligence develops over time and that it can be improved through training, programming, and therapy (Bar- On, 2002). Bar-On considers emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence to contribute 43 equally to a person’s general intelligence, which then offers an indication of one’s potential to succeed in life (Bar-On, 2002). Goleman: A mixed model of emotional Intelligence Daniel Goleman, a psychologist and science writer who had previously written on brain and behavior research for the New York Times, discovered the work of Salovey and Mayer in the 1990’s. Goleman’s model outlines four main emotional intelligence constructs. The first, self- awareness, is the ability to read one’s emotions and recognize their impact while using gut feelings to guide decisions. Self-management, the second construct, involves controlling one’s emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances. The third construct, social awareness, includes the ability to sense, understand, and react to other’s emotions while comprehending social networks. Finally, relationship management, the fourth construct, entails the ability to inspire, influence, and develop others while managing conflict (Goleman, 1998). Goleman includes a set of emotional competencies within each construct of emotional intelligence. Emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that workes on the developed to achieve outstanding performance. Goleman posits that individualsare born with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies. The organization of the competencies under the various constructs is not random; they appear in synergistic clusters or groupings that support and facilitate each other (Boyatzis, Goleman, and Rhee, 1999). Interest Interest can be seen as students’ involvement in learning of which its progress or success is important to him or her. Students are said to put in their best in tasks, when they are interested and fully engaged. Interest has a strong influence on an individual’s cognitive and affective functioning. It is a psychological state which is characterized by focus, attention, increased attention, and affective functioning and persistent effort. Interest and Learning Interest is a state of curiosity or concern about or attention to learning. Interest has been said to have a strong positive influence on students comprehension, recall and learning; Schraw et al (1995, Schiefele & Krap (1996). The relationship between interest and learning has basically focused on three types of interests; individual, situational, and topic. Individual interest: it is considered as an individual’s preposition to attend to certain stimuli, events and objects. It is an individual’s level of interest that results in increased learning. this interest could either be general or specific depending on the domain. For example, a topic taught 44 could arouse interest in an individual that helps the student remain focused in class, thereby aiding learning. Situational interest: this is elicited or stimulated by certain aspects of the environment. It is characterized by focused attention and a range of emotions or feeling, which can either be positive or negative. It could also be referred to as the environmental influence on the task learned; such that if a topic is taught in class an there is a fight going on outside the classroom, there is a tendency that the attention of some of the students will be divided. Situational interest may be important for students who do not have any existing individual interest in their school activities; they can be introduced or confronted with a personal relevant text or novel relating tothe topic learned. Topic interest: this refers to the level of interest triggered when a topic is presented. This interest could be aroused by a word or paragraph in that topic. This implies that when a topic is interesting, it will trigger interest in the learner, which in turn will increase learning. For example, topics related to sexual behaviours could trigger the interest of adolescents. Anxiety and Learning Anxiety is a feeling of fear, worry and uneasiness usually generalized as an overreaction to a situation that is only subjectively seen as menacing. It is also said to be an unpleasant state of inner chaos, often associated with nervous behaviour especially when faced with a challenge such as examination, interview or presentation. Various factors have been implicated in thedevelopment and maintenance of anxiety disorders including cognitive (e.g. information processing), preparedness, and behavioral (learning). Research indicates that environmental factors such as learning, contribute more to the etiology and maintenance of anxiety than dogenes (Eley, 2001). It is important for a learner to conquer anxiety as this could either impede or inhibit learning or hinder the learner from achieving his or her goals. In the classroom, there are varying sources of anxiety for students; the mood of the teacher, academic achievement, subjects, relationship with peers etc. these factors and more could make the learner engage poorly in class activities. The Effect of Anxiety on Learning Attention: students find it difficult paying attention in class when they are anxious. For example, it the students are told before the commencement of the lesson that the assignment given to them the previous day will be collected and those who didn’t attempt the assignment will be punished, 45 from that moment the announcement is made, those who are guilty of not doing their assignment will be so anxious such that they may not be attentive to the lesson. Concentration: when students are anxious, they find it difficult concentrating on what is being taught. For instance, if students discover that while the lesson is going on, the school administrators are going class by class to send students who haven’t paid their fees sent home, the affected students in that class cannot concentrate no matter how interesting the class is, because they are more concerned with the embarrassment they will be faced with when the school administrators identifies them. Interpretation: anxious students interpret situations as dangerous. For example, a school which is too strict in discipline will have more of their students too anxious because they will always perceive every action as threatening. If in this situation, a teacher walks into a class and says to a student ‘see me in my office after your class’, that student from that moment becomes disoriented because he begins to interpret that request to mean that he has done something wrong and will be punished. Locus of Control Locus of control involves the extent to which individuals believe that an outcome is contingent on their behaviour or personal characteristics rather than being a function of external events not under their control or simply unpredictable (Lefcourt, 1992; Rotter, 1990). Locus of control influences how people view the world and how they identify the cause of success or failure they experience. Some people can attribute their success or failure to their ability or personal negligence which are internal factors or to others around them which are environmental factors. People with an internal locus of control feel a need to control their environment; they tend to feel anxious and guilty because they see themselves as responsible for everything including things they cannot control while those with an external locus of control feel less responsible for their actions. This portrays that people with an internal locus of control are more proactive and flexible to positive change while those with external locus of control are more reactive and rigidto change. Locus of Control and Learning Locus of control has great effect on students’ behaviour towards learning in the classroom. Students who are characterized as internal are more likely than others to show high academic performance. On the other hand, students with more of external locus of control believe that they have little control over their lives. For this category of students, they may attribute a poor grade to the lousy teacher, feeling there was