Material Culture Notes PDF

2 3 Science and liberal art Material CULTURE Dr. Suman Pandey 4 Content 1. Introduction and definition of material culture 2. Non material culture and their compounds. 3. Difference and correlation between material culture and nonmaterial culture 4. Correlation between material culture and nonmaterial culture 5. Cultural lag 6. Culture and approaches 7. Material culture and nonmaterial culture in Indian pots and potteries 8. Pottery craft culture 9. Religion and material culture special reference to Buddhism 10. Museum and material culture 11. Material culture in Indian philosophy- special reference to Lokayt 12. Material culture in tribal society 13. New material expansion ( progress, protest and pluralism ) 14. Suggested cinema: The God must be crazy, Mati Manas, crime of the future, Susman, and Gungubai (art movie). Topic 1 Introduction and definition of material culture The first encountered the use of the term ‘Material culture’ in English in the nineteenth century. The origins are murky, the first reference to such a concept according to the Oxford English 5 Dictionary was made in 1843 by Prescott in reference to the material civilization of Mexico in his travelog. The intellectual history of this concept regrettably is beyond the scope of this introduction, except to say that the study of material culture itself became one the cornerstones of the nascent independent discipline of anthropology. In fact, in the late 1800s the concept and its study was almost entirely inseparable from anthropology itself: the so-called object lesson described by Edward Taylor in his foreword to Ratzel’s monumental treatise on the ethnographic study of artifacts, the history of mankind. The emergence of material culture studies was an innovation arising from the earlier Enlightenment era preoccupation with the material of social life. As Michel Foucault argued in space, knowledge and power, the interest in the various material components of social life is an eighteenth century preoccupation where one begins to see a form of political literature, that addresses, what the order, manage and constitute new political subjects, maintained unilinealism as just such a demonstration of this universal progression. Definition Material culture refers to the physical aspects of a society, the objects made or modified by humans. These objects surround a people and it’s activities are defined by their properties, be they chemical, physical or biological. Material culture is defined as that segment of humankind’s physical world that has been purposely made or modified, consciously or unconsciously, by people according to culturally dictated plans, Material culture is the aspect of social reality grounded in the objects and architecture that surround people. It includes the usage consumptions, the usage, consumptions, creation and well as the behavior that the objects create or take part in. 6 Topic 2 Non material culture and their components Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that people have about their culture, including beliefs,values,rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions. For instance, the non-material culture concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs about God, worship, morals and ethics, these beliefs, then, determine how the culture responds to its religious topics, issues and events. When considering non-material culture, sociologists refer to several processes that a culture uses to shape its member’s throughs, feelings, and behaviours.four of the most important of these are symbols, language, value and norms. Anthropologists have been studying and analyzing nonmaterial culture for several decades. One of the most influential thinkers on this topic was Clifford Getz (1926-2006), an American anthropologist who wrote extensively on the idea of nonmaterial culture. He argued that although differences between cultures often lead to conflict, the solution is not to create a single homogenous culture but to create open and productive discourse among individuals. Other anthropologists like Kalevan overgrown (1901-1973) studies material culture and nonmaterial culture and the ways that people have to adapt to new society if they travel or move. Oberoi refers to a new society if they travel or more. Oberg termed the confusion and discomfort that can arise from switching cultural milieus as “culture shock” that can only be become with item and open mindedness. Nonmaterial culture components According to more contemporary anthropologists: language, gesture, value, beliefs, sanctions, folkways, and mores. Language a culture’s language is often one of its most defining nonmaterial features. Language evolves over nonmaterial features. Languages evolve over centuries and they allow individual members of a society to meaningfully speak a culture’s language is a major step to belonging in a cultural environment. Beliefs A culture’s beliefs can include religious beliefs, superstitions and commonly held understandings. 7 Values are the concepts in a society that are considered important. This category can also be called norms. A culture that values honesty will impart this value to its children and honestly will become a normative behavior for many people within a society. Values are usually abstract ideas that impact people’s actions and their ways of interacting. Sanctions are consequences, either positive or negative, for certain kinds of behavior within a culture. Positive sanctions can be met with friendlier service, or higher wages. Negative sanctions can include social exclusion or difficulty of one’s behavior and failure to uphold a society’s values. Folkways are mildly enforced social expectations. These are less compulsory to follow as compared to mores. They don’t have very serious binding on groups. Mores are strictly held beliefs about behaviours.these are compulsory required to be followed. The violation of mores is viewed as a threat to social order. 8 Topic 3 Difference and correlation between material culture and non material culture material culture refers to the physical objects non-material culture refers to non physical which are man made. ideas created by human beings. material culture is concrete and tangible in Non-material culture is abstract and intangible nature in nature. It consists of manufactured objects like it consists of norms, regulations, values, sign, clothing, roads, jewelry, computers, airplanes systems, symbols, knowledge, beliefs, etc. etc. The material aspect of culture changes very change in non material culture is difficult and fast. readily accepted by society. Correlation between material culture and nonmaterial culture In each and every culture, we can see material culture and nonmaterial culture. Material culture includes things that have physical existence and these are created by man himself. Non material culture is implanted in material objects, representing the value system in the particular community. Both material culture and nonmaterial culture help to shape a culture and they signify the peoples’ lifestyles and creativity is a community. Both these are subjected to change over time and both have a strong relationship in shaping a culture. We can understand this existence with different examples of cultural aspects. 9 Topic 4. Cultural lags Cultural lag is a concept in sociology that refers to the idea that some aspects of culture change more slowly than others. It occurs when one part of a society changes faster than another, leading to a gap or “lag” between them. Cultural lag can occur within both material and non-material cultures. In the case of material culture, it might refer to the slow adoption of new technologies or innovations. For example, if a new type of transportation is introduced, it might take time for people to get used to using it. In the case of non-material culture, cultural lag might refer to the slow adoption of new ideas or values. For example, if there is a shift in societal attitudes towards a particular issue, it might take time for the new attitudes to be fully embraced and for the related social norms and values to be updated. Cultural lag can also refer to the gap between the two. For example, when non-material culture cannot catch up with the development of material culture and vice versa. 1. Changes in attitudes towards gender and sexual identity: There has been a significant shift in attitudes towards gender and sexual identity in many societies in recent years, with an increased acceptance of non-binary gender identities and a greater acceptance of the LGBTQ+ community. However, it can take time for these changes in attitudes to be fully embraced and for the related social norms and values to be updated. These changes have led to debates about the rights and protections of these groups. In this case, socioeconomic or political policies might not be as developed as non-material culture. 2. Changes in attitudes towards marriage and relationships: Attitudes towards marriage and relationships have changed significantly in many societies in recent years, with an increase in cohabitation and acceptance of non-traditional relationships. These changes have led to debates about the role of marriage in society and the legal rights of non-traditional relationships. In this case, socioeconomic or political policies might not be as developed as non-material culture. 10 3. Changes in education and employment: The education system and the job market are constantly evolving. It can take time for people to adapt to these changes and for the related social norms and values to catch up. For example, the rise of the gig economy has led to debates about the role of traditional employment and the importance of job security. In this case, non-material culture might be lagging behind material culture. 4. Changes in environmental attitudes: There has been a significant shift in attitudes towards the environment in many societies in recent years, with an increased awareness of the impact of human activity on the planet. It can take time for these changes in attitudes to be fully embraced and for the related social norms and values to be updated. For example, while there may be widespread support for protecting the environment, people may still engage in behaviors that are harmful to the environment, such as using single-use plastics or driving instead of using public transportation. This means that non-material culture has developed further than material culture, and the latter might be failing to catch up. 5. Changes in fashion and beauty standards: The fashion and beauty industries are constantly evolving, and it can take time for people to adapt to these changes and for the related social norms and values to catch up. For example, while there may be a shift towards more inclusive and body-positive fashion, traditional beauty standards and the objectification of the body in the media may persist. 6. Changes in food and nutrition: The food industry is constantly evolving, and it can take time for people to adapt to these changes and for the related social norms and values to catch up. For example, the rise of plant-based and vegan diets has led to debates about the ethics of animal agriculture and the environmental impact of the food industry. 7. Changes in healthcare and medicine: Advances in healthcare and medicine can lead to significant changes in the way people live and manage their health, but it can take time for people to adapt to these changes and for the related social norms and values to catch up. For example, the widespread use of telemedicine has led to debates about the role of face-to-face consultations and the privacy of electronic health records. 8. Changes in housing and urban planning: As cities and communities change, it can take time for the physical infrastructure and built environment to catch up to the changing needs and values of the people who live there. For example, while there may be a shift towards more sustainable and walkable communities, traditional attitudes towards suburban sprawl and car-centric planning may remain. 9. Changes in transportation: As new modes of transportation are introduced, it can take time for people to adapt to the new ways of getting around and for the related social norms and values to catch up. For example, while electric and self-driving vehicles may 11 become more widespread, traditional attitudes toward car ownership and the environmental impact of transportation may persist. 10. The adoption of new technologies: New technologies often bring about significant changes in the way people live and work, but it can take time for people to adapt to these changes and for the related social norms and values to catch up. For example, the widespread adoption of the internet has changed the way people communicate and access information, but it has also led to debates about online privacy and the role of social media in society. 12 Topic 5. Culture and approaches 1. Ethnocentrism The 2tendenc2for one culture to view itself as superior to anoJudging other in et is of material culture. Material culture is a study where researchers are trying to be aware of origins and significance that cultural rules. Trying to preserve their cultural heritage and viewing a culture based on its own standar 13 2. Cultural relativism 14 3. Difference between ethnocentrism and cultural relativism 15 4. Cultural Pluralism 16 5. Difference between pluralism and multiculturalism 17 Topic 6. Material culture and nonmaterial culture and their correlation in Indian pots potteries Like painting and sculpture pottery also played a significant role in culture building and understanding the social systems. technological development and making techniques of pottery represented the beauty of progression and evolution of experience and scientific knowledge and their amalgamation in art. In behind of every art there is some purpose, reasons and thoughts and and that thought get shapes with the help of some materials and mixing of that thought, imagination and and physical forms create the identity of cultural objects and that practices and legacy built some systems of production, involved people create a community who take the responsibility of production and we can see all the aspect like, material, systems, craft legacy, community responsibility and social dependency in chronological development of pottery. Clay and mud both are the most important,easily available material that’s why we can find most primitive pottery examples in the form of earthen pots. And that is still practiced extensively in the Indian subcontinent in various material exploration and technical developments like earthenware, including Terracottas, glacéd pottery and very later Metal pots introduced. Pot and pottery played a very important role in the storage of the things liquid and solid both. And give the support to carry things from one place to another. And most importantly a form of Kalash has played the most versatile role in all aspects of daily life to special and occasional purpose of life. Mesolithic period or middle Stone Age, is an intermediate cultural stage where hunter and gatherers human invent cord- impressed style of pottery belongs to Mesolithic ceramic tradition that devolved among Vindhya hunter-gatherers during the Mesolithic period. This early type of pottery found at the site of Lahuradewa and Chipanimando is currently the oldest known pottery tradition in South Asia, dating back to 7,000-6,000 BC. Apart from that before the existence of Indus valley civilization there were more cultures developed and gave countless examples of pottery tradition like, Ahar-Banas culture in Rajasthan, Amri-nal culture in Sindh Pakistan,Bhirrana culture Saraswati river and Rangpur culture in Gujrat more. 18 Indus valley civilization and pottery Indus valley civilization has an ancient tradition of pottery making. Through the origin of pottery making. The origin of pottery in India can be traced back to the much earlier Mesolithic age, with coarse handmade pottery bowls, jars, vessels-in various colors such as red, orange, brown, black and cream. During the Indus Valley civilization, there is proof of pottery being constructed in two ways: handmade and wheel-made. And as students of material culture we can see the characteristics of pottery on the basis of various forms and smoothness and Tactile surfaces and geometrical form development of surface embellishment. This tensile identity show the beautification and ornamentation belief were there in inte hi le form they love to embers the beauty and love to systematic purposeful life style which enhance the beauty of objects and objects can be support system of easy life. Vedic period Vedic period is that period where we can find all the examples and their existence in literature. Whihelm Rau has examined the reference to pottery in Vedic texts like the black Yajur Veda and the Taittiriya Samhita. According to his study, Vedic pottery is for example hand-made and untainted. According to Kuzmina(1983), Vedic pottery is for example hand-made and untainted. According to kuzmina (1983), Vedic pottery that mates Willehm’s Rau description cannot be found in Asia Minor and Central Asia, though the pottery of Andropov culture is similar in some respects. On the other hand we can appreciate Indian pottery culture development on material color and ornamentation. Ocher coloured pottery culture in Eastern Punjab, Western UP and Rajasthan. Copper Hoard Culture (2800-1500 BCE) in Delhi and Uttar Pradesh Gandhara grave culture (1500- 500 BCE) in Afghanistan and northwest Pakistan. Black and red ware culture (1450-1200 BCE) in northern and central Indian subcontinent Painted grey ware (1200-600 BCE), Eastern Punjab Northern black polished ware (700-200) in northern India. 19 Topic 7 Pottery as craft : Indians have a very unique identity in the entire world because there are various examples of craft. In every area of craft there are various technique and process which give same craft different identity like pottery making is a one area of craft where artist make pots, pottery and some other cultural utility and religious product but this all are not same in every state and this differences identifying and got respect with the rigorous efforts of artisans. In every state of India there are unique ways of pottery making and somehow its support to particular culture and society tradition. In this modern world this craft culture has become more commercial and to save the identity of craft developed geographical indications which help to identify the craft on the basis of their location. 1. Jaipur blue pottery Rajasthan. 2. Khurja pottery, Uttar Pradesh. 3. Khanda pottery, Gujarat. 4. Andretti pottery Himachal. 5. Bankura pottery, West Bengal 6. Longtime pottery, Manipur 7. Bidriware, Karnataka 8. Molega murti kala, Rajasthan. For better understanding of this craft practice it is necessary to watch the Mani Kaul movie Mati Manas. This all above identity describes the contemporary pottery craft segregation and evolution of pottery creation. On the behalf of both evolution and different identities we can perceive the material selection and purpose of pottery creation. For examples: Molela villages on the banks of river Banas, in Rajasthan Rajsamand District, is home to a little known terracotta plaques tradition that has flourished for many centuries, thanks to the Bhil, Mina and Garasiya tribal communities from Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Molela murti kala or clay craft revolves around making colorful votive Terracottas plaques of deities brought twice a year by the tribes. They travel to villages during the months of Magh and Vaishakh to buy idols of their deities. To serve the above tribal community molela artisans practice this craft and tribal faith is the intensively insensible beauty of that culture and it’s shaped by clay material. And shaped the social dependency of two different communities. 20 Topic 8 Material culture and nonmaterial culture in Indian art, architecture and Indian heritage. 1. Indus valley civilization and material culture and nonmaterial culture: Indus valley civilization is the one of most ancient civilizations among Egypt, mesopotamia, and china. This civilization played a very significant role in understanding the civilized society and glory of the past. In that society we can see all kinds of development which make society civilized, progressive and artistic and innovative. Development of cities, space planning, architectural construction for public and personal, Well sense of sanitation and hygiene, commerce and trade, brilliant artistic example which helps to understand the social construction, faith and religious significance in that period of time. We can understand the beauty of that period with help of some relevant examples A. Seal from Indus valley civilization: indus valley civilization produced a lot of art acts and art forms. Indus valley art form emerged during the second half of the third millennium BCE. Thousands of seals have been discovered by archeologists from the Harappan sites. Most of the seals were made of statite. A few of the seals were also made of gold, ivory, agate, terracotta, chert and faience. The shape of the harappan seals was square with a 2x2 dimension. Seals were primarily used for commercial purposes. A few seals were also used as amulets, perhaps as a kind of identity card. All the seals have pictures of animals with something written in a pictographic script. Chiefly, the animals represented are tigers, elephants, bulls, bison, goats and so on. Some seals have mathematical images and must have been used for educational purposes. The most famous seal is the Pashupatinath seals of Harappan civilization from Mohanjodaro-daro. It is a seal with a figure seated cross-legged in the center with animals around; an elephant and a tiger to the right figure and rhino and a buffalo to the left. Nonmaterial essence is that people of that time express their devotion towards a God as an idol form. They believe in God and 21 they create the identity of God most natural of humans which have power to control and serve human and animal perhaps that is why Pashupatinath male deities had a Imagination of human body and headgear of animal horn. Topic 9 Religion and material culture. To understand the religion and material culture, take an example of Buddhism where we can see the beauty of religion, how the intangible symbols get identity with the help of material, and how different physical things become symbols of Buddha’s life. Life of different animals and foliage and trees associated with Buddhism. The Buddha, probably the historical personage Sakyamuni Gautama, is thought to have been born in India in the sixth century B.C. He was a wandering renunciate, one among many, seeking a method of salvation, an explanation for the human condition, and the remedy for the sufferings of humanity. According to legend, he was the son of a sovereign among the Sakya people in the Indo-Nepalese foothills. He renounced his luxurious life and became a religious sage. He is believed to have established the world's religion of Buddhism and is revered by most Buddhist schools as a savior. A constant intriguing factor in the imagery of the Great Buddha is the group of three curving conch-like lines on his neck. In the varied world of Buddhist symbols, this is one common characteristic that shines across all aesthetic traditions. Like other Buddhist symbols, it too is soaked in rich spiritual symbolism. It is said to represent Buddha's deep and resonant voice, through which he introduced his followers to the path of dharma. Bhumisparsha Buddha Seated on Pedestal The association of the conch shell with Buddha's melodious voice, sweet with the tenor of his uplifting message, has both an archetypal simplicity and universal appeal. It is a hard-hitting Buddhist symbol that associates a primordial object (deemed sacred in all ancient traditions) with the actual physical body of the Buddha. Indeed, though much of Buddhist philosophy is esoteric, when it comes to aesthetics, Buddhist art is justly famous for giving a physical, easily recognizable representation to abstract philosophical truths. Buddhism has evolved over the centuries a complex, yet discernable scheme of Buddhist symbolism that has found adequate expression in Buddhist art. Undoubtedly, the most popular of 22 such Buddhist symbols is the group of eight, known in Sanskrit as 'Ashtamangala,' ashta meaning eight, and Mangala meaning auspicious. Each of these Buddhist symbols is also individually associated with the physical form of the Buddha. These eight auspicious Buddhist symbols (Tib. bkra shis rtags brgyad) are 1). A Conch Shell 2). A Lotus 3). A Wheel 4). A Parasol (Umbrella) 5). An Endless Knot 6). A Pair of Golden Fishes 7). A Banner Proclaiming Victory 8). A Treasure Vase The Conch Shell (Skt. shankha; Tib. dung dkar): The conch shell has survived as the original horn trumpet since time immemorial. Ancient Indian epics describe how each hero of mythical warfare carried a mighty white conch shell, which often bore a personal name. It is one of the main emblems of Vishnu, and his conch bears the name of Panchajanya, meaning 'having control over the five classes of beings.' Arjuna's (hero of the Mahabharata) mighty conch was known as Devadatta, whose triumphant blast brought terror to the enemy. As a proclaiming battle horn, the conch is akin to the bugle. It is an emblem of power, authority, and sovereignty whose blast is believed to banish evil spirits, avert natural disasters, and scare away poisonous creatures. Today, in its greatly tamed avatar, the conch is used in Tibetan Buddhism to call together religious assemblies. During the actual practice of rituals, it is used both as a musical instrument and as a container for holy water. 23 Sheshshayee Vishnu Conch Ancient Indian belief classifies the conch into male and female varieties. The thicker-shelled bulbous one is thought to be the male (Purusha), and the thin-shelled slender conch to be the female (shankhini). The fourfold caste division is also applied as follows: a). The smooth white conch represents the Brahmin caste b). The red conch the Kshatriyas (warriors) c). The yellow conch is the vaishyas (merchants) d). The gray conch of the Shudras (laborers) Additionally, there is a fundamental classification of conch shells occurring in nature: those that turn to the left and those which turn to the right. Shells that spiral to the right in a clockwise direction are a rarity and are considered especially sacred. The right-spiraling movement of such a conch is believed to echo the celestial motion of the sun, moon, planets, and stars across the heavens. The hair whorls on Buddha's head spiral to the right, as do his fine body hairs, the long curl between his eyebrows (urna), and also the conch-like swirl of his navel. Vajrayana Buddhism absorbed the conch as a Buddhist symbol which fearlessly proclaimed the truth of the dharma. Among the eight symbols, it stands for the fame of the Buddha's teaching, which spreads in all directions like the sound of the conch trumpet. In addition to Buddha's throat, the conch also appears as an auspicious mark on the soles, palms, limbs, breast, or forehead of a divinely endowed being. 24 The Lotus (Skt. the Padma; Tib. pad ma): The lotus does not grow in Tibet and so Tibetan art has only stylized versions of it. Nevertheless, it is one of Buddhism's best-recognized motifs since every important deity is associated in some manner with the lotus, either being seated upon it or holding one in their hands Superfine Four-Armed Avalokiteshvara (Super Large Chenrezig) - Tibetan Buddhist Brocadeless Thangka The roots of a lotus are in the mud, the stem grows up through the water, and the heavily scented flower lies above the water, basking in the sunlight. This pattern of growth signifies the progress of the soul from the primeval mud of materialism, through the waters of experience, and into the bright sunshine of enlightenment. Though there are other water plants that bloom above the water, it is only the lotus which, owing to the strength of its stem, regularly rises eight to twelve inches above the surface. Thus says the Lalitavistara, 'the spirit of the best of men is spotless, like the lotus in the muddy water which does not adhere to it.' According to another scholar, 'in esoteric Buddhism, the heart of the beings is like an unopened lotus: when the virtues of the Buddha develop therein, the lotus blossoms; that is why the Buddha sits on a lotus bloom.' Significantly, the color of the lotus too has an important bearing on the symbolism associated with it: 1). White Lotus (Skt. pundarika; Tib. pad ma dkar po): This represents the state of spiritual perfection and total mental purity (bodhi). It is associated with the White Tara and proclaims her perfect nature, a quality which is reinforced by the color of her body. 2). Red Lotus (Skt. kamala; Tib: pad ma chu skyes): This signifies the original nature and purity of the heart (hrdya). It is the lotus of love, compassion, passion, and all other qualities of the heart. It is the flower of Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion. 25 3). Blue Lotus (Skt. utpala; Tib. ut pa la): This is a symbol of the victory of the spirit over the senses, and signifies the wisdom of knowledge. Not surprisingly, it is the preferred flower of Manjushri, the bodhisattva of wisdom. 4). Pink Lotus (Skt. padma; Tib. pad ma dmar po): This is the supreme lotus, generally reserved for the highest deity. Thus naturally it is associated with the Great Buddha himself. The Wheel (Skt. chakra; Tib. 'khor lo): The wheel consists of three basic parts: the hub, the rim, and spokes (generally eight in number). Its underlying form is that of a circle, which is recognized across all traditions as a shape that is complete and perfect in itself, qualities that inform the teachings of the Buddha too. Prayer Wheel From Nepal with Auspicious Symbols and Syllable Mantras - Tibetan Buddhist Individually, the rim represents the element of limitation, the hub is the axis of the world, and the eight spokes denote the Eightfold Path set down by the Buddha, which leads to the cessation of all suffering. A further esoteric interpretation makes reference to the three trainings which form an integral part of Buddhist meditative practice, associating each of the three parts of the wheel with one such practice. This symbolism is as follows: a). The hub stands for training in moral discipline. Through this practice, the mind is supported and stabilized. Thus it is the practice of moral discipline that upholds our meditation, just like the supporting axis of the world. b). The spokes stand for the correct application of wisdom, which cuts off ignorance and ends suffering. c). The rim denotes concentration, which holds the entire meditative practice together, just as the wheel of life is held together by its rim. 26 The wheel evolved as a symbol of the Buddha's teachings and as an emblem of the Chakravartin or 'wheel turner,' identifying the wheel as the Dharmachakra or 'wheel of law.' The Tibetan term for Dharmachakra (chos kyi'khor lo) literally means 'the wheel of transformation.' The wheel's swift motion serves as an apt metaphor for the rapid spiritual change engendered by the teachings of the Buddha. Hence, Buddha's first discourse at the Deer Park in Sarnath is known as the 'first turning of the wheel of dharma.' Likewise, his subsequent discourses at Rajgir and Shravasti are known as the 'second and third turns of the wheel of dharma.' The Parasol (Skt. chattra; Tib. drugs): Above the mountain is the dome of the sky. This is symbolized by the umbrella, whose important function is to cast a shadow, the shadow of protection. The dictionary defines a parasol as an umbrella used for protection from the sun. Thus its function is to protect exclusively from the heat rather than the rain - as the word 'parasol,' meaning 'to hold off the sun,' and 'umbrella,' meaning 'little shade,' similarly imply. The Sanskrit term 'chattra,' also means 'mushroom,' in an obvious reference to its shape. Tibetan Buddhist Prayer Wheel With Umbrella (Ashtamangala) The parasol or umbrella is a traditional Indian symbol of both protection and royalty. The ability to protect oneself against inclement weather has always, in all cultures, been a status symbol. In Europe, until a few decades ago, a sunshade was a status symbol for society ladies. In Oriental thought, the fact that it protected the bearer from the scorching heat of the sun was transferred into the religious sphere as a "protection against the heat of defilements." Thus the coolness of its shade symbolizes protection from the heat of suffering, desire, and other spiritually harmful forces. The dome of the umbrella is held aloft by a vertical handle (just like the mountain upholds the sky), which is identified with the 'axis mundi,' or the central axis upholding the world. The umbrella is carried above an important dignitary or the image of a deity, to indicate that the 27 person or symbol below the umbrella is in fact the center of the universe, and also its spiritual support. Umbrellas seem to be especially important in processional rites, being like mobile temples. Thus, depictions of the Buddha often display an elaborate and large umbrella above his head. Thousand Armed Avalokiteshvara (Tibetan Buddhist Deity) As it is held above the head it naturally symbolizes honor and respect. In Vajrayana Buddhism, this large umbrella (atapatra) was even deified into the thousand-armed, -footed goddess Sitapatra, whose name literally means 'the white umbrella.' In Tibet, depending on their status, various dignitaries were entitled to different parasols, with religious heads being entitled to a silk one and secular rulers to a parasol with embroidered peacock feathers. Exalted personalities such as the Dalai Lama are entitled to both, and in processions, first a peacock parasol and then a silk one is carried after him. The Tibetan version of the parasol was adopted from its royal Indian and Chinese prototypes, and fashioned from a wooden, spoked frame with a domed silk cover and hanging silk pendants making up an overhanging skirt. The dome symbolizes wisdom, and the hanging skirt, compassion. Thus the composite form of the parasol signifies the union of these dual elements. Octagonal and square parasols are also common, representing the Noble Eightfold Path and the four directional quarters respectively. The Endless Knot (Skt. shrivatsa; Tib. dpal be'u): The endless knot is a closed, graphic ornament composed of right-angled, intertwined lines. It is conjectured that it may have evolved from an ancient naga symbol with two stylized snakes. This latter image signifies the dramatic interplay and interaction of the opposing forces in the dualistic world of manifestation, leading to their union, and ultimately to harmony in the universe. This fact is amply reflected in the symmetrical and regular form of the endless knot. 28 The intertwining of lines reminds us how all phenomena are conjoined and yoked together as a closed cycle of cause and effect. Thus the whole composition is a pattern that is closed in on itself with no gaps, leading to a representational form of great simplicity and fully balanced harmony. Endless Knot (Ashtamangala) Pendant Since all phenomena are interrelated, the placing of the endless knot on a gift or greeting card is understood to establish an auspicious connection between the giver and the recipient. At the same time, the recipient is goaded to righteous karma, being reminded that future positive effects have their roots in the causes of the present. This is because the knot represents a connection, a link with our fates, binding us to our karmic destiny. Not surprisingly, this is one of the most favorite Buddhist symbols and often occurs independently on its own. Since the knot has no beginning or end it also symbolizes the infinite wisdom of the Buddha. The Golden Fishes (Skt. suvarna matsya; Tib. gser nya): This symbol consists of two fishes, which usually appear standing vertically with heads turned inwards towards each other. Twin Fish Pendant The pair of fishes originated as an ancient pre-Buddhist symbol of the two sacred rivers of India, the Ganga, and the Yamuna. Symbolically, these two rivers represent the lunar and solar channels, which originate in the nostrils and carry the alternating rhythms of breath or prana. In Buddhism, the golden fishes symbolize happiness, as they have complete freedom in the water. They represent fertility and abundance as they multiply very rapidly. Fish often swim in pairs, and in China, they represented conjugal unity and fidelity, where a pair of fishes would often be given as a wedding present. Both Jesus Christ and Buddha are known as 'fisher of men,' because they save mortals from the ocean of suffering. 29 The Victory Banner (Skt. dhvaja; Tib. rgyal mtshan): In Sanskrit, the banner or sign of victory is known as the dhvaja, meaning standard, flag, or ensign. Originally, the victory banner was a military standard carried in ancient Indian warfare and bore the specific insignia of its champion. For example in the Mahabharata, Krishna's chariot was adorned with a banner showing the image of the monkey-god Hanuman. The victory banner was adopted by early Buddhism as an emblem of the Buddha's enlightenment, heralding the triumph of knowledge over ignorance. It is said to have been placed on the summit of Mt. Meru by Buddha himself, symbolizing his victory over the entire universe. Again, Mount Meru here is believed to be the central axis supporting the world. Tibetan Buddhist Prayer Wheel with Victory Banner (Ashtamangala) The flag of victory also denotes Buddha's triumph over Mara, who personifies hindrances on the path to spiritual realization. Specifically, there are said to be four types of Maras, each one representing an individual hurdle on the path to spiritual progress. These are 1). The Mara of Emotional Defilement 2). Mara of Passion 3). Mara of the Fear of Death 4). Mara of Pride and Lust It was only after conquering these four negative traits that Buddha could proclaim victory over ignorance, and achieve nirvana. Cylindrical victory banners made of beaten copper are traditionally placed at the four corners of monastery and temple roofs. These signify the Buddha's victorious dharma radiating to the four directions and also his triumph over the four Maras mentioned above. 30 The Treasure Vase (Skt. nidhana kumbha; Tib. gter gyi bum pa): The vase is a fat-bellied vessel with a short, slim neck. On top, at the opening, there is a large jewel indicating that it is a treasure vase. Its symbolic meaning was almost always associated with the ideas of storage and the satisfaction of material desires. In the sagas and fairytales of many different cultures, for example, there is the recurring idea of an inexhaustible vessel. Physically, the 'vase of inexhaustible treasures' is modeled on the traditional Indian clay water pot or Kumbha with a flat base, round body, narrow neck, and fluted upper rim. However much is removed from it, this vase remains perpetually full. Wealth vases, sealed with precious and sacred substances, are commonly placed upon altars and on mountain passes, or buried at water springs, where their presence is believed to attract wealth and bring harmony to the environment. Concerning Buddhism, it specifically means the spiritual abundance of the Buddha, a treasure that did not diminish, however much of it he gave away. Tibetan Buddhist Dragon Flower Vase The question still remains of the association of these eight symbols with the Buddha's actual physical body. An ancient text called the Heap of Good Fortune Sutra (Aryamangalakutanama-mahayanasutra), while addressing the Buddha, has this to say on the issue: Veneration to you with your head like a protecting parasol, With eyes like the precious golden fishes (even today a woman with beautiful eyes is known as 'minakshi,' meaning one with fish-like eyes) With a neck like a precious, adorned vase of good fortune, With a speech like a right-turning Dharma shell, 31 With a mind infinite with wisdom like the never-ending knot, With a tongue, open like the auspicious pink lotus, With a body proclaiming triumph over the attacking armies of Mara, With feet that tread the path of dharma like the auspicious wheel. Artistically, these motifs may be depicted individually, in pairs, in fours, or as a composite group of eight. Designs of these eight symbols adorn all manner of sacred and secular Buddhist objects, such as carved wooden furniture, metalwork, wall panels, carpets, and silk brocades. They are also frequently drawn on the ground in sprinkled flour or colored powders to welcome visiting religious dignitaries. Indeed, no Tibetan ceremony, be it religious or secular (e.g. a marriage), is complete without some depiction of the eight auspicious symbols of Buddhism, which are believed to propitiate the environment and grant protection to the activity being undertaken. The Spiritual Journey of Buddha Being born into a royal family, Buddha was surrounded with every luxury by his father who was overprotective as the result of a predicament made by a seer at his son’s birth that he would renounce household life. In spite, or perhaps because of, his father’s precautions, the young prince became disillusioned with life after seeing a sick man, an old man, and a dead body, realizing that sickness, death, and old age were inescapable for everyone. Then he observed the serene appearance of wandering renunciate and became hopeful that it was possible to find an escape from suffering. He stole away from his home and for a period of six years, learned different religious methods from various spiritual teachers and practiced severe asceticism. He always excelled at whatever practice he tried, and his teachers recognized that his ability was as good as, if not better than their own. Yet, still, he did not find the answer to his quest: he did not accomplish release from Samsara (the round of existence) and the inevitable suffering it entails asceticism too, he found to be of no avail and he gave it up. After this, he sat down to reflect under a bodhi tree and that night awoke to the Truth. Siddhartha received insight into both his former and present lives. He concluded that extremes in life lead to nothing, that life is suffering and suffering must be eliminated. He realized that he attained Nirvana or liberation 32 enlightenment or bodhi-that he was beyond the three fires of greed, hatred, and delusion, and would not be reborn again. Thus he himself became Buddha, an Enlightened One, or better yet, an Awakened One. In His first sermon, this truth was formulated as the four truths of the noble ones: that there is inevitable suffering; that there are causes to this suffering, and an account of those causes; that there is a remedy to end suffering; and the path to follow to achieve freedom from suffering. The religious path taught by the Buddha, then, is the path taught in the fourth of these truths. This religious path is frequently formulated as moral conduct, meditation, and wisdom. He wandered around for years, making his understanding known to people. Buddha does not recognize a concept like God or creator, thus no higher or Absolute Being. At the age of 80, the Buddha died in Kushinagara. He attained parinirvana, the passing beyond nirvana. 33 Topic 10 Museum and material culture museum, institution dedicated to preserving and interpreting the primary tangible evidence of humankind and the environment. In its preservation of this primary evidence, the museum differs markedly from the library, with which it has often been compared, for the items housed in a museum are mainly unique and constitute the raw material of study and research. In many cases they are removed in time, place, and circumstance from their original context, and they communicate directly to the viewer in a way not possible through other media. Museums have been founded for a variety of purposes: to serve as recreational facilities, scholarly venues, or educational resources; to contribute to the quality of life of the areas where they are situated; to attract tourism to a region; to promote civic pride or nationalistic endeavor; or even to transmit overtly ideological concepts. Given such a variety of purposes, museums reveal remarkable diversity in form, content, and even function. Yet, despite such diversity, they are bound by a common goal: the preservation and interpretation of some material aspect of society’s cultural consciousness. The Cabinet Of Curiosities 34 The age of the explorers and the opening of the new world to Europeans broadened the scope of collections. Collectors – mainly amateurs and scholars – stored their acquisitions in cabinets, drawers, cases, and others. As time passed, every new collection was more systematic and ordered than the previous one. These collections became known under different names throughout Europe. In English, they were most commonly called Cabinets of Curiosities.By the 17th century, the Cabinets of Curiosities would also be called museums. The term was first used to describe the collection of Lorenzo de’ Medici during the 15th century. This was the conscious choice of scholars deeply invested in the study of classical antiquity and the Alexandrine tradition. Both artificalia (man-made objects) and naturalia (natural made objects/specimens) were included in the cabinets with little distinction. The artificalia (usually coins, medals, and other small objects) were used to facilitate antiquarian studies. The naturalia were used for the 35 promotion of “natural sciences.” Many times Curiosities Cabinets attempted to create a replica of reality in miniature. Parallel to the Cabinets of Curiosities were the gallerias. There, collectors exhibited collections of sculpture and/or painting. Although the cabinet of curiosities was a means towards accumulating prestige, the gallerias were more important in that regard. Greek and Roman sculpture was considered of higher importance and was an asset for every ruler. Naturally, the galleria was also called a museo. Material collection and history of Lal Bhai DalpatBhai Museum Since its inception in 1956, the L. D. Institute of Indology has been collecting and preserving rare manuscripts and artifacts of various kinds, some of which are handed over to the L.D. Museum. The museum is the product of the vision and energy of two remarkable persons who were responsible for its establishment: Muni Punyavijayaji, an erudite monk scholar and Sheth Kasturbhai Lalbhai, the well-known industrialist of Ahmedabad. As the collection grew over the years, the Board of Trustees (of the Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Bharatiya Sanskriti Vidyamandir), strongly felt the need for a separate museum building to house the display of its collection. Consequently, a new museum building was built adjacent to the existing building of the institute, which was also designed by the internationally acclaimed architect, Balkrishna Doshi. The collection in the new museum building was opened to the public in 1984 and was formally inaugurated by Braj Kumar Nehru (Governor of Gujarat) in 1985. The wide-ranging sculpture collection is unique, since all the major regional styles of the sub-continent are represented here on the Ground Floor, in Madhuri D. Desai Gallery. The outstanding pieces include the largest head of Buddha (c. 5th century) in stucco from Gandhara, the earliest cult image of Lord Rama (early 6th century) Gupta period from Deogarh (Madhya Pradesh), a rare figure of Matrika Indrani (6th century) from Shamlaji (Gujarat), the Adinath bronze image (c.7th-8th century) from Sirpur (near Nandurbar, Maharashtra), the Jaina bronze images from Ghogha (Dist.Bhavnagar, Gujarat) and some of the finest examples of Buddha images from Mathura, 36 Nalanda and Nepal/ Tibet. Besides, the Madhuri D. Desai Gallery includes some very superb Chola sculptures (c. 10th-12th century) from Tamil Nadu. A majestic group of four Tirthankaras from Ladol dating between 11th and 13th centuries are displayed in Chaumukha arrangement. There are also in display 9 portrait statues of distinguished personages from Gujarat during the medieval period, which includes the Solanki king, Jayasimha Siddharaja. The portraits are inscribed with the date of V.S.1285 = 1228 (that is, during the Vaghela period) and the find spot is Harij, near Patan. The museum has one of the finest collections of paintings in the Gujarati Jaina styles, some of which are painted before the Mughal period and are displayed in the Muni Punyavijayaji Gallery on the 1st Floor. The collection, which was assembled by Muniji during the 1940s, has some rare illustrated wooden book covers (patli) created for palm-leaf manuscripts. The Jaina pilgrimage painting on cloth executed in 1433 at Champaner (Gujarat) is the earliest extant example of such a painting on cloth. Similarly, a Vijnaptipatra painted at Agra by the Mughal painter, Ustad Salivahana, in 1610, is the earliest painted document of its kind. It refers to the Mughal emperor Jahangir's farman prohibiting the killing of animals in his empire during the Jaina festival of Paryushan. The earliest painted paper manuscript of the Shantinath Charitra, dated V.S.1453 = 1396. has been recognized as a global treasure by UNESCO. Other exceptional examples on show include, the illustrated manuscripts of the Kalakacharya Katha (c. 1430) in Mandu style, the Matar Sangrahani Sutra (dated 1583), painted by Chitara Govinda, the Shripala Rasa (18th century), and painted Vijnapatipatra from Ahmedabad (dated 1796) in the late Gujarati style; several rare cosmological diagrams called Adhidvipa (c. 1440) and the Jaina Siddha-Chakra-Yantra. On the 1st floor, the eastern wing of the Muni Punyavijayaji Gallery has been designed with a section displaying the Lilavati Lalbhai Woodwork Collection. It highlights the age-old tradition of wood carving in Gujarat and other parts of India, mostly donated by Smt. Leelavati Lalbhai. The display includes Jaina Derasar, relief panels of Tirthankaras and other symbolic forms, carved pillars and decorative panels. Among the noteworthy objects on display from the Shri Arvindbhai Collection, are a flamboyant Chola style Nataraja (11th century), an exuberant Nepali/ Tibetan bronze Mandala (18th century) and 37 an elaborately decorated Chinese/ Japanese style cupboard in wood. This gift has widened the scope of the various collections to grow into a Museum of Asian Art in the Gujarat region. Kasturbhai Lalbhai Collection of Indian Drawings comprises over 1855 Indian drawings and unfinished paintings. They represent most of the schools of Indian miniature paintings. Initially the collection was formed nearly 1000 years ago and now it is on display with the same objective of understanding the technical and the creative processes of traditional Indian miniature paintings. This substantial collection is represented here by a display of several dozen exquisite drawings of Indian miniature paintings belonging to various regional schools, between the 17th and 19th centuries. The significant themes on view are Ramayana series and other numerous subjects. The entire eastern wing on the first floor of the Museum building was renovated with the financial assistance received from the Ministry of Culture, New Delhi, 2012–2013. On the south-eastern side of the renovated wing, Priyakant T. Munshaw Gallery of Coinage has on display a representative collection of historical phases of coinage of India, which was posthumously gifted by Smt. Nandiniben Munshaw in 2013 The collection includes the earliest punched-marked coins called bentbar (c. 600 BC), Akbar's Din-i-Ilahi coin, Jahangir's Zodiac series in silver, Adil Shah's Larin (dated 1668) and contemporary currency. On the north-western side of the First Floor, the Muni Punyavijayaji Gallery has a section devoted to Gopi-Anand Beadwork Collection. The art of Moti Guthana or Moti Poravanu is practiced mainly in Saurashtra and Kutch regions of Gujarat. This art has been in vogue since centuries but became widespread during the late 19th century These patterns have been mostly used for household decoration and marriage ceremonies. Women of Kathi community in Gujarat have mastery over this art-form, who are fond of engaging in bead work for their domestic applications as well. The Gopi-Anand Beadwork Collection has been gifted to the museum by Shri Mahesh and Smt. Usha Pandya (March 2013), in memory of his parents, Shri Dalpatram and Gopiben Pandya. This interesting material augments the museum's holdings with a representative group of Gujarati handicrafts. 38 Chapter 11 Materialism in Indian philosophy- special reference to Lokayt In its most generic sense, “Indian Materialism” refers to the school of thought within Indian philosophy that rejects supernaturalism. It is regarded as the most radical of the Indian philosophical systems. It rejects the existence of other worldly entities such an immaterial soul or god and the after-life. Its primary philosophical import comes by way of a scientific and naturalistic approach to metaphysics. Thus, it rejects ethical systems that are grounded in supernaturalistic cosmologies. The good, for the Indian materialist, is strictly associated with pleasure and the only ethical obligation forwarded by the system is the maximization of one’s own pleasure. The terms Lokāyata and Cārvāka have historically been used to denote the philosophical school of Indian Materialism. Literally, “Lokāyata” means philosophy of the people. The term was first used by the ancient Buddhists until around 500 B.C.E. to refer to both a common tribal philosophical view and a sort of this-worldly philosophy or nature lore. The term has evolved to signify a school of thought that has been scorned by religious leaders in India and remains on the periphery of Indian philosophical thought. After 500 B.C.E., the term acquired a more derogatory connotation and became synonymous with sophistry. It was not until between the 6th 39 and 8th century C.E. that the term “Lokāyata” began to signify Materialist thought. Indian Materialism has also been named Cārvāka after one of the two founders of the school. Cārvāka and Ajita Kesakambalin are said to have established Indian Materialism as a formal philosophical system, but some still hold that Bṛhaspati was its original founder. Bṛhaspati allegedly authored the classic work on Indian Materialism, the Bṛhaspati Sῡtra. There are some conflicting accounts of Bṛhaspati’s life, but, at the least, he is regarded as the mythical authority on Indian Materialism and at most the actual author of the since-perished Bṛhaspati Sῡtra. Indian Materialism has for this reason also been named “Bṛhaspatya.” It is an ancient school of Indian The materialist systems were often called “Lokayata,” which means “that which is found among people in general.” Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embraces philosophical skepticism and rejects ritualism and supernaturalism. Brihaspati is traditionally referred to as the founder of Charvaka or Lokāyata philosophy The Charvaka did not believe in karma, rebirth or an afterlife. Charvaka believed that there was nothing wrong with sensual pleasure. Since it is impossible to have pleasure without pain, Charvaka thought that wisdom lay in enjoying pleasure and avoiding pain as far as possible. Charvakas rejected many of the standard religious conceptions of Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Ajivakas, such as an afterlife, reincarnation, samsara, karma and religious rites. They were critical of the Vedas, as well as Buddhist scriptures Charvakas concluded that the inference could not be used to ascertain metaphysical truths. “But, after all, who knows, and who can say Whence it all came, and how creation happened? 40 The gods themselves are later than creation, So who knows truly whence it has arisen?” - Chapter 10, Rigveda The Charvaka vision rejected all supernatural claims, all religious authority and scripture, the acceptance of inference and testimony in establishing truth, and any religious ritual or tradition. The essential tenets of the philosophy were: Direct perception is the only means of establishing and accepting any truth What cannot be perceived and understood by the senses does not exist All that exists are the observable elements of air, earth, fire, and water The ultimate good in life is pleasure; the only evil is pain Pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain is the sole purpose of human existence Religion is an invention of the strong and clever who prey on the weak There is no single piece of extant literature that is solely based on the materialistic philosophy of the Charvaka. The few writings that clearly relate to the system are not very old in Hindu terms (a few centuries) but many scholars believe that there is evidence of criticisms of the Charvaka principles in earlier writings by adversary philosophers such as Sankara (Hiriyanna 187). The Charvakas played a significant role in the history of Indian philosophy (King 21). It was very unnerving to the leaders and priests of the orthodox tradition because of the rejection of their sacred texts and the rejection of immaterial forms of existence. The importance of the materialist philosophy is most likely underplayed because of the lack of extant texts of Charvaka or Lokayata itself. The Brhaspati Sutra apparently set out the principles of the system but the text has been lost. The orthodox opposition wrote the only known writings pertaining to philosophy. The only possible extant writing on the Carvaka philosophy is the Destruction of Philosophical Theories (Tattvopaplavasimha) by Jayarasi Bhatta (King 19). Even this is not directly Charvaka; it is explained more as radical skepticism than materialism. Still, the fact that Jayarasi was from a 41 school of skeptical Lokayatikas gives writings that are closely related to and are not completely critical of the Charvaka philosophy. Topic 11. Material culture in tribal society Please create your own notes on the behalf of your Tejgadh (Chhota Udaipur) visit. Add all the aspects of tribal life like. Food, festivals, livelihood, art, craft, music, faith tradition, customs and market and in respective of materials culture. Topic 12 New material expansion ( progress, protest and pluralism ) Introduction This philosophy emerged later in the 20th century and in the start of the 21st century. This is the expansion of materials and their progeny to understand an entire context following the below explanation. Fulfilling the promise of the partnership between technology and progress through design in the postwar period has proven to be a challenging, often elusive goal, as the social, moral, economic, 42 and political tension that characterized the somewhat turbulent 1960s continue to be felt in the new century and millennium. Food processors, microwave ovens, compact disks, personal and handheld computers, MP3 Players, interactive video games, cellular phones, and global positioning systems are only among the most obvious examples of technologies affecting contemporary lifestyles, extending the range of our powers and redefining the relationship between work and leisure in the industrially developed nations of the world. Personal computers and the Internet of things have not only stimulated the marketing and merchandising of these and countless other products, but also have increased the emphasis upon design as an expanding sphere of activity that encompasses all fields of information and communication. The growth of the internet and AI is a clear indication of an emerging post-industrial age in which information, intellectual property, and a wide range of human services are increasingly the emphasis upon design as an expanding spheres of activity that incompasses all fields of an emerging post-industrial age in which information, intellectual property and wide range of human services are increasing age in which information, intellectual property, and a wide range of human services are increasingly the source of economic power and where manufacturing often takes place in the less developed nations of the world. While design consultancies such as smart design or IDEO are often identified by the products for which they are responsible, products only account for a relatively small percentage of their activity, which also includes from of products today is often the result of a lengthy process of dialogue and compromise among viewpoints representing client interest, user experience, development and production costs, aesthetics, materials, and market research. Design practice appears to be as much a model for non-hierarchical organizational behavior generally as strategy directed toward producing physical objects. This is certainly the case for the well-known Pentagram Design group(1972), founded in London and now operating with seventeen partners in five cities internationally. Primarily known for graphic design and high-Profile corporate clients such as citicorp, pentagram”s services also 43 extend to products and architecture, involving teamwork and group rather than individual ownership of complex design projects. Yet the connection between design and new or improved consumer goods continues to create an even- increasing flood of products that appears at times to make us victims as well as beneficiaries of both technology and the information age, defining us perhaps too narrowly as little more than machines for programmed consumption, reducing the exercise of freedom to the choice between endless varieties of products that complicate and fragment our lives. At the same time, concerns with environmental as well as for social responsibility on a broader global scale undermine at least some of the confidence in the future we are designing. Sustainability has certainly shifted from the fringes to the mainstream, and is now the focus of corporate advertising strategies and interdisciplinary awareness in universities, presenting tremendous challenges to design the goods we produce and consume. Green design may have triggered a broad- based consciousness that informs shared attitudes toward new products in relationship to the environment, but to be effective that consciousness must extend to patterns of consumer behavior that are difficult to break or alter, especially when consumer spending remains a basic indicator of economic health. New materials and new products as a progress Material technology continued to stimulate a number of original product designs in the 1960s, reinforcing the forms and ideology of “ good design” as it had emerged in the first postwar decade. Certainly a significant part of this growth revolved around developments in synthetic plastics and the production process. British industrial designer Robin Day (b. 1915) used a new flexible plastic known as polypropylene to compete with fiberglass in the design of seating. Day”s 1963 polyprop chair, manufactured by hille, shares much in common with the Eameses 44 and Saarinen’s earlier examples of molded chairs, but offered refinements in ease of assembly and a variety of thin steel supporting structures. Plastic and their Progeny In beginning of the 1960s, the process of injection molding combined with stronger polymers further extended possibilities for furniture design using the plastics initiated by the Eames and by Eero Saarinen Jeo columbos side chair of 1965, manufactured by the italian company kartell beginning in 1968, was designed as a molded seat and back into which plastic legs were inserted. Less organic than most of its predecessors, columbo’s plastic side chair was a unified design where legs, seat, and back wew as to the walls, floors, and ceilings of the rooms they occupied. Single injection molded from was stacking chair, designed in 1960 and manufactured by Herman Miller beginning in 1967 unlike columbo”s side chair, Panton’s unified design preserves an organic, sculptural quality reminiscent of the biomorphic forms forms of post-war furniture designers such as Isomo Noguchi , Eero Saarinen, or Arne Jacobsen, while the thin, concave base was designed to provide stability and permit interlocking. Both designs eliminated the need for steel, wooden, or aluminum supporting structures, making the chairs light and easy to move. Bright colors provided for consumer choice, suggesting yet another advantage of plastic in comparison to other materials. the original design from the 1960 was inspired by the possibilities of newly developed materials or processes. Aluminum emerged in the interwar period as a constructive material for lightweight industrial furniture in aircraft as well as for outdoor use commercially; it was used after the war as well for the cone-shaped pedestals in Saarinen’s Tulip furniture for Knoll in the mid- 1950s. Knoll also replaced steel with aluminum in manufacturing mies van der Rohe’s Barcelona chair, first designed for an exhibition in 1929 and re-released after World war II. in 1962 Charles and Ray Eames used aluminum construction for the Tandem Sling, manufactured by Herman Miller for seating that continues to be used in airport terminal gate areas. The design of the Tandem sling responded to a variety of Requirements. Easily assembled in Flexible units from a small 45 number of Parts, with sets made from nylon (like plastic, another synthetic polymer) contoured to lessen pressure on the back of the legs, this seating system also facilitated maintenance by airport custodial staff, who could operate vacuum cleaners more easily to reach underneath the seats. As noted by designer and design historian Craig Vogel, armrests provided additional support for waiting passengers as they stood up, as well as preventing them from scratching out along the length of several units less playful and organic than a number of earlier eames chairs for the home or molded designs for public spaces, this aluminum and nylon seating exemplified continuity with the aesthetic, practical, and technological determinants of responsible industrial design, and was an example of creative problem solving. Hard-edged aesthetic qualities also apply to the Ecliss (Eclipse) lamp designed by Vico Magistretti and manufactured by Artemide in 1966 in a variety of colors. The lacquered aluminum lamp consists of two concentric semicircular shades attached to a semicircular base; the shades rotate to adjust the amount and direction of illumination. Again, the smooth shapes and compact design recall the purity of geometric abstraction, as well as its cool precision. Both the name and the forms allude to the solar system as well as to modern space exploration. In 1960s, industrial designs played an important part in strengthening Italy”s international reputation for original and sophisticated products, supplying new designs and name recognition for furniture, machines, lighting, and household products manufactured by numerous companies such as Venini (glass), kartell, (plastic), Pirelli (rubber), Flos, Arredoluce, and Artemide (lighting) and Gavine (furniture) Protest and counterculture The broad and varied role of rock music in the 1960s can hardly be overestimated, and emerges as a paradigm for the widespread interpenetration and relaxation of boundaries between 46 traditional and underground behaviors, mainstream and fringe, pop and avant-garde. From general permissiveness and self-expression among youth and those older groups wishing to identify with a more open lifestyle, to non-conformism and rebelliousness, to political and social activism, this most accessible medium of rock music involved an active, engaging role for the audience. In short, the 1960s’ maxim “do your own thing” did not mean the same thing as the 1960s' maxim “do your own thing” did not mean the same thing to everyone. Amid growing racial tensions in large American cities such as los Angeles and Detroit, concern over escalation of the United state's involvement in the Vietnam War, worker strikers and student protests both in Europe and the United states, the political dimensions of Pop art and Rock music appeared as part of a wider struggle of artists and designers to engage the mass media and public opinion in the interests of personal expression or wider political protest and social activism. “First things First” was tame, even gentle, in comparison with later condemnations of industrial design by Victor Papnek and others; nevertheless it suggests the presence of alternative voices within the design community, whether truly revolutionary or merely intent upon rethinking and redirecting the relationship between designers, technology, business, and progress. Anti- design in Italy Protest was also a direction in design acknowledged in the exhibition Italy: The new Domestic Landscape held at the Museum of modern art in New York in 1972. In 1968, student protestors and workers staged demonstrations in Milan, disrupting the Fourteenth Milan TRiennale and Forcing an early closing of this major international showcase for industrial design in the postwar period. Protests, strikes, and sit-ins were prevalent in many Italian cities during that year: on university campuses student demonstrators rebelled against authoritarian administrations and biased admissions policies, and in factories workers organized for better wages as a response to frustrated expectations for higher standards of living. In solidarity with students and workers, a number of Italian industrial designers began to view their role in the creation of sophisticated domestic objects as part of a repressive collaboration between government and corporate 47 management interests that reinforced class distinction and fueled commodity consumption for the wealthy. In sympathy with unrest on campuses and in factories, designers looked to alternative strategies that might redefine the relation of design to society. Design curator Emilio Ambasz organized the 1972 MOMA exhibition, it included both new and familiar examples of post war modern Italian design in furniture, lighting,and product housings featuring molded plastics and abstract sculptural forms, as well as a section devoted to modular and flexible designs for seating and storage. An selected for their socio-cultural implication,” which Ambasz in the following way: Ambasz,s definition of an experimental industrial design in the 1972 MOMA exhibition was tentative, although his easy suggested that the meaning of designed products lies not only in their physical form but in the relationship or interface between product and users; moreover, appropriating references to American popular culture emerges as an important characteristics of many of the objects selected for this category: the familiar symbols of American consumer culture engaged the critical debate between high and popular culture and were at the same time an affront to the refined international Modernist Sensibility. Paolo Lomazzi, Donato D’ Urbino, and Jonathan De Pas”s Joe chair (1970/I), made of polyurethane foam covered in leather in the Shape of a baseball mitt, eschewed the sophisticated abstraction of much contemporary Italian design and referenced images of everyday banal consumer products associated with postwar American affluence and leisure. According tp\o Andrea Branzi, a founding member of Archizoom, one of the intentions of such objects was to appropriate and invert the message of popular culture, to create a design situation in which “consumption coincides with opposition,” bluntly anti-functional and grish furniture, with exaggerated elements drawn from luxurious Art Deco or American popular culture such as the model “dream” beds and interiors designed by Archizoom demonstrated the designer's liberation in moving outside of the accepted parameters for sophisticated contemporary industrial design. It is not difficult to see parallels for such subversive, political interpretations of banal objects as they appear in fine arts of the same period. For instance, Cleas Oldenburg also produced installations or environments of everyday objects and furniture, a strategy employed in the 48 contemporary New York galleries and to more actively engage the spectator. Again, the acceptance of popular culture and open mindedness to heterogeneity, playfulness, and multiple readings of culture artifacts provide the basis for a new kind of artistic freedom involving greater participation on the part of the spectator. Flaunting elements of kitsch through decoration materials, oldenburg’s bedroom E ensemble transgressed the nations of “Good taste” and a single “modern” style in Design. Pluralism and Postmodernism Pluralism design thinking process Post-industrialism, seen in the design and manufacture of products such as the swatch watch, is a broad and useful contemporary term signaling that the heroic age of industrial mass production has been surpassed by an increased emphasis upon the research, service, and communications sectors of economies and expanded efforts in fields such as product as product semantics rather than more traditional “form-making” previously associated with industrial design. In short, 49 changes in the practice and perception of design have accomplished the shift from the mechanical age to the information age. In many traditional manufacturing industries, capital investment in robotics reduces the need for unskilled, assembly-line labor and demonstrates the increasing degree of sophisticated and intelligent interaction between humans and machines, yet another theme in the contemporary discourse of design. For design, postmodernism encompasses projects and forms that signal an end to the polemic between aesthetically or socially directed design on the one hand and commercially motivated design on the other, an opposition that emerged as astrain of modernism in the early nineteenth century with the design theory for much of the two decades following world war II. it may also be described even more broadly as an attitude through which various tendencies of modernism in design are deprived of their oppositional status or pretensions. Theoretically, Postmodernism shares with mass culture user-oriented approach to design that emphasizes multiple interpretations and meaning and embraces ephemeral rather than permanent characteristic of the design enterprise, exemplified by connections with the improvisational, open-ended nature of performance art and the inclusiveness of popular forms of expression. Postmodern design emerged in organizations such as Memphis, made up of industrial designers “liberated” from their contracts with particular companies, with the freedom to pursue directions beyond the parameters of “good design”. Postmodernism or pluralism also was the overriding theme of the exhibition Design Now: Industry or art held at the German Architecture Museum in Frankfurt in 1989. While the political activism of Memphis or Alchymia participants was subdued in comparison with earlier anti design activities of later 1960s, other contemporary designers continued to employ elements of popular culture to reflect issues of political and environmental awareness, albeit in a rhetorical way. One direction of such activity has been the reuse of materials, seen for instance in RonArad’s Rover chair of 1981, constructed from used auto automobile seats attached to a tubular metal frame, incorporating the socially conscious initiative of recycling. More complex in construction is Arad’s asymmetrical Big Easy Volume 2 sofa of 1988. This piece consists of sheets of industrial steel cut, shaped, and painstakingly 50 welded to conform to the contours of a traditionally carved wooden seat and form of a heavily upholstered viewer the crushed metal sculpture of John Chamberlain, such as Glossolalia Adagio, dating to !984 and made from the wreckage common in automobile graveyards. Both examples focus attention upon the aesthetic Qualities of an industrial material in a non-traditional form or setting. Nuances of decay appear in other examples of furniture with environmental or ecological overtones, indicative of new meanings of discarded or decomposing objects. Such objects demonstrate ambiguities of intention and interpretation. Clearly this kind of furniture is not intended for mass production. Often the results seem contrived and undermine any possible desire to reach beyond a sophisticated audience entirely prepared to view such objects aesthetically or as a form of sociopolitical commentary. Yet there remains an effort, in making references to banal materials and eveyday experiences, to stimulate reflection in the viewer and to question some of the conventional associations of commodity consumption and materialism. Elements of these viewpoints also emerge in Punk graphics and its variation in other media. 51 Example of long Easy type Questions These are unsolved questions samples. Solve it by yourself 1.) Explain the concept of material culture and how it differs from non-material culture. Provide examples from Indian heritage. 2.) Discuss the theory of cultural lag and give examples from contemporary society where cultural lag is evident. 3.) Analyze the material culture of the Indus Valley Civilization in terms of its contribution to Indian heritage. 4.) Define ethnocentrism and explain how it can lead to cultural biases. How can cultural relativism help to overcome these biases? 5.) What is the "Cultural Onion" model, and how can it be used to understand different layers of cultural identity in Indian craft traditions? 6.) Discuss the significance of non-material culture in shaping Indian society, focusing on the relationship between religious beliefs and material culture. How do these aspects interact in the context of traditional Indian crafts? 7.) Explain the concept of cultural relativism in context of Indian crafts. How can cultural relativism help understand the diversity of craft practices across different regions in India? Discuss with examples taking at least two Indian craft traditions. 52 8.) Investigate how cultural determinism has influenced the development of regional crafts in India. Choose two distinct Indian craft traditions and analyze how their environmental, social, and economic factors have evolved. 9. What is material culture? Write the definition and describe it with relevant examples. 10. What do you know about nonmaterial culture and cultural lag? Explain it with suitable examples. Q.11. Choose any three and write your views on it. a. Cultural Relativism b. Cultural Subjectivism c. Cultural Objectivism d. The Pallavarm spearhead e. Copper Anthropomorphic Objective and Multiple choice Questions: These are unsolved questions samples. Solve it by yourself Q. 3. Match the Following – Answer Any 20 out of 25 20 Marks 1. Mati Manas 1. Anthropologist 2. The Gods must be crazy 2. Nonmaterial culture 3. Crimes of the future 3. Western U.P. 4. Lokayat 4. Delhi 5. Lewis Henry Morgan 5. Afghanistan 6. Beliefs 6. Central India 7. Ochre coloured pottery 7. Eastern Punjab 8. Copper hoard culture 8. Northern India 53 9. Gandhara grave culture 9. Karnataka 10. Black and red ware culture 10. Rajasthan 11. Painted gray ware 11. Gujarat 12. Northern black polished ware 12. Buddhist Symbol 13. Bidriware 13. Vaishyas 14. Blue Pottery 14. Charvak 15. Khavda Pottery 15. Mani Kaul 16. A conch shell 16. Wellson Chin 17. Yellow Conch 17. Science fiction 18. Calico Museum 18. Abanindra Nath Tagore 19. Conflictorium 19. Le Corbusier 20. Vintage car museum 20. Avni Sethi 21. Sabarmati Ashram 21. Dedicated to Gandhi 22. Lal bhai Dalpat bhai museum 22. Collection of Jain paintings 23. Bang Mata painting. 23. Motor enthusiast 24. Science city Ahmedabad 24. Promote science temperament 25. Kite Museum’s architect 25. Sarabhai foundation (Each Match the Following carries 1 mark) A. Match the following: 1. Fortuna Intaglio 1. Gold coin 2. Samudra Gupta 2. Kerala 3. Sahrai Painting 3. Hazaribagh 4. Jadu Patua 4. Hand printing 5. Mata ni Pacheri 5. Painting 54 B. Match the following: 1. Pallavaram Spearhead 1. Madhya Pradesh 2. Bhimbetka 2. Burzahom 3. Sarai Khora 3. Chennai 4. Indus Scale 4. Chariot 5. Daimabad Bronze 5. Mohenjodaro C. Match the following: 1. Copper Anthropomorphic 1. Sandstone 2. Allahabad Pillar 2. INTACH 3. Yakshini Didarganj 3. Sanchi 4. Eastern Torana 4. Bihar Museum 5. Portrait of Kanishka 5. Mathura D. Multiple Choice Question: 1. Which of the following is an example of material culture? a. Spiritual beliefs. b. Political ideas. c. Symbolic belief d. Building 2. Which of the following is an example of material culture? 55 a. An idea b. Religion beliefs. c. Money d. Rules 3. Carlos’ family goes to the catholic church to worship every Sunday; this is a part of their culture. a. Nonmaterial culture b. Material culture c. Religious d. Hispanic 4. A population in which people interact and share common interests is called a. Society b. Nation c. Town d. City 5. Which of the following is an example of material culture? a. Language b. Customs c. Artifacts d. Beliefs 6. Which of the following elements of non-material culture includes? 56 a. Technology b. Architecture c. Value d. Tools 7. Which of the following is a characteristic of material culture? a. It involves physical objection b. It consists of traditions and rituals c. It is intangible d. It includes spoken language 8. Which of these is not an example of material culture? a. Economic system b. Physical artifacts c. Religious belief d. Transportation methods 9. What is an example of non-material culture in a society? a. Traditional dress b. Religious ceremonies c. Furniture d. Sculpture 10. Which aspects of culture include laws and education systems? a. Material culture 57 b. Non-material culture c. Both material and non-material culture d. Neither material nor non-material culture 11. Which of the following best defines material culture? a) Beliefs and values of a society b) Physical objects and artifacts c) Language and traditions d) Social norms 12. Non-material culture includes which of the following? a) Artifacts b) Clothing c) Religious beliefs d) Architecture 13. The concept of 'Cultural Lag' refers to the: a) Speed at which a culture evolves b) Delay between technological advances and cultural adaptation c) Decline of cultural practices over time d) Shift in cultural values due to globalization 14. Cultural determinism suggests that: a) Culture is shaped by the physical environment b) Human behavior is determined by genetics c) Culture determines an individual’s choices and behaviors d) Culture and biology equally influence behavior 58 15. Ethnocentrism is best described as: a) The belief that all cultures are equal b) Judging another culture by the standards of one’s own c) Acceptance of all cultural practices d) A deep understanding of all cultures 16. Cultural relativism is the idea that: a) All cultures are the same b) Cultures should be judged based on their standards c) One culture is superior to another d) Cultural traditions should be abolished 17. The Cultural Onion model represents culture as a) A core surrounded by layers of beliefs, values, and behaviors b) A pyramid of social norms c) A tree with roots in ancient traditions d) A linear progression of historical change 18. Which civilization is considered a significant part of India's material cultural heritage? a) Mesopotamian b) Egyptian c) Indus Valley Civilization d) Chinese 59 19. Cultural bias refers to: a) Equal appreciation of all cultures b) A preference for one’s own culture over others c) Indifference to cultural differences d) A deep understanding of all cultures 20. Which of the following is an example of a material culture artifact from the Indus Valley Civilization? a) Vedic hymns b) Terracotta figurines c) Dance forms d) Language scripts 21. Cultural lag occurs when: a) Cultural values keep pace with technological advancements b) New technologies are adopted immediately c) Society is slow to adapt to technological changes d) Modern ones quickly replace traditional values 22. Which term refers to the tendency to view one's own culture as superior? a) Ethnocentrism b) Cultural diffusion c) Cultural relativism d) Xenocentrism 60 23. Cultural determinism argues that: a) Environment has no role in shaping culture b) Culture dictates every aspect of a person’s behavior c) Genetics is the primary determinant of behavior d) Humans shape their culture through conscious choices 24. What is an example of cultural relativism? a) Viewing other cultures as inferior b) Understanding another culture's practices from within that culture c) Trying to change another culture’s traditions d) Imposing one’s own cultural norms on others 25. The concept of the 'Cultural Onion' helps in understanding: a) How cultural artifacts are passed down through generations b) The different layers of cultural identity, from external behavior to core beliefs c) The economic impact of cultural exchanges d) The hierarchy of social classes within a culture 26. Which is NOT an example of material culture? a) Clothing b) Food c) Music d) Morality 27. Which of the following Indian crafts is part of its material culture? a) Sari weaving b) Hindi literature c) Classical music d) Dance traditions 61 28. An artifact that best represents the material culture of the Indus Valley Civilization is: a) A Vedic text b) A painted terracotta pottery c) A Sanskrit manuscript d) A classical dance form 29. Which of the following terms is associated with understanding culture in its own context rather than through external judgment? a) Ethnocentrism b) Cultural relativism c) Cultural diffusion d) Xenocentrism 30. Which of the following is an example of non-material culture? a) Tools and technology b) Social norms and values c) Jewelry and clothing d) Buildings and monuments 31. Cultural bias can affect the way we: a) Appreciate other cultures b) Understand our own culture c) Learn languages d) Judge other cultures 32. Which of these best illustrates the impact of cultural lag? a) Immediate acceptance of new technologies 62 b) Delay in forming ethical guidelines for new medical practices c) Cultural acceptance of Internet usage d) Rapid globalization of fast-food culture 33. Which is an example of ethnocentrism? a) Viewing all cultures as unique and valuable b) Assuming one’s own culture is superior to others c) Understanding another culture’s traditions d) Studying multiple cultures without bias 34. Cultural determinism places emphasis on the influence of: a) Genetics on behavior b) Geography on culture c) Culture on human behavior d) Technology on Culture 35. The study of material culture helps in understanding: a) Only historical societies b) Both modern and ancient societies, through their artifacts and physical objects c) Language development d) Human Biolog 63 64

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