MCAT Psy_Soc Document PDF

Sensation, Perception: Sensation:Neurological signals getting sent to the brain in the response to a stimulus. - Ex: Sensation without perception: a mosquito lays on your arm you can sense it but it’s not a strong enough sensation for perception. - Absolute Threshold of Sensation:...

Sensation, Perception: Sensation:Neurological signals getting sent to the brain in the response to a stimulus. - Ex: Sensation without perception: a mosquito lays on your arm you can sense it but it’s not a strong enough sensation for perception. - Absolute Threshold of Sensation: The minimum stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system (Lower threshold=easier to achieve) (absolute) - Sensory Adaptation:When you walk into a room you smell a weird smell and then you don't smell it anymore. - Sensory Receptors: 1. Thermoreceptors- which detect changes in the temperature.Example: Thermoreceptors- the difference in temperature between your hand and object. Heat flows in and out and activates these receptors. When you jump into a cold pool at first the body will vasoconstrictive to preserve heat. But you get use to it over time. 2. Mechanoreceptors- hearing; hair cells moving. 3. Pacinian corpuscle: Receptor for pressure and vibration. Haptics means touch 4. Osmoreceptor, which detects the osmotic pressure of the body fluids. Perception: Cognitive process. - Ex: Perception without sensation means hallucinations. - Threshold of conscious perception: Under conditions of high psychological arousal= A decrease in the threshold of perception. The brain will be more ready to perceive signals in that environment which indicates that the threshold level of stimulation for the brain to perceive something is lower. - JND= difference threshold 1. Certain change in intensity 2. Ex: Change in the amount of darkness/light that affects how well you can see sovmething. OR Change in the intensity of sound - Weber’s Law: The ratio when you notice the difference. Ex: Intensity of the sound. Phil’s mother did not notice the change of the volume of the T.V. from his childhood Signal Detection Theory: One’s ability to detect a signal depends on the stimulus intensity and psychological state of the individual. Ex: Whether or not you can detect a signal. Test hearing. Cocktail party effect: Example: you are in a party, you hear your name and your brain will zero in because our brain is conditioned to look for our name. Structure and function of the eye: Pinhole effect: When you look at an object the top part of the object will hit the bottom part of the retina and the bottom of the object will hit the top part of the retina. An object that is farthest from you appears smaller because of the way it hits the retina at a smaller distance. - (Photoreceptors) Rods: more sensitive; easily to fire when light hits - dark/ light. - (Photoreceptors) Cons: color (more in the fovea) 400nm to 700nm. Violet, Blue, Cyan, Green, Yellow, Red. Different wavelength activate the different colors - In peripheral vision, its the rods because you notice something moved but you dont know what color. - Blue cones can affect sleep cycle - Phototransduction: light striking the rods causing the cleavage of the rhodospin resulting in sodium inrflux channels closing. This causes rods to hyperpolarize and release glutamate to bipolar cells and activating them and sending visual information along the optic tracts. - Lateral Geniculate nucleus (LGN) : Seeing - Parallel Processing: Color and motion at the same time. Two separate system which happens at the same time(so parallel) 1. Magnocellular- large; motion 2. Parvocellular- small; shape - Feature Detection: parts of the brain hard wire to recognize features; can be learned or innate Example: - Stared at red light for 30 minutes. What happens? - Shut down some red cones desenstize. What if I look at something yellow- will look greenish because the red cones are desenstize. - When you look at the sun or something really bright? - It shuts the rods and the cones off. So when you turn away you start blinking and start to see dark spots because the rods and cones were shut down - What if I look something for teal for 30 minutes?- Shut down blue cones, green and red, and rods Terms: - Convergence: to allow the brain to calculate how close or far away an object is. - Relative Size: that an object which is larger will be perceived as closer - Relative Height: that an object which is closer to you will appear lower in the visual plane. Hearing: 1. The basilar membrane vibrates- moves with sound 2. Mechanoreceptors- hair cells 3. Low pitch activates the hair cell in the apex (lower frequency) and tells the brain that it is a low pitch. 4. High pitch activates the hair cell in the base (higher frequency) and the tells the brain it is a high pitch 5. Low and high pitch is when the eardrum bounces quickly or slowly. 6. Intensity is how hard the eardrum hits is a louder sound Example: Loud: membrane bounce higher will knock down all the hair cell Whisper: membrane bounce a little bit- will knock down the hair cells that are taller 7. Number of hair cells knock down will tell me how loud the sound is. But WHERE the hair cell is which pitch? 8. Both ears comes to both sides of the brain. Example: - Whisper, high pitch: The hair will be at the base and the hair cell taller will be knock down, does not bounce as much. - Loud, high pitch: The hair cell will be at the base and all the hair cell will be knocked down. Bounce alot. - Low pitch- apex 9. Hair cell- neuron- when you damage it. It does not grow back. Example: Really loud sound cause permanent deafness. With age: the base: hair cells will die so the high pitch YOU CAN NOT HEAR WHEN YOU ARE OLDER. Vestibular system: - Utricle + Saccule- ½- Linear acceleration - Semicircular canals- ½- rotational acceleration - Otoliths are responsible for detecting linear acceleration of the head and the direction of head tilt - Hair cells, fluid will move due to the acceleration. The fluid will knock over the hair cells Example- when someone hits the gas you notice when they are accelerating or decacclerating. Constant speed- you can’t tell Vertigo- the semicircular canals keep spinning so your brain thinks you are dizzy Medial Geniculate Nucleus: Sound Touch: 1. Different touches correlate to different receptors: - Ruffini corpuscle, Pacinian corpuscle, Merkel’s disk, and Meissner’s corpuscle 2. Proprioception: embedded in your muscle. Can tell if you stretch a muscle and tendons. You know where your body aparts are. You know when a muscle is stretch. Example: - I know I’m putting two fingers behind my back. - Stop you from pulling back your arm too far- to protect yourself - Sympathetic- dampens this proprioception- Example - a women lifts up a car of her baby- if she was not in a flight or fight moment she would have never done that due to propricoception.  - Patient comes in and cannot move their leg. I tap their knee. What do I want to happen? a. No kick means it is PNS problem (can regenerate) b. But if they kick then it is a CNS problem ( this is bad because they have limited regenerated ability) 3. Nociception: pain- sending nerve signals to the spinal cord and brain Taste: Different taste sensors with different chemoreceptors: 1. Sweet- saccharides 2. Salty- Na and Cl ions 3. Sour- acids a. Cooking- if food is bitter than add lemon- something sour because bitter is basic so adding sour will add acid 4. Bitter- bases (soap) 5. Umami- MSG (monosodiumm glutamate)- amino acid 6. Flavor is smell and taste. When you loose smell- everything taste the same. Different people taste the same thing different- because there might be different receptors. In COVID- you dont loose taste b/c alot of flavor comes from smell receptors. COVID knocks out smell receptors Smell: - Pheromones- communication in animals - Example: In ants: pheromones: goes into a circle by accident looking for food and goes into a death spiral. Parts of the Brain: - Thalamus: relay station for four senses EXPECT for smell - Geniculate Nucleus: Sensory Relay. 1. Lateral: Vision 2. Medial: Sound - Primary Visual Cortex: Visual processing - Corpus callosum: Example: What is likely to be observed in a patient with a damaged corpus callosum? Inability to read words seen only by the right eye because left is language and right is visual. Psychology Treatment: 1. Psychophysics: How stimuli influence behavior/ cognitive processes. Ex: Pain, anger. How a physical object have causes psychological pain? (getting hit or harm) Perception Processess: - Bottom- up processing:No taking of previous knowledge; only from the picture.  Example: Scientist forms conclusions from the data; not taking the data to fit my conclusions (previous knowledge which is top-down processing ) - Top- down processing: Taking in details and use experiences/ ideas applying it to the picture/ situation. Causes biases; to fit into our conclusion. Gestalt principles: 1. Law of Pragnaz: holds the objects in the environment are seen in a way that makes them appear as simple as possible 2. Similarity: group them together because of the similarity 3. Proximity: group them because they are next to each other. Restaurants- people are together by proximity 4. Closure- top down processing - we see a circle 5. Continuity: we assume the line will continue even if it was behind something Reflex Arc: A consistent involuntary reaction to a particular stimulus that involves the spinal cord. Attention: 1. Selective Attention: 2. Divided Attention:Multi-tasking is the easiest when two tasks are dissimilar. Listening to a history podcast while jogging not challenging and well practiced. 3. Exogenous Cues: Bottom up processing relating to involuntary perception of external sensory information 4. Endogenous Cues: Top- down processing relating to voluntary perception of goal  oriented thought process. Four Theories of Attention : 1. Early Selection (Broadbent): Input-> sensory buffer-> filter- >recognition 2. Attenuation: (Treisman: Input-> sensory buffer-> attenuator (weaken) recognition 3. Late Selection (Deutsch & Deutsch: Input-> sensory buffer-> recognition-> filter. Example: Cocktail party effect: you hear words but don’t pay attention until someone calls your name 4. Information Processing Model: Stimuli-> Sensory Memory->Working Memory Stages: Piaget’s Stages: 1. Sensorimotor 0-2: - Object Permanence 2. Preoperational 2-6: egocentric /can not know feelings of others. Centration: focus on one aspect. Conservation: Can not understand how variables relate to each. - Example: A child covers their eye and scream, “You can’t me” 3. Concrete operational 7-12: No hypothetical; trolley problem- all good and all bad in categorical 4. Formal Operational 12: more hypothetical What declines and stable and gets better with age?: Worse: 1. Fluid intelligence- ability to solve logical problems 2. Encoding episodic memories 3. Divided attention Better: 1. Crystallized intelligence- facts 2. Emotion intelligence- recognize emotion Stable: 1. Implicit memory Understanding the world around us: Representativeness Heuristics: Understanding - Example: When you walk into a room and you turn on the light switch and it does not turn. From your degree, based on conceptual understanding- maybe the circuit didn’t  have a resistor. Understanding why - Ex: prior to opening the box, Obi expects a box from Krispy Kreme to contain donuts - Ex: Women delays going to the hospital because the heart attack did not match the “protypical” symptoms but it in the end it was heart attack.- How well something matches a mental prototype. Availability heuristics:Experience: common thing to solve the problem. Immediately comes to mind. - Example: When you walk into a room and you turn on the light. The light does not turn on. From common experience, you change the light bulb. Just because it worked last time - Seeing a tattoo man: assuming he’s a criminal based on recent high profile criminal case involving a tattoo man. Barriers to problem- solving: 1. Functional Fixedness: Stubborn way of thinking; tend to think one way. Example: We need to take out a screw but we don’t have a screwdriver so we can’t do it. One way of thinking. - To overcome functional fixedness- thinking of new ways- ex- using a butterknife 2. Overconfidence: Biases in decision making. Example: Phil thought it was a good idea to rebuild a house while in medical school and it was painful. 3. Confirmation Bias: Seeking only info that agrees. Example: I thought the moon is full of pickles and then search for proof that the moon is full of pickles. BUT do not read the other side. 4. Belief perseverance: Person want to keep believing the same idea - because if you change your view then you are wrong. Example: Phil to Phil’s brother- Phil: Do you know why the moon glows? Zak: The rocks glow Phil: no present with evidence its from the sun Zak: No its not - So he ask his opinion and then present with evidence. So Zak ignores the evidence presented, so he can not be wrong. 5. Framing effects: Frame questions in a certain way 6. Hindsight bias: Of course! I knew it was a lucky number 7. Causation bias: Assume these two things are correlated but they have nothing to do with each other Intelligence: Emotional Intelligence: Empathy- recognize emotion in other people  1. Sternberg: - Analytic: IQ- able to solve certain problem in certain category - Creative: come up with new ideas- novel ideas - Practical: solve problems that are not defined well. - Example: how can you get the couch to your apartment without friends- solving ill defined problems- best way to do something 2. Gardner’s: - Kinesthetic: knowing how to move your body and understand where it is in space and how it will react - Visio-spatial: Space - Musicial: music - Mathematical/ logical: rules, formulus, - Linguistic- ability to convey a complex idea - Interpersonal: reading other people; how to put people at ease (don’t know how) - Intrapersonal: understanding motivations (yours and possibly others)/ (understand- why people do it- humor- defense mechanisms) Examples of Gardern’s intelligence: - High Kinesthetic: dancer, basketball player - Low Kinesthetic: being clumsy; stumping your toe - High Visio-spatial: pilot, engineer, architect, surgeon - Low Visio- spatial: can not visualize the structure - High Mathematical/Logical: Lawyer- poke holes into your argument (rules set ) Computer scientist - High Interpersonal: comedians, politicians, therapist - High Linguistic: speech writer- make speeches for people to understand Spearman- general intelligence: - Intellectual ability in all domains is correlated to an underlying factor Sleep:  1. Alpha waves- awake; sitting down 2. Beta waves- more active- solving problems 3. Delta wave- your brain is off- deep sleep- less active Sleep cycle: Stage 1: Theta waves Stage 2: Theta waves; K-complex and the sleep spindle Stage 3: Slow wave and Delta waves- less active Stage 4: Slow wave and Delta waves- less active. Deep sleep predominates earlier at night/ earlier in the sleep REM: Beta and Alpha waves- looks mentally active- dreaming is active- 75%. Muscle parlyasis. Predominates later at night during late sleep. Where nightmares occurs. - Circadian rhythm can be altered: biological and external factor (sun, temp, hunger or not - Tryptophan turns into serotonin then to (stiulmated in the sunlight) melatonin - Hormone levels are affected by sleep cycle (not getting enough or interrupted sleep) - Lack of sleep- affects memory - During sleep cycles indicators include physiological arousal (temperature, sympathetic activity decrease as a person delves into slow wave sleep. - REM sleep the opposite happens: indicators of physiological arousal spike and person’s biometrics resemble that of an awake person. - Zeitgeber: external environmental stimulus which is used by the body to determine its circadian rhythm. Can be considered photic (presence or absence of light) and non photic- anything other than light. Periods of social interaction can be considered.  - Theories of dream: 1. Freud: Psychoanalysis- you need help to analyze your subconscious; fighting with your spouse, don’t know why- so they analyze your subconscious. Dream analyzing- understanding in the subconscious. - Latent content the meaning behind the dream. - Manifest content of a dream: actual content of the dream 2. Activation of synthesis: random neuron activation. Dreaming about elephants- you probably went to the zoo that morning. Random neuron that activated previously that day. Does not mean anything. 3. Problem-solving: your brain is still trying to solve the problem that you were solving during the day; cognitive process Sleep Problems: 1. Parasomina: - Sleep walking(somnambulate) - Sleep paralysis (occurs in REM) - Night terrors (more tired)(moving and screaming and hard to wake up)(emotion not a vivid dreaming)(occurs in non-REM stages- stage 3 or 4) 2. Dyssomia : - Insomia: can’t sleep - Narcolepsy: can not stay awake - Sleep apnea: you stop breathing while sleeping : a. Central: neurological issue; you stop breathing; no signal to the brainstream to keep breathing  b. Obstructive: airway closes; lack of muscle tone or excess adipose tissue usually with older and overweight Hypnosis: works if you are susceptible to it, much more willing to it; alpha waves- not mentally active as much. Ex- ways to quit smoking, pain managment, memories Mediation: deep mediation- thelta wave- inactive. But it is usually alpha waves Benefits: lessen anxiety, disconnect Drugs: 1. Depressant: Increase GABA which inhibits, prevents neuron from firing and decrease the production of acetylcholine(usually at the thalamus and reticular formation) - Ex: Alcohol - Barbiturates (take too much) - depressed their brainsteam- forget to breath= postsynaptic hyperpolarization 2. Stimulants: block uptake of dopamine, norepin and serotonin in the synapses - Ex: nicotine, cocaine, caffeine, addreall, amphethamines 3. Hallucinogens: similar composition to serotonin and epinephrine and function by mimicking them - Ex: LCD, mushrooms 4. Opioids: opioids have function similarly to endorphins which serve as the body’s pain reducers Tolerance: your body is better of getting rid of it so you need more to feel the effects of it. Withdrawal: Opioids- endorphins don’t work normally any more. You need to take opioids to feel normal. Ventral tegmental area (VTA): area of brain in the midbrain and produces dopamine:  1. Sends dopamine to the Amygdala (Deals with emotion) 2. Sends dopamine to nucleus accumbens (control motor functions) 3. Sends dopamine to pefrontal cortex (attention and planning) 4. Sends dopamine to the hippocampus (responsible for the formation of memories) Cake Example: 1. Hippocampus: will want to remember what restaurant you’re at when you ate the delicious piece of cake, what piece of cake you ordered, things about that experience. 2. Nucleus accumbens: will tell you to take another bite of the cake and will cause your hand to use the fork to eat another bite 3. Prefrontal cortex: will help you focus on the cake and divert your attention to it Memory: 1. Sensory Memory: 0.5 to 3 seconds; subconscious - Visual- iconic - Echoic- sound- thick accent 2. Working memory/ short term memory: 5-15 seconds; conscious - Visuo-sketch pad: math in your head- hold it - Pholognical loop: keep repeating the number (can not interrupt it or you will loose that number. 3. Long term memory : permanent (Subconsious) a. (Hippocampus) Explicit Memory- conscious b. Semantic Memory- facts c. Cerellbum: Implicit memory subconscious (tasks)- procedural 4. Declarative Memory: - Long term memory - Explicit/ conscious - Episodic- personal history - Semantic- general knowledge, facts 5. Nondeclarative memory:  - Long term memory - Implicit/ unconscious - Priming: a memory process during which the exposure to one stimulus causes an increases response to a stimulus that occurs later - Procedural: Performance of cognitive and or tasks - Associative memory: emotional memory - Nonassociative memory: Sensitization and habituation - Classical and operant conditioning Flashbulb memory- NOT accurate but individuals recalling them will have a high degree of confidence in their accuracy and have the ability to recall insignificant details. Semantic network: chain of memories, map of connections Recall, recognition, and relearning: 1. Recall: - Free: without a cue or a hint - Cued- gives a hint to remember 2. Serial: remember the order, sequence. Ex: whats the thirteen letter in the alphabet needs to sing it in alphabet. - Primary Effect: remembering items presented at the beginning - Recency Effect: remembering items presented at the end of the list 3. Recognition: recognizing - Relearning: easier to relearn than learning it for the first time Processes that affect retrieval:  1. Chuncking: memorize in groups 2. Physical activity and diet: improving memory- exercise 3. Interference- memories can interfere with another memory - Retro- Interference: you met Lisa then you met Phil. But can’t remember Lisa name because Phil in way. New interference with old information. - Pro-Interference: you can not remember the list that the teacher gave you because you keep remembering the grocery list from hours before. The old information interfere with learning the new. 4. State memory: internal you remember when you are in the state again. Example: If he is drunk again he will remember. 5. Context memory: environment; the spot you study and later take a test you can remember the stuff you studied. 6. Aging: - Worse: encoding episodic memory. They remember their childhood, past but can not remember the most recent memories. Fluid intelligence is ability to solve a problem, it gets worst. - Better: semantic memory, crystaillized intelligence, recognizing emotion - Stable: Procedural memory, implicit memory Diseases: 1. Alzhimer’s: - Confabulation- make up information but they do not know its not true- creation of false memories- they think it is true. - Increased neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaque buildup - Reduced fluid intelligence - Its empty space in the brain  2. Dementia: - Decline in cognitive ability- can not do math - Korskoff syndrome- lack of B-12; usually from alcoholic - Increase mental activity- less likely to get Alzhiemer’s disease 3. Thiamine deficiency: - Retrograde amnesia- do not remember past Memory Construction- Who’s your Kindergan teacher? You remember the name however you are NOT remembering when you were in Kindergan. It is when the last time you refer to that name. Source Monitoring- where it came from (problem- can not remember who told me) Neural Plasticity: shapeable; brain can rewire Long term potentiation: ex- a speech is rehearsed several times- seen multiple times growing and strengthening connectivity Synaptic pruning: when your younger; something that is not used- you cut it out Theories of language: Learning: B.F. Skinner- operant conditioning/ reward and punishment. Saying mama and then parents gets excited and give more attention so will keep saying the word. Nativist: biological theory- Chomsky- hardwire learn language, language acquisition device. Feral children, once you reach 15ish you cannot master language. Critical period. We pick up language. Social interactionist: we learn to speak because we want to interact that why we see language. To communicate- we want somethin. Influence of language on cognition:  - Linguistic relativism/ Sapir- Whoft hypothesis (whorfian hypothesis)- 1984- government want to get rid of the word rebellion because once you dont have the word you wont be capable of that thought- no one will even think of rebelling- shaped the population thought process by getting rid of certain words - Amy Adams try to communicate with alien so learns their language but it changes her and how she sees the world and understand the world - More words you know the more complex thought you know Broca- speech production- broken english- prefrontal - left Wernicke- understanding - temporal lobe- left Left side will go both eyes right side and right side of my brain Right side will go to both eyes left side and left side of my brain Emotion: components: 1. Affective: feelings; emotion; how you feel while you are scared 2. Behavioral: what you do behavioral when you are scared; acting on; smiling 3. Cognitive:I should get out here- I’m afraid Unverisal Emotion: biological hardwire - Surprise - Fear - Digust - Contempt - Anger  - Happiness - Sadness - Neutral Teenagers bad at recognizing emotion Yerkes Dodson: - Optimize performance- super engaged - has to just right - not too little not too much - Friends - increases arousal- optimize performance - Too high- too arousal- super bowl- not going to be good- too nerve - Easy task- walk at the super bowl- can do that or John Legend easy task to play the piano at the superbowl. Hierachical networks- how memories are stored in the brain. Broder concept and connect to many smaller more specific concepts Semantic networks: involve the formation of many connections between different items in memory based on ther semantic similarity Ex: Spreading activation- during recall of items of a groccery list, a person will most likely recall an item was not actually on the list due to semantic network- spread activation- Egg leads to milk Implicit memory: includes nonassociative memory- sensitization and habituation - decrease response to a stimulus over time Sommambulism- sleep walking Conduction aphasia- as a result of damage to arcuate fasciculus which connects Broca’s and Wernicke area’s primarily involves the impaired repetition of heard. Linguistic Determinism: Knowledge of language determines a person’s cognitions. That the structure and knowledge of human language completely determine a person’s thought processes and ability to conceive of concepts. Emotion: Theories of emotion: 1. James- Lange theory: Stimulus- physiological arousal- emotion 2. Cannon-Bard: Stimulus- emotion and physicological arousal at the same time 3. Schacter- Singer: Stimulus- physiological- cognitive- emotion or not. - Ex: I see a bear- heart rate- oh wait it’s my friends bear- I’m fine. - On a rollercoaster but the heart is pumping but I don’t feel fear because I’m safe. - You are hanging off the empire state building - heart pumps- I feel scared because I’m not safe Question: Little billy stung by a bee for the 80th time this month. He is allergic, he comes in and I give him an epinephrine shot. He isn’t afraid of needless and knows it will help him. 1. Under what theories will the shot cause fear: - James Lang - Not the Cannon Bard because arousal does not do a cascade to emotion - Not the Schacter- Singer because his cognition knows hes fine 2. I give someone a shot that blocks epi receptors. Can they feel fear? - No fear in James Lange and Schacter- singer - Cannon-Bard- Stimulus- physicological- no but emotion yes Brain regions and emotion: Limbic system:  1. Hypothalamus: controlling endocrine system 2. Thalamus: sensory relay station 3. Amygdala: emotion 4. Hippocampus: memory Question: Eating cake 1. Hypothalamus- feeling hungry 2. Thalamus-sendinformation to the right place 3. Amygdala: emotion- we love cake 4. Hippocampus- we remember that we love cake Stress- diffficuility encountered in life and appraisal 1. Distress- negative stress (I don’t have a car or a home) 2. Eustress- positive stress (I figure out where to donate money because I’m millionaire) I have to do so much paperwork- but I helped this patient Appraisal - depends on your interuptions on the event Ex:Psychology Exam: 1. Distress- Phil is dreading it; I hates the subject 2. Eustress- Zack loves it; cant wait to show their skills Types of Stress: 1. Cataclysmic- flood, 9/11 2. Personal- during COVID- omg everyone is home; children not at school- stress for parents  3. Chronic- rent is due and struggling every month. Rent is due- cortisol- stress hormone 4. Acute: Bear; flight or fight- sympathetic Ambient Stressor- Noise pollution- low importance Major Life event- high importance (cancer Apprasial- the way a person interupts a stressor - Primary appraisal- occurs when a person decides whether an event is harmful or helpful and whether is it relevant to them - Secondary appraisal- occurs when a person decides what resources they have to respond to a stressor. Ex: a person’s interpretation of the resources available to themselves General Adaptation Syndrome: Alarm- Resistance- Exhaustion Cortisol: - Starvation response - Increases hungry - Increases blood sugar - Increases fat deposition (central body)- to protect your organs - Tiredness- conserve energy - Decrease production of white blood cell- conserve energy - Stress impedes memory - Crushner- syndrome- high cortisol- weight gain; tired, fat depostion, - Socioeconomic- high chronic stress- financial struggles - Cortisol cream-for rashes- immune system fighting off dog hair. Cortisol to suppress immune system; antihistamine - The immune system causes swelling and pain- cortisol can help  - Liver transplant- cortisol suppress immune system- to stop the rejection - Crohn’s disease- high cortisol Neurotransmitter: one neuron releases one neurotransmitter 1. GABA- inhibitory, decrease activity, shut down, depress cognitive process, less brain activity, ex- alcohol 2. Acetylcholine: CNS, PNS- muscle contraction, treatment for parlyasis 3. Epin and Norep- adrenaline 4. Dopamine- smooth movement; Parkinson’s disease- low dopamine 5. Serotinin- mood, depression- SRI, dream, sleep eating 6. Glycine- inhibitory- amino acid 7. Glutamate- excitatory- amino acid 8. Endorphins- pain- exercise - counterattack cortisol The primary neurotransmitter in the parasympathetic nervous system is acetylcholine Myelin sheath: - CNS- spinal cord and brain- oligodendrocytes (complex- comlex name); myelination- no regeneration - PNS- everything else- Shwan’s cell- myelination- limited regeneration SAME DAVE Sensory Afferent Motor Efferent Dorsally (Backside) Afferent Ventrally (Front side) Efferent Parts of the brain: Cerebral cortex- outer layer of cerebrum; divided into 4 lobes- frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal Forebrain: ( Prosencephalon ) 1. Cerebrum 2. Thalamus- processing center  3. Hypothalamus autonomic motor system, endocrine system regulation 4. Pituitary gland: Mibrain- Top of the brain stem- allow communication between forebrain, spinal cord, hindbrain Hindbrain- 1. Pons- coordination of info flow between brain and spinal cord 2. Medulla oblongota- control for autonomics heart rate, blood pressure, breathig rate 3. Cerebellum- muscle movement and coordination (voluntary) Lateralization of cortical function : 1. Left- language 2. Right- Creative, music Ways to study brain: 1. EEG- general activity 2. CT scan- structural; can not tell the difference between dead or alive; determine tumors, bullet, bleeding. Fast, X-ray, metal safe- pacemaker 3. MRI- structural, pretty better, expensive. Helpfully for pregnant people. Can’t move for 40 minutes, slow 4. fMRI- functional MRI- blood flow, telling which part is activity, heat map, changes in blood flow 5. PET (positron emission) scan- glucose- activt y= metabolism- burn a lot of glucose- tells us which part of the brain is metabolic activity - Glucose tagging- instead of a H instead has Fluroine- B+ decay emits position - Light up in the PET scan: 1. Metabolic activity- high- tumor- a very active we see in the PET scan 2. Heart- metabolic activity- needs glucose to pump  3. Bladder- depositing the glucose which is in the urine 4. Kidney: filtering the glucose 5. Brain: metabolic active Endocrine System: - Testosterone increases aggression Innate (ex- universal emotion; smiling while happy- it was innate) vs. learned (holding my hand for a cab) Prenatal developmental: Motor development: 1. Gross motor development: development of large muscles. Allow us to sit, stand, walk, run 2. Fine motor movement- development of small muscles 3. Controlled by cerebellum, still developing while a baby Infancy Reflexes: 1. Stepping reflex: if the sole of an infant's foot touches a flat surface, they will place one foot in front of the other (also known as the "walking reflex") 2. Tonic neck reflex-if a baby's head is turned to the side, the baby will extend its arm on that side, and bend the opposite arm. (Dabbing reflex) 3. Blinking reflex- if a baby sees a bright flash of light or experiences a gust of wind, it will blink its eyes 4. Rooting reflex- if you stroke a baby's cheek they will turn in that direction and open their mouth (seeking mother's nipple) 5. Babinski reflex- if you stroke a baby's foot, its big toe will extend upward, and the toes on its other foot will spread apart (positive). For adults it will curl inward (negative) 6. Palmar grasp reflex- if you stroke a baby's palm their fingers will close and their hand will grasp your finger (or whatever is stroking its palm).  7. Swimming reflex- if a baby is placed face down in water it will make coordinated swimming movements 8. Startle (moro) reflex- if a baby hears a loud noise or sees a sudden movement they will become startled. It will then cry and extend its neck and limbs. 9. Sucking reflex- if an object touches the roof of a baby's mouth it will begin to suck. Early Adolescence: - Female breast bud and pubic hair development - Male testicular enlargement, start of genital growth - Concrete thinking - Progression of sexual identity development (sexual orientation) Mid Adolescence: - Female: mid-late puberty and end of growth spurt; menarche; development of female body shape with fat deposition - Males: mid-puberty, spermarche and nocturnal emissions; voice breaks; start of growth spurt - More abstract thinking - Growing verbal abilities Late Adolescence: - Males: end of puberty; continued increase in muscle bulk and body hair - Complex abstract thinking - Increased impulse control - Further development of personal identity Theories on personality: Psychoanalytic: Freud and Jung - Subconscious - Believe your dream have meaning from your subconscious - Ego: logic; balance the superego and ID- ( conscious and unconscious) - Superego: moral, conscious, angel- (conscious and unconscious) - ID: devil, biological drives, sexual urges- (ENITRELY unconscious) Humanist: Carol Rogers - People want to be good but there are obstacles - Self-actualized- knowing your purpose in your life - Patient centric therapy - Stress mangement - Organizing skills - Discuss whats bothering, what you tell them how you feel. - Actual self: who are you - Ideal self: who you want to be  - Perceieved self: what you think are Three needs to overlap- healthy personality 1. I want to generous. I am able generous. But I dont think I am. : Ideal and Actual self is overlap 2. I want to be honest. I think I’m honest. I am not actually honest: Ideal and perceived overlap Maslow hierarchy of needs: - Start from the bottom to reach self-actualization - Self-actualization- best version of themselves- top of the pyramid - Esteem - Love/Belonging - Safety - Physiological- at the bottom of the pyramid Trait Perspective: Ocean theory: Grade your personality - Openness- new scenarios, discussing things that are uncomfortable - Conscientousness- how aware are you of others? Think about others. - Extraversion- extrovert or introvert - Agreeableness- will you argue or go along - Neuroticism- worry and concern- ex- paranoid, all the people in India will die Allport: 1. Cardinal: on a compass, navigate your life, why you big the decision, an important trait that defines you. Education is important. Sharing knowledge. Phil build his life around that teaching his shared knowledge is important to him it defines him. Driving traits. 2. Primary: Humor more important than honesty  3. Secondary: Honesty: I think honest is best policy. But I tend to bend the truth for the stories to be funnier Albert Bandura (Boba Doll): experiment children sees a boba doll does nothing. BUT when they see an adult hit the Boba doll the children will hit the doll as well. So the aggression is from a learned response. Mirror neurons. You see people aggressive physically you become aggressive as well Social Cognitive Persceptive: - Reciprocal determinism: personal factor, behavior and environment are affecting each other Ex- smile at everyone for a month, changing my behavior- people will be creeped out or smile back. But smiling puts you in a good mood. But people responding to you smiling- optimisizing or people will be creeped out and ignore you- this will affect your outlook on life Behaviorist: B.F Skinner- who are you depends on punishment or reinforcement, shape them- properly reward and punishment. Personality development depends on the utilization of punishment and reward Ex- Everytime you tell the truth- you get a reward reinforcement, BUT you tell a lie you get a punishment. Situational approach- behavior depends on your situation. - The worst day of your life- you want a banana, but your roommate ate your banana and you go off. Snap at people you normally won’t. Psych disorder:  1. Biomedical vs. Biopsychological approaches - Biomedical- what is wrong biologicals? Depression requires serotonin. Medication. - Biopsychological- take into account the social environment. Depression- talk about- let's get to the bottom of it. Therapy. No medication. However low income sometimes can not have therapy. 2. Classifying Psychological Disorders: - DSM-5- Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental health. - The names of the disorders changed over time 3. Rates of psychological disorders: - 25% of Americans in any given year will experience a psychological disorder (depression). - 25% of Americans will be diagnosed with a psychological disorder in their lifetime. Endocrine Gland: - Not a major one- stomach - Hypothalamus- links the nervous and endocrine system Secondary sex characteristics- pubic hair development Primary sex characteristics- developmental of genitalia Anxiety disorders: 1. Generalized Anxiety Disorders: very anxious; worst case scenarios, phobias 2. Panic order: panic attack, sympathetic activation Obessive compulsive disorder: - Obsessions - Compulsions - COVID- washing their hands for 20 seconds - Tuesday is laundry - Unwanted and irrational Trauma and stressor related - PTSD- 9/11, sexual assault victims, war, divorced parents, childhood illness, parents being ignored. Comes and go. Something happened 30 years ago. Flashbacks. - Acute stress disorder: Last only up to a month. Traumatic car accident. Reliving experiences for a week Somatic symptom - Somatic symptom disorder- preoccupation with a symptom. His knee - Illness anxiety disorder- anxiety that you have a disease. Ex- I think I might have cancer (Hypochrondriac) - Conversion disorder- you convert a psychological trauma to physical symptom. Ex- you saw your son died and now you are blind- psychological event shut down the brain. - Factitious disorder: people lie to be put into the ill role. Want to be treated like they are sick because people care more. 1. Factitious disorder (by proxy)- people lie that their kids are sick. Which made her fabricate her daughter's ill health in order to receive attention and sympathy for taking care of a sick child. Ex: Gyspy Bipolar disorder:  1. Bioplar I: mania and depression. Swinging from mania to depression- more serve (never take meds because of the mania- on top of the world and wants to feel the great feeling of mania. 2. Bipolar II: depression, less manic than bipolar type 1 (more likely to take med because of the mania) ( better outcomes because adherence to the medications) 3. Cyclotymia: less mania and less depression Mania- feels great, risky behavior, ex- drink and drive and be fine. On top of the world behavior. Depressive disorder: 1. Major depressive disorder - MUST HAVE ANHEDONIA. Loss of interest or pleasure (anhedonia): low self-esteem. The things that used to bring me joy does not give me joy anymore. Puppies don’t give me joy anymore. - Interferes with the ability to work, sleep,eat, and enjoy activities - To be diagnosed, person must experience at least 5 listed symptoms and one of them must be anhedonia over 2 week period - Duration required- two weeks. - The number of checklist symptoms required for diagnosis: five or more. - Meds are better to treat this disorder. - Severe Dysthymia: - Loss of interest in normal activities, low productivity, and self-esteem - No history of mania - No major depressive disorders in the first two years. - Duration- two years (one year for adolescents and children). - Number of checklist symptoms required for diagnosis: at least two  - Harder to treat Common between Major depressive disorder and Dysthymia : Psychomotor symptoms : 1. Depressed mood 2. Disturbed sleep 3. Low energy/fatigue 4. Poor concentration 5. Indecisiveness Weight changes- poor appetite/overeating 1. Excessive guilt- low self-esteem 2. Suicide ideation (thinking about suicide) - Hopelessness Schizophrenia: 1. Hallucinations: sensory, false beliefs not based in reality, (hear voices that is not real) 2. Delusions: disconnected from reality (thinking people are out to get you) ex- you think the mailman is trying to steal from you. Thinking you are Jesus Christ. 3. Disorganized thinking (speech) - Extremely disorganized motor behavior - Negative- catonia, does not move, legs work but wont use them. - Positive- a man has his hand up over his head for over 30 years - Echolalia- repeating other people’s sounds or words - Echopraxia- repeating someone movements (postive because it is added) 4. Negative symptoms: lack of ability to function normally  - Ex- lack of emotion, socially withdrawn - Alogia- negative symptoms of schizophrenia 5. Positive symptoms: added things (hallucinations, delusions) Dissociative disorders: protecting you psychological 1. Dissociative identity disorder: Multiple personality disorder; deal with the trauma; so for instance, to get distance, say this trauma happened to someone else in my head. The brain protects itself. 2. Dissociative amnesia- targeted amnesia; forget memories about the domestic violence. To not to deal with the trauma. Ex- Dissociative fugue- act differently from who you are and forget the entire period. Ex- hes like what happened 3. Depersonalization/ derealization: it happened you but it does not feel real. Goes into a shock after trauma/ major life event- it does not feel real- feel like in a daze- its not happening to you- psychological distancing for the brain to protect yourself. Personality disorders: 1. Cluster A- weird - Paranoid- paranoia- no hallucinations or delusions. Ex- He didnt want anyone to hold his child at the wedding because he is a pathologist and he was paranoia of diseases and he was like I don’t know their vaccination status. He knows what he cant get rid of the feeling. Paranoia about COVID - Schizoid- feel no need for social interaction or developing relationships. Hanging out with friends- not fun. Does not see the need for other people. Like to be alone.  - Schizotypal- odd thought and speech patterns. Eccentric people. Ex- Yoda- he thinks different and speak different. Y- for Yoda. Interpersonal difficulties and social anxiety. 2. Cluster B- wild - Antisocial- can be VERY social. People are lacking empathy. Incapable of empathy. Seeing things from others perceiving- sociopaths. Acting in their own best interest. High antisocial means you will end up in prison- you steal and kill without any guilt. This person can be very social and successful. Sociopaths- CEOs. Dont care about other people and take advantage and stomp them down- to be CEOs with no guilt. High function sociopath- you want to steal- but I don't want to go to prison. Moral reason for selfish reasons. Manipulative- Gaslighter - convince you are crazy - Boderline personality- emotional instability, splitting= people are either all good or all bad. Inappropriate, extraverts, say wild things. Unstable relationships. Ex- Pete Davidson- SNL- perfect position- comediansmo. Its mostly in women - Histrionic- attention seeking (positive or negative) 1. Sombrero singer- needs attention; commits crimes to get attention. Needs that attention. Ex- a girl who once pretended to cut herself in order to get attention from a guy that she liked. Wears provocative clothing. - Narcissistic personality disorder- delusions of grandeur, better than everyone else, less empathy for others, insecurities, feel the need to be praised, could be about beauty or intelligence. I want to praised for how intelligence or skilled I am. Get people to tell me how great I am- to not feel insecure 3. Cluster C- worry (anxiety component)  - Avoidant- worried about how others will judge them, so they avoid social interactions. Ex- family member skips Christmas with family because he did not want to get judged. Hypersensitivity to rejection is a symptom - Dependent- needed to be around people and to be approved of. Uncomfortable of being alone. When they think someone disapproves of them, they will do anything to be in their approval Ex- the roommate story of Phil’s girlfriend. Usually in abusive, unhealthy relationship. They are okay being abused as long their spouse is happy. “ I will put up with the abuse as long you tell me you love and happy with me”. Harder time leaving an abusive relationship than other people. Usually sought out by narcissists - Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder- needs order and control. VERY organized, have trouble working in groups. Ex- Khloe Karadasin. If something is out of place- anxiety. They need to feel they are in control. Anxiety about imperfection. Ego syntonic Biological Basis: Schizophrenia: - Genetic predisposition towards schizophrenia, but it’s not 100% penetrance (genetic) (stress diathesis model)- stress or trauma can trigger schizophrenia. environmental factors. - Genetics- has a heritable component (based on twin studies). - Brain development: subtle differences in the structure of the brain - Neurotransmitters: caused by a change in the level of 2 neurotransmitters: dopamine and serotonin. Depression: 1. Imbalances in the brain with the neurotransmitters: serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine 2. Decrease in the production of serotonin by serotonergic neurons 3. Current research: low levels of serotonin trigger a drop in norepinephrine levels, which then leads to depression. Malingering- exaggerating or feigning illness in order to escape duty or work. Done for an external incentive. Alzheimer’s: - Disrupts the processes vital to neurons, including communication, metabolism, and repair. - This leads to neuronal damage and death - losing mass; the brain gets smaller. - First destroys neurons in the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus- memory - Later affects areas in the cerebral cortex (language, reasoning, and social behavior). (different personality). Amyloid plaques: - Abnormal levels of beta-amyloid protein aggregate in between neurons and disrupt cell function. Neurofibrillary tangles: - Abnormal accumulation of tau protein inside neurons. Tau normally binds to and stabilizes microtubules. In Alzheimer’s disease, tau detaches from microtubules, aggregating into tangles. These tangles block the neuron’s transport system, which harms the synaptic communication between neurons. Chronic inflammation:  - May be caused by the buildup of gilal cells - Microgalia fail to clear away waste, debris and protein collections, including beta-amyloid plaque Acetylcholine? - Observed reduction in acetylcholine levels Dementia= loss of cognitive abilities ( trouble connecting things, memory, math, thinking) Parkinson’s disease: - Dopaminergic neurons die in basal ganglia and the substantia nigra. Dopamine- producing nerve cells of the substantia nigra begin to die off in some. - When 80% of dopamine is lost, PD symptoms such as tremor, slowness of movement, stiffness and balance problems occur. - When dopamine receptors in the striatum are not adequately stimulated, parts of the basal ganglia are either under or over stimulated: subthalamic nucleus (STN) becomes overactive and inhibits globus pallidus interna (GPi) causing shutdown of motion and rigidity. - GPi is over stimulated: over inhibitory effect on the thalamus: decreases thalamus output and causes tremor. Biological Basis: - Stem cell thearapies: Neurons can not regenerate but stem cells can differentiate into neurons. By remaking those neurons- can be used for Parkinson’s disease. - Approaches: 1. Modulate stem cells that are harvested and grown in culture- transplant cultured cells into the brain and allow the brain’s own signals to differentiate the stem cells into neurons or gila  2. Induced to differentiate into neurons and gila while in the culture dish- transplanted into the brain growth (trophic) factors identified to minimize damage to the brain and to activate the patient’s own stem cells to repair damage that has occurred. Motivation: 1. Instinct: - All organisms are born with innate biological tendencies for survival - Motivation is primarily biologically based - We act in certain ways because they aid in survival 2. Arousal - We are driven to behave in ways that maintain an optimum level of physiological arousal - Biting your fingers to ease anxiety 3. Drives - Drives: primarily biological-based urges to peerform behaviors that resolve arousal - Aim to maintain homeostasis - Include: thirst, hunger, sleepiness, reproduction 4. Needs - Psychological or physiological insufficinies that provoke behavioral response - Internal factors motivate behavior based on unfulfilled needs. - Maslow’s pyramid- psychological needs- love, the need to be told you are doing a good job, compassion. - Motivated to do a good job- psychological job- they need to be told you are doing a good job. Yerkes- Dodson curve- Optimal Arousal- High  - Simple task: focused attention, flashbulb memory, fear conditioning - Difficult task: impairment of divided attention, working memory, decision-making and multitasking. Drive Reduction Theory (Hull): - These drives will build up and we will act to reduce that drive. For instance, hunger will build up so throughout the day you will become tired and hungrier. As the drive builds up to the point where it is a strong drive you will act to reduce it so eat. Incentive theory: behavior is only motivated by extrinsic behavior: external reward: grades, praise, money. - Intrinsic vs. extrinsic 1. Intrinsic: motivated by internal factors. You want to do a good job. 2. Extrinsic: motivated by external factors. Become a doctor and lawyer for money and honor. Cognitive dissonance: idea different from an action. Example: Smoking is bad for your health. But I am smoker. Temporal motivation theory: a shorter time frame / keeping a tracker is more motivating. So for example, keeping track of exercising on a calendar seeing it keep that streak going. - Goal setting Biological and sociocultural motivators that regulated behavior - Eat: Hormones and sociocultural - Sex - Drugs Attitudes How attitudes affect behavior? - Theory of Planned Behavior: 1. Intentions are based on: - Attitudes towards the behavior - Subjective norms: what we think others will think about the behavior - Social desirability bias- ask someone if they are racist, they will always say no because that is what society expects. Attitude to Behavior Process Model - Event triggers our attitude- that attitude combined with knowledge determines behavior. - Example: You think spider are yuck thats how it determines your behavior to feel gross out. How do attitudes affect behavior? Prototype willingness model: what is a good person? My idea and your idea are different. - Past behavior - Attitudes - Subjective norms - Intentions - Willingness to engage in behavior - Prototypes/ models of behavior: people have different prototypes- what I think a father should be is different than you Elaboration Likelihood Model:  - 2 paths to persuasion 1. Central path: requires motivation to think 2. Peripheral path: when the receiver is not motivated or message is ambiguous - look for peripheral cases. Appearance but no data or research. Persuasive message: 1. Central Route: Audience ( Motivate, analytical)-- processing ( high effort, evaluate message) — Persuasion ( lasting change in attitude) 2. Peripheral Route: Audience( not motivated, not analytical)----Processing ( low effort: persuaded by cues outside of message) —- Persuasion( temporary change in attitude) Cognitive dissonance: describes the mental discomfort that results from entertaining or carrying out two conflicting beliefs, values, attitudes, ideas, or behaviors. Individuals are intrinsically motivated to reduce cognitive dissonance. Examples: 1. An individual perecieves two aspects of themself as contradictory. 2. Two or more beliefs directly contradict one another 3. An action and belief contradict one another Question: Cognitive dissonance between an action and a belief can NOT be relieved by: 1. Denying reality 2. Changing a belief 3. Adding a new belief 4. Changing one’s action (Repeating the same action will only increase cognitive dissonance. Attitudes  1. Affective component: feelings, emotions about the attitude object. How you feel? 2. Behavioral Component: effect of the attitude on behavior. What do you do? 3. Cognitive Component: belief and knowledge about attitude object. What do you think about an example: stress? Must have all 3 to be an attitude Consistency (but can change) Strength ( personal relevance)- strong attitude on smoking because doctors see the effects of lung cancer. How behavior influences attitudes? Foot in door technique: Asking for a smaller request then asking a bigger request. A trap. Door in the face technique: Asking a bigger request first but the person says no so you ask for a smaller request ( person says yes because they feel bad for saying no at the beginning. Role-playing: Milgrim’s shock experiment- obedience to authority. Affect attitudes. Stanford prison study. Prisoners vs. guards. Power and authority. How does the presence of others affect individual behavior? - Social facilitation- social group can make a behavior easier to go with. Social group smoker easier for you to become a smoker. - Deindividuation- lose yourself in the crowd- they take blame/credit - Bystander effect- you may not help someone in need if you think others will help. Something bad occurring. - Social loafing- you will slack off in a group because you know someone else will deal with it. - Social control - Peer pressure - Conformity- doing what everyone else is doing. Ash’s line of conformity. - Obedience- doing what you are told. Authority. Group Decision-making processes - Group polarization- groups will get more extreme over time.  - Groupthink-groups will form around a single idea if given time. Started with 20 ideas and then over time comes to a single idea. - Groupthink- ( a group thinks Forest Grump is a good movie) but then over time group polarization kicks in and they say its the BEST movie of all time by mankind. The view of the group idea becomes extreme. Schizophrenia: positive symptoms (adding something) (“excessive” behaviors or symptoms) such as hallucinations. It is believed to be because of increased dopamine signaling in the prefrontal cortex Negative symptoms ( removing something- deficits- anhedonia, apathy, poverty of speech, flat affect. Serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine are key in the neurotransmitters implicated in depression. Sociological theory: - Structural functionalism: - Conflict theory: Focusing on inequality between different groups and sees social life as a competition and focuses on the distribution of resources and - Social Constructionalism: - Symbolic Interactionalism: Normative and Non-normative behavior - Social Norms ( society based) - Sanctions- punishment for breaking social norms. (Formal sanction- when you speed you are breaking social norms so you get a formal sanction- fine) (You pick your nose in public- violating social norms so you get an informal sanction which is a dirty look) - Different types of norms- folkways, mores, taboos - Folkways- minor (not moral)- for ex.- shaking hands with right hand. So if you shake with your left hand you are breaking a folkway. - Mores- more severe, moral component. For example- adultery, stealing. - Taboo- VERY serious, not funny to joke about, do not talk about. For example: Pedophilla, Incest. Deviance - Perspectives on deviance (e.g. differential association, labeling theory, strain theory) Anomie- Breakdown of social norms. For example- Anomie occurs in times of hardship. Heterogenous societies experience more anomie. The rules breakdown during COVID pandemic. Rules are changing. For example- when segregation was illegal- people were angry. A society can experience it Deviance- Breaking social norms. Breaking the rules of society. For example- bidding people during the Holocaust. Releasing slavs during slavery. Individual level. Differential association: hanging out with people will cause you to start to go with their views on behavior. Hanging out with people who are smokers. You become smoker as well. Labeling theory- people will start to go with how they are labeled. Strain theory- when people try to abide by societal norms and cannot be “ successful” they will eventually become deviant. For example-working so hard to make money to have house, cars, what society expects. You spend money that you don’t have to meet society. Then you can’t it so you say screw it. Normative and Non-normative behavior - Aspects of collective behavior- fads, mass hysteria, riots Fads- temporary popularity- there was time everyone has ferbies or heels Mass hysteria- mass fear- Salem witch trials, the world is ending, serial killer Riots- violent- Jan 6. Capital building, looters, mobs. Socialization - Agents of socialization (the family, mass media, peers, workplace) Socialization- learning norms from other people. Attitide and Behavior Change Habituation- the diminishing of a physiological or emotional response to a frequently repeated stimulus. Dishabituation- the fast recovery of a response that has undergone habituation Classical conditioning; - Neutral, conditioned and unconditioned stimuli - Conditioned and unconditioned response 1. Before Conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus- Food——> unconditioned response which is the salivation Neutral Stimulus- Bell—> no conditions response 2. During Conditioning When you add the bell to the food—> unconditioned response- salivation 3. After Conditioning Now when the bell is presented. It was a neutral stimulus NOW a conditioned stimulus which now the dog salivation which is conditioned response to the bell because of the conditioning. Processes: - Acquisition : learn the behavior - Extinction: when you loose the behavior - Spontaneous Recovery: When you loose the behavior but you reintroduce the training- the behavior will come back real quick - Generalization: anything ringing (phone, bell, police sirens) will get the dog to drool - Discrimination: only the bell will get the dog to drool Little Albert: Generalization- was scared with anything white Operant conditioning: - Processes of shaping and extinction - Types of reinforcement: positive, negative, primary, conditional -Reinforcement schedules: fixed-ratio, variable- ratio, fixed- interval, variable- interval -Punishment - Escape and avoidance learning The role of cognitive process in associative learning Biological processes that affect associative learning (e.g. biological predispositions, instinctive drift) Reinforcement- Increases behavior Punishment- decreases behavior Positive- add something Negative- remove something Fixed- same constantly Variable- changes Ratio- based on occurrences Interval- based one time Positive-add Negative-remove Punishment- decrease behavior Reinforcement- increase behavior Problem: 1. Sometimes when my dog gets on the couch, I yell her: Positive Punishment Variable (because sometimes- it changes ) Ratio- (based on occurrences; when she is on the couch) 2. When my son, Fernando plays the piano for an hour, he has to do 1 less chore that week. Fixed interval Negative Reinforcements Variable Ratio is the best- least amount of times to get the most responses. The best to get a behavior. Examples: Variable Ratio-sometimes when you sit to play, I give you $ 5. You never know. Fixed Ratio- every 4th time you sit to play, I give you $ 5 Variable Interval- after some amount of playing (you don’t know), I give you $ 5 Fixed Interval - every hour you play, you get $ 5. Primary reinforcer= food Secondary= money Teaching rat to push a button by shocking the floor Every 10 min shock the rat until it pushes the button- escape learning. Pressing the button to stop the shock while getting shocked. The bad thing is happening trying to escape from the shock. You can shock the rat unless it pushes the button every 10 min- avoidance learning. Follow the law to avoid going to jail. Biological predispositions- A dog knows how to sit which will help sitting on command Instinctive drift- tendency of animal to revert back to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response. Observational Learning: Modeling- Biological processes that affect observational learning - Mirror neurons- watching - Role of the brain in experiencing vicarious emotions- when someone is crying you start to cry as well. Applications of observational learning to explain individual behavior Theory of Mind: understanding and get a sense of what’s going on inside their head. Why are you doing to this? Autism- something wrong with mirror neurons. Do not know how someone is feeling? Very confused. Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change - Elaboration likelihood model- central and peripheral route - Social cognitive theory - Factors that affect attitude change (e.g. changing behavior, characteristics of the message and target, social. factors. Framing: characteristics of the message and target. How the question is worded? Can affect your attitude and response. Questions: 1. A rabbit is classically conditioned to associate the sound of a siren with the presence of food. However, over time the rabbit’s conditioned response undergoes extinction. Which of the following would likely cause spontaneous recovery? - Presentation of the siren alone to the rabbit 2. Researchers place a mouse in a box with a lever and a flashing light.. When the light flashes, pressing the lever will produce food for the mouse. When the light is not flashing, pressing the lever does nothing. The light is an example of a: - Discriminative stimulus: in operant conditioning, it is a stimulus that signals to the animal that reinforcement can take place. The presence of the discriminative stimulus tells the animal that there is the possibility of receiving a reward or punishment for carrying out a behavior. Latent learning: refers to knowledge that is. learned. Earlier, but only expressed much later. Insight learning: describes what occurs when a novel solution to a problem is achieved without trial and error or repeated attempts Associative learning: put your hand on a hot stove, they may learn to associate hot stoves to pain. Bandura: Bobo Doll: Observational learning. Social Identities Self- concept, Self Identity and Social Identity The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and self- identity. Different types of identities (e.g. race/ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, class) Self-esteem- do you like yourself? Self-efficacy- how capable do you THINK you are? Self- concept- what do you think about yourself? Locus of control Internal- you are in control External- God is in Control Feel good I like being in control It’s not my problem Feel bad Everything is my fault. Can’t do anything right Why does the world hate me Age: how people are categorized by society’s perceptions of different age groups Ability- diverse array of differences in physical, mental, cognitive, developmental, learning, and/ or emotional make- up. Race- concept used to classify humans based on perceived physical characteristics Ethnicity- classification based on culture, such as sharing a common language, ancestry, national origin. Gender- sense of identity, related to sex - Cisgender- gender identity matches the gender or sex assigned to birth - Transgender- people who identify differently than designated at birth - Nonbinary gender identify- those who do not identity as the binary Sexual orientation- A person’s sexual, emotional, romantic, and/ or affectional attractions Class: socioeconomic status, ones’s social standing in society based on income, wealth, or poverty. Religion: person’s or a group’s beliefs about the existence of God or gods and or an identification with a particular religion. Career, Politically ,Attractively, Nationality and Regionally Formation of Identity: Theories of identity development ( e.g. gender, moral, psychosexual, social) Kohlberg’s Moral Stages 1. Preconventional- Up to Age of 9. - Punishment & Obedience- Right and wrong defined by what they get punished for. If you get told off for stealing then obviously stealing is wrong. - Instrumental Relativist- (what is good for me ?) Similar but right and wrong is now determined by what we are rewarded for, and by doing what others want. Any concern for others is motivated by selfishness. - 2. Conventional- Most adolescents and adults - Interpersonal concordance- (what does society say? ) (Views change when society views change) Being good is whatever pleases others. The chief adopts a. Conformist attitude to morality. Right and wrong are determined by the majority. - Law and order- (What does the law say?) Being good now means doing your duty to society. To this end we obey laws without question and show a respect for authority. Most adults do not progress past this stage. 3. Post-conventional: 10 to 15% of the over 20s. - Social contract- (Social contract theory) Right and wrong now determined by personal values, although these can be over-ridden by democratically agreed laws. When laws infringe our own sense of justice we can choose to ignore them. - Universal ethical principle- (Higher morals) We now live in accordance with deeply held moral principles which are seen as more important than the laws of the land. Returning the cart- same thing but doing it for different reasons 1. I don’t want to damage my car- Preconventional- what’s good for me ? 2. I don’t want anyone to judge me- Conventional- what does society say ? 3. Its the right thing to do for the greater good- Post-conventional I pay taxes because I don’t want to go jail that’s preconventional- obedience I pay taxes because the law said so- law and order- conventional Freud: Stages 1. Oral - 0 to 1 year old - Mouth, tongue, lips - Weaning off of breast feeding or formula - Smoking, Overeating- adult fixation 2. Anal - 1 to 3 year old - Anus - Toilet Training - Orderliness, Messiness- adult fixation 3. Phallic - 3 to 6 year old - Genitals - Resolving Oedipus/ Electra complex - Deviancy, Sexual Dysfunction- adult fixation 4. Latency - 6 to 12 year old - Developing defense mechanisms 5. Genital - 12+ year old - Genitals - Reaching Full Sexual Maturity - If all stages were successfully completed the the person should be sexually matured and mentally healthy. Memorize technique- 1,3,6,12 Libido- anything that gives people joy. So the mouth at the oral stage give baby joy when they put things in their mouth Erikson stages: 1. Trust vs. Mistrust- 0-1- to gain hope 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt- 2-3- to gain will 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 4-5- to gain purpose 4. Industry vs. Inferiority- 6-12- to gain competency 5. Identity vs. Confusion- 13-19- to gain fidelity 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation- 20-24- to gain love 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation 25—64 to gain care ( made an impact) 8. Ego integrity vs. Despair- 65+-to gain wisdom Influence of social factors on identity formation Influence of individuals (e.g. imitation, looking- glass elf, role taking) Influence of groups (e.g. reference group) Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation Looking glass self- you will start yourself the way you think others see you. Self-concept is influenced by internal and external factors. Role taking- Your idea of your father as became a father (parent) George Herbert Mead - I: internal “who you are” - me: socialized : “who you are” Mead’s theory of how the mind and self emerge from the social process of communication- symbolic interactionist theory of sociology. I do things. things happen to me Attributions- “assigning” an internal state to someone else Ex- Phil is from Missouri and assign waving to friendliness from strangers. But if Phil went to New York and see someone waving will assign to friendliness but in reality they were trying to hail a cab. Prejudice and Bias 1. Processes. That contribute to prejudice -Power- something that lets you things control scenarios. Prestige-how important society views you. Class- socioeconomic status - The role of emotion in prejudice - The role of cognition in prejudice Stereotype- idea Prejudice-feeling Discrimination- behavior Stereotype leads to Prejudice Prejudice leads to Discrimination Example: Stereotype: People with glasses are smart (Positive). Prejudice- I want my accountant to have glasses. Discrimination: I only interview people with glasses for my accountant job. Stigma= negative social mark. Example- HIV patients Ethnocentrism- You judge based on your culture. Cultural Relativism- Judging not based on your culture In this culture, don’t learn science- you are killed- Cultural Relativism- I draw the line you have an issue with it. Self-fulling prophecy: belief leads to something being true. You believe people with glasses are smarter, and you have glasses so you study more. Stereotype threat: People don’t want to break stereotype. You are a women who is great at math. But the stereotype boys are better at math. So the women will hide it Gender socialization- An infant boy is given army toys and footballs to play with as they grow up. To learn the Norms and behaviors of his gender. Fundamental attribution error occurs when a person places a strong emphasis on internal characteristics of others when judging their behavior and not considering external factors. Example- Charles attributes the bad driving of the other drivers to their internal behavior of being selfish whereas when doing the same behavior himself. Social Identity and Social interactions Social Interactions: Status - Achieved- worked for (becoming a doctor/ lawyer) -Ascribed- given (born into) ( daughter of the Queen) Role - Role conflict: two roles are in conflict. Role of a doctor and mother. - Role strain: having trouble fulfilling a role. Role of an engineer, can’t fulfill it because bad at math. A physical struggles to complete his work because he is a sleep deprived new parent. - Role exit: Leave a role. Leaving the role of being a student when you are graduating. It is ending. - Master role- role that consumes the other roles. Some roles are more important than others Groups - Primary- long-lasting connections and secondary groups- not long lasting. - In-group vs. out-group. In-group: identities with Out-group: does NOT identities with. - Group size (e.g. dyads- 2 , triads- 3) Triads- often are more stable than dyads. - Networks A dyadic group is likely yo be less stable than a triad Organizations - Formal organization - Bureaucracy - Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy - Perspectives on bureaucracy (e.g. iron law of oligarchy, McDonaldization) Utilitarian- organization involves individuals getting compensated for being part of the organization. Ex- an individual being paid to work for a supermarket or an individual accesses to education or knowledge. (University) Normative- organizations are those where individuals have a shared goal but do not have transactional ties to the organization such as a religious group or fraternity. Coercive- organization is a group of individuals who do not a choice in being part of a group. Max Weber’s Theory 1. Division of Labor: Complex work broken down into simple jobs 2. Hierarchy of Authority: Accepted chain of command to direct individual’s effort towards organization goal accomplishment 3. Framework of Rules: Effort directed and coordinated by rules 4. Impersonality: Hiring and promoting people on the basis of objective merit rather than favoritism (on the basis of what they know and not who they know) 5. Formal Selection: Technical competence members selected accordingly on the basis of training, qualification, education, etc. McDonaldization: Efficiency, Calculability, Predictability, Control. Iron Law of Oligarchy: all organizations will become an oligarchy. Ex- A school governor passes a motion to give herself executive decision-making powers for the school Self-presentation and Interacting with Others - Expressing and detecting emotion - The role of gender in the expression and detection of emotion - The role of culture in the expression and detection of emotion Presentation of self - Impression management- manage all the impression (different act with different people) - Front stage (Public) vs. backstage self (Dramaturgical approach) - Verbal and nonverbal communication - Animal signals and communication Social Behavior - Attraction- because of proximity (closeness), sharing about yourself (make others like you more) (vulnerable- trust), physical shape (culturally based), cultural style (similarity) - Aggression- men are more acceptable to be aggression. Testestone = aggression - Attachment - - Altruism- doing something for others even at your own expense. Likely help family. Attachment: Secure Attachment : mother leaves, son cries. Mother comes back, son is happy Avoidant Attachment: mother is distant (neglect).When the mother leaves, the son does not care.When the mother comes back, the son does not care. Ambivalent Attachment: inconsistent. When the mother leaves, son cries. When the mother comes back, does not care Disorganized Attachment: Other. Abuse. The child is frozen the present of the parent. Social Support Biological explanations of social behavior in animals - Foraging behavior- while some bird are eating, other birds will stand guard. Teamwork. - Mating behavior and mate choice - Applying game theory - more likely to survive in groups. Taking advantage of the rules of the “game “ in order to win - Altruism- helping; disadvantage to the individual acting, but benefits to the other member of its group. - Inclusive fitness- individual level of success at passing units genes by considering not its own but its offspring of its close relatives. Ex: altruism directed toward assisting close relatives that’ share much of the same genetic makeup. If a helper helps its sister to protect the sister’s offspring. The helper is promoting the success of the genes she shares in common with the sister. - Emotional support - Financial support - Knowledge support - Domestic support Fisherian selection- certain traits that are not beneficial for survival may make you more “attractive” and likely to reproduce. Sexual dimorphism- differences between genders- implies competitive mating. Discrimination - Individual vs. Institutional discrimination - The relationship between prejudice and discrimination - How power, prestige, and class facilitate discrimination College is expensive and you can only get in if you have the money Caucasians are more likely to be rich than African Americans Social Structure Theoretical Approaches - Micro sociology vs. macro sociology - Functionalism: looking at the functions of different institutions - Conflict Theory - Symbolic Interactionism- different ways of interacting; different through cultural Manifest (primary) functions- to put out fires Latent ( secondary) functions- saving cats from trees, property values Increase, gives people jobs, give kids hero’s to look up to, gives people hunky Firemen to look at Conflict Theory- Karl Marx- upper and lower class are in conflict with each other. The upper class has more power in that conflict. Led to the idea of socialism- the answer to the conflict theory. Social constructionalism- things given value because of society Not social construct; burrito, car, house Social constructs- money, designer clothes, jewelry, chivalry, manners, virginity- value because of society views Feminist theory Rational Choice theory- individuals use logical calculations to make rational choices. Exchange theory- social interactions are exchanges. Ex- a man pays for a meal for the women and expect something in return. You do stuff for people you expect something in return. Exchange rational choice- Volunteering at the hospital to get help patients and help the hospital in general I expect a letter of recommendation. Cultural display rules- are informal cultural norms learned early in life that govern the regulation of expressive behaviors depending on social contexts. Ex- NOT appropriate to smile at funeral Social interactionist focuses on individual perspective including the interactions between members of social groups to explain social change. Social networks of an individual would allow a relationship to be explored between health issues and social interactions. Social Structure and Demographics Social Institutions Education - Hidden Curriculum: Socialization, time management, how to accomplish a task - Teacher Expectancy: students rises to whatever level the teacher expects - Educational segregation and stratification: Educational segregation- some schools have more science classes than others. Educational stratification: private schools- expensive- but more opportunities. Family - Forms of Kinship- Kin= “family”- not necessarily biological - Diversity in family forms - Marriage and divorce - Violence in the family (e.g. child abuse, elder abuse, spousal abuse) Religion - Religiosity - Types of religious organizations (e.g. churches, sects, cults) - Religion and social change (e.g. modernization, secularization, fundamentalism) Church- assimilated into society Sect- accepted but not assimilated. Example: amish, specific sect of catholicism- people living in convent, monastery. Cult- not accepted as a part of society Government and economy - Power and authority Comparative economic and political systems Division of labor Power- ability to make people do stuff Authority- is it accepted that these people should have power? Economic Systems: 1. Capitalism: means of production are privately owned - Goal is pursuit of personal profit - This results in competition for profit - Lack of government intervention in this competition 2. Socialism: means of production are collectively owned (I.e by government) - Goal is work for collective good - No personal competition but instead work together - Generally government regulated Communism: people are divided into catorgies they best fit. Trait for leading will be a leader.But its part of socialism- even playing field Political System: 1. Democracy: political system in which citizens govern themselves directly or indirectly - Voting on policies, representatives, etc. - Greater personal freedom and liberties - Generally inefficient and slow 2. Monarchy- political system in which power resides in single family - Family holds authority over population 3. Authoritarianism and Totalitarianism: political system ruled by individual(s) who are not freely elected Authoritarianism: ruling party holds power and restricts participation in governance Totalitarianism: more repressive form of authoritarism where they control citizen’s lives Health and medicine 1. Medicalization- the process by which something becomes a “ medical condition” ADHD Demedicalization= opposite (homosexuality) 2. Sick role: illness experience Disease- is there something wrong (biologically) Illness- How do you feel? 3. Delivery of health care 4. Illness experience 5. Social epidemiology- keep track of COVID through a app. If you test positive you need to register Study of social factors that affect health and illness - Racial, ethnic, minority status - Social determinants of health - Life course approach- Idea that earlier life experience may affect health outcomes later Culture 1. Elements of culture (e.g. belies, language, rituals, symbols, values) 2. Material vs. Symbolic culture 3. Culture lag: Technology moves faster than our culture can keep up. Technologically, things become issues, before we know how to deal. 4. Culture shock: immerse Assimilation Multiculturalism- New York Subcultures and countercultures- Subculture; within Korea there are groups focus on amine the other group into Korean theater. Counterculture- against the culture; rebelling Mass media and popular culture Evolution and human culture Transmission and diffusion Cultural transmission- passing culture from one to another Cultural diffusion: spreading of a culture (geographic) Demographics: 1. Age - Aging and the life course - Age cohorts - Social; significant of aging 2. Life-course Theory: changes in biological, psychological and social process that occurs over time from birth to death 3. Age stratification: hierarchical ranking of people into age group in society 4. Activity Theory: successful existing occurs when older adults stay active and maintain social interactions 5. Disengagement theory: views aging as an inevitable process of disengagement- resulting in decreased social interaction Age cohorts - Gen-Z: 2000-2020 - Millenials: 1982-1999 - Gen-X: 1966-1981 - Baby Boomers: 1947-1965 Gender 1. Sex (biological vs. gender ( psychological 2. The social construction of gender 3. Gender segregation Religious Affiliation: Muslim Religiosity: Goal to become a better muslim: practices guides life Secularization: describes decreasing devotion to religious doctrines or practices Fundamentalism: is the opposite tendency, entailing a strictly literal interpretation of a religious text and a limited tolerance for other religions Race (biological) and ethnicity ( social) 1. The social construction of race 2. Racialization- the process of socially constructing a race (group) 3. Racial formation- process by which someone develops a racial identity (individuals) There is more variation within a race, than there are between races. Social Inequalities Immigration status - Patterns of immigration - Intersections with race and ethnicity Sexual Orientation In the U.S, key patterns of immigration: - immigration from Western Europe (UK, Ireland, Germany) to U.S for cheap land - Gold rush attracted immigrants from Asia, Latin America, Europe - Recent economic migration from Mexico, Asia Push factor- makes you leave Pull factor: draws you in Demographic Shifts and Social Change - Theories of demographic change (i.e, Malthusian theory and demographic transition) - Malthusian theory- population will continue to grow until resources cannot support Stage 1: High Stationary: High Birth Rate and High Death Rate. Pre-industrial Stage 2: Early expanding: High Birth Rate and declining death rate. The population is increasing. Starting to become industrialized Stage 3: Late Expanding: Starting to become industrialized Stage 4: Low Stationary: Equal- stationary. Stage 5: Declining: Birth rate is declining. So birth rate is lower than the death rate which means the population is declining. Population growth and decline (e.g. population projections, population pyramids.) Fertility, migration and mortality - Fertility and mortality rates (e.g. total, crude, age- specific - Patterns in fertility and mortality - Push and pull factors in migration Fertility- number of children born in a population. Total fertility rate: average number of children a women expected to have over lifetime Crude birth rate- number of live births in a given year for every 1000 people Age-specific fertility rate- fertility rate obtained for specific age group Mortality- number of deaths in a population Crude mortality rate- total number of deaths in a given year per 1000 people Infant mortality rate- number of infant deaths in a population Life expectancy: number of years that an individual can expect to live Social movements - Relative Deprivation theory; people who feel they are deprived of something (rights, money, status, etc.- will organize to join social movements - Organization of social movements - Movement strategies and tactics- Violent; non-violent, Social Media Alternative social movements- switch to the alternative Reformative social movements- reform the educational system. Don’t want to throw out everything but to reform a specific part Redemptive social movements - want a radical change for a certain people. Ex- women wage gap. Revolutionary social movements - throw everything in the trash and start something new. Revolutionary wars Social movements have a life cycle: 1. Emerge- movements emerge (for various reasons, relative deprivation, etc) 2. Coalesce- develop sense of coherence, community in goals, ideals 3. Bureaucratise- establish own set of rules and procedures Globalization - Factors contributing to globalization (e.g. communication technology, economic interdependence) - Perspectives on globalization - Social changes in globalization (e.g. civil unrest, terrorism) Communication technology - Digital communication allows increased information flow - Time-space compression: people far away feel close due to instant communication Cultural - Emergence of global events (Olympics, Fifa) - Music and film culture draw international crowds Economic: - Emergence of transnational corporations oriented towards global markets - Global commodity chains- manufacturing involves worldwide network (from raw material- production- consumption Globalization - Factors contributing to globalization (e.g. communication technology, economic interdependence) - Perspectives on globalization - Social changes in globalization (e.g. civil unrest, terrorism) Hyperglobalist Perspective- bring the world together! Skeptical perspective- This will lead to more conflict Transformationalist perspective- We really cannot know, but things will change Urbanization - Industrialization and urban growth - Suburbanization and urban decline - Gentrification and urban renewal Gentrification: rundown area being rejuvenated- low income people get pushed out. Viewed as a negative thing Urban renewal- urban rundown area being rejuvenated. Viewed as positive thing. Social Inequality Spatial Inequality 1. Residential segregation 2. Neighborhood safety and violence 3. Environmental justice (location and exposure to health risks) Social Class - Aspects of social stratification - Class consciousness and false consciousness- someone ask you; usually say middle class - Cultural capital and social capital- Finanical capital- money. Social capital- who do you know?. Cultural Capital- how does society view you? Ex- you get out of a ticket because they see you in scrubs and let you go. - Social reproduction: the views and status of your parents are more likely to be shown by you as well. Power, privilege- unearned stuff and prestige- appreciation from society Intersectionality (e.g. race, gender, age) Socioeconomic gradient in health Global inequalities I won local poetry award- no power, some privilege, some prestige Won garbage man of the year, I now get to create the schedules- some power, some privilege, not much prestige Patterns of social mobility - Intergenerational and intragenerational mobility - Vertical and horizontal mobility - Meritocracy Intergenerational- father= farmer and I am a doctor Intra- brother is a farmer and I am a doctor Vertical- up and down in social/ socioeconomic status Horizontal- sideways Meritocracy- you get what you earn Poverty - Relative (you are poorer than the people around you) and absolute poverty ( you have issues attaining basic needs due to financial reasons) - Social exclusion (segregation and isolation) can lead to relative poverty- can’t afford going on trips with friends because I have a family Different people have different health issues- class, gender Healthcare disparities- class Questions Notes: