Macro Perspective of Tourism and Hospitality PDF

**[Macro Perspective of Tourism and Hospitality]MODULE 1 The Meaning and Importance of Tourism** First attempts to define tourism was that of Professor Hunziker and Krapf of Berne University, Switzerland. They defined tourism as the \"sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the travel a...

**[Macro Perspective of Tourism and Hospitality]MODULE 1 The Meaning and Importance of Tourism** First attempts to define tourism was that of Professor Hunziker and Krapf of Berne University, Switzerland. They defined tourism as the \"sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, in so far as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected to any earning activity.\" This definition distinguishes tourism from migration, which involves taking up permanent residence. Since it necessarily includes both travel and stay, it excludes day tours. Tourism Society in Britain was: "Tourism is the temporary short-term movement of people to destinations outside the places where they normally live and work and their activities during their stay at these destinations.\" Definition was reformulated by the Tourism Society in Cardiff: \"Tourism may be defined in terms of particular activities selected by choice and undertaken outside the home environment.\" **Burkart and Medlik cited five main characteristics of tourism:** 1\. Because of its complexity, tourism is a combination of phenomena and relationships; 2\. It has two essential elements: the dynamic element or the journey and the static element or the stay; 3. The journey and stay are to-and-fro destinations outside the place of residence and work; 4. The movement to destinations is temporary and short-term, with the intention to return within a few days, weeks, or months; and 5\. Destinations are visited for purposes not connected paid work, that is, not to be employed and not for business or vocational reasons. Tourism in the pure sense is essentially a pleasure activity which money earned in one\'s abode is spent in places visited. Tourism represents a particular form of leisure and a particular form of recreation, but does not include all uses of leisure and all forms of recreation. It includes much travel, but not all forms of travel. Tourism therefore, is distinguished from the concepts of leisure and recreation on one hand, and from travel and migration on the other hand. 1937, the League of Nations defined \"tourist" as follows: \"A tourist is a person who, visits a country other than that in which he usually resides for a period of at least 24 hours.\" This was held to include persons traveling for pleasure, domestic reasons or health, persons traveling to meetings or on business and persons visiting a country on a cruise vessel even if for less than 24 hours. 1963, a United Nations Conference on International Travel and Tourism recommended a new definition of a \"visitor\" as \"any person visiting a country other than that of earning money.\" **This definition covers two classes of visitors**: 1\. Tourists. Temporary visitors staying at least 24 hours, whose purpose could be classified as:leisure, such as recreation, holiday, health, study, religion or sport; business; family; mission; and meeting: 2\. Excursionists. Temporary visitors staying less than 24 hours in the destination visited and not making an overnight stay, including cruise travelers, but excluding travelers in transit. **Elements of Travel**Four basic elements have been used as criteria for defining travelers and/or tourists. A. Distance The difference between local travel or traveling within a person\'s home community and non-local travel or traveling away from home. It excludes commuting to and from work and change in residence. Trip is defined as \"each time a person goes to a place at least 100 miles away from home and returns.\" Travelers, on this basis, are individuals who travel at least 100 miles in one direction from home. This definition may be applied in measuring travel by the residents of a country. B. Length of Stay at Destination The definition of tourists and excursionists as proposed by the WTO is largely teased on length of stay. Tourists are temporary visitors who make at least one overnight stay, while excursionists are temporary visitors who do not stay overnight in the country that they visit. C. Residence of the Traveler The residence or origin of the traveler is the third basic element of travel. For business and research purposes, it is important to know where people live. D. Purpose of TravelThe fourth basic element is the purpose of travel. It can be divided into seven: 1. visiting friends and relatives; 2. conventions, seminars, and meetings; 3. business; 4\. outdoor recreation-hunting, fishing, boating, and camping; 5. entertainment - sightseeing, theater, sports; 6. personal - family, medical, funeral, wedding; and 7. others. Nature of a Tour Difference between domestic and international tourism, as well as independent and package tour. Domestic tourism refers to travel taken exclusively within the national boundaries of the traveler\'s country. People find it easy to do so because there are no language, currency, nor documentation barriers. International tourism involves the movement of people across international boundaries. It is more difficult to travel outside one\'s own country because the country visited has a different language, currency, and documentation requirements, such as passports, visas, and other conditions of entry to be met by tourists. Package tour, sometimes called inclusive tour is an arrangement in which transport and accommodation is bought by the tourist at an all-inclusive price and the price of the individual elements cannot be determined by the purchaser himself. Tour operator who organizes the package tour purchases transport and hotel accommodation in advance, usually obtaining these at a lower price because he is buying them in bulk. Independent tour is an arrangement in which the tourist buys these facilities separately, either making reservations in advance through a travel agent or en route during his tour. Independent inclusive tour is one in which the tourist travels to his destination individually.Group inclusive tour he travels in the company of other tourists. Abbreviations IIT and GIT are used for individual inclusive tour and group inclusive tour respectively. Tourist product consists of what the tourist buys. In a wider sense, the tourist product is a combination of what the tourist does at the destination and the services he uses during his stay. Characteristic of a Tourist Product 1\. Service Cannot be inspected by prospective purchasers before they buy as they can with a washing machine, a stereo, or other consumer goods. 2\. Largely psychological in its attraction More than a collection of services such as an aircraft seat and a hotel room. Temporary use of a strange environment plus the culture and heritage of the region and other intangible benefits such as atmosphere and hospitality. 3\. Tends to vary in standard and quality over time A bumpy flight can change an enjoyable experience into a nightmare; a good room in a hotel may be spoiled by poor food; and a holiday at the seaside can be destroyed by a prolonged rainy spell. 4\. Fixed The number of hotel rooms available at a particular resort cannot be varied to meet the changing demands of tourists during a particular season. Discounting the prices of these products at the last minute. Tourist destination is a geographical unit where the tourist visits and stays. It may be a village, a town, a city, a district, a region, an island, a country or, a continent. The success of a tourist destination depends upon the interrelationship of three basic factors: attractions, amenities or facilities, and accessibility. Attractions may be site and event attractions. Site attraction is one in which the destination itself has appeal, while an event attraction is one in which tourists are drawn to the destination solely because of what is taking place there. Event attractions include congresses, exhibitions, festivals such as the Ati-atihan Festival, and sports events such as the Olympic Games.Attractions may also be natural or man-made. Natural attractions include mountains, beaches, and climatic features such as sunshine and pure air. Man-made attractions include buildings of historical or architectural interest such as Fort Santiago, holiday camps. Amenities or facilities include accommodation, food, local transport, communications, and entertainment at the site. Accessibility means having regular and convenience of transport in terms of time/distance to the destination from the originating country at a reasonable price. Principal tourist services are supplied by passenger transport, which provides the means to reach the destination, as well as the movement at the destination. Accommodation, food and beverage, and entertainment constitute the second group of tourist services. Distinctions in transport are between public and private, domestic and international, and among the various modes---land, sea, and air. Accommodation, food and beverage, and entertainment constitute the second group of tourist services. Entertainment, combined with amusement and recreation, is the primary reason why millions of people travel. Third group of tourist services consists of those provided by the travel agent and by the tour operator. The travel agent is the distributor of the product, while the tour operator is the manufacturer of the product. Travel agent provides an intermediary function between the tourist and the providers of transport and accommodation, while the tour operator combines the individual components of a holiday into a product, which is then sold directly to the public or through travel agents. Other tourist services include currency, documentation, information, sightseeing, and shopping. Characteristics of TourismSpecial characteristics makes it different from other industries. 1\. In tourism, the product is not brought to the consumer; rather, the consumer has to travel and go to the product to purchase it. 2\. The products of tourism are not used up; thus, they do not exhaust the country\'s natural resources. 3\. Tourism is a labor-intensive industry. 4\. Tourism is people-oriented. 5\. Tourism is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. 6\. The tourist industry is seasonal. 7.The industry is dynamic. Importance of TourismTourism has become one of the world\'s major industries. 1\. Contribution to the balance of payments. 2\. Dispersion of development.3. Effect on general economic development. 4\. Employment opportunities. 5\. Social benefits. 6\. Cultural enrichment. 7\. Educational significance. 8\. A vital force for peace. **MODULE 2 The History of Tourism** Early Tourism The term tourism was used only in the early 19th century. Tourism is derived from the Hebrew word torah which means studying, learning, searching. Tourism can trace its ancestry in the Old Testament. Here are numerous references to caravans and traders in the Old Testament. Chapters 26 and 27 of the Book of Ezekiel describe trade and commerce in ancient Tyre and recount the travels abroad made by merchants. Early tourism has two forms: travel for business such as trading and religious travel. The early Phoenicians toured the Olympic games in Greece Mediterranean as traders. There was also travel for private purposes. Examples are the Olympic Games held in 776 BCE by the Greeks. The Roman traveler was largely aided by improvement in communications, first class roads and inns. Travel for religious reasons took the form of pilgrimages to places of worship such as Chaucer\'s tale of pilgrimage to Canterbury. Pilgrimages were made to fulfill a vow as in case of illness or of great danger or as penance for sins. Tourism in the Medieval Period During the medieval period, travel declined. Travel, derived from the word travail, became burdensome, dangerous, and demanding during this time. No one during this time traveled for pleasure. Crusaders and pilgrims were the only ones who traveled. Tourism During the Renaissance and Elizabethan ErasA few renowned universities developed so that travel for education was introduced largely by the British. \*Travel for education became popular in the 16th century. In time, it became recognized that the education of a gentleman should be completed by a \"Grand Tour" of the cultural centers of the continent which lasted for three years. Pleasure-seeking young men of leisure traveled predominantly through France and Italy to enjoy the cultures and social life of Europe, with Venice, Florence, and Paris as the key attractions. The sick sought a remedy for their illnesses in "spas\" or medicinal baths. The term \"spa\" is derived from the Walloon word espa meaning \"fountain.\" Turnbridge Wells in Kent (near London) became famous as a spa in the 1660s. Travelers immersed themselves in the healing waters. Tourism During the Industrial Revolution It brought about not only technological changes, but also essential social changes that made travel desirable as a recreational activity. The increase in productivity, regular employment, and growing urbanization gave more people the motivation and opportunity to go on holiday. Modern Tourism A. Tourism in the 19th Century Two technolomical developments in the early part of the 19th century had a great effect on the growth of tourism. Use of steam power provided the increased mobility needed by the tourism business. Steamers on the major rivers provided reliable and inexpensive transportation that led to the popular day-trip cruises and the growth of coastal resorts near large industrial towns. The first and most famous of these was Thomas Cook. His first excursion train trip was between Leicester and Loughborough in 1841 with 570 passengers. In 1866, he organized his first American tour. In 1874, he introduced \"circular notes\" which were accepted by banks, hotels, shops, and restaurants. Appeared in Britain at this time were Dean and Dawson in 1871, the Polytechnic Touring Association in 1872, and Frames in 1881. In the United States. American Express was founded by Henry Wells and William Fargo. The most popular guide book of these was Baedecker, first published in 1839, which became the leading guide for European countries at the end of the century. B. Tourism in the 20th Century Beginning of the 20th century, pleasure travel continued to expand, encouraged by the increasing wealth, curiosity, and outgoing attitudes of the people as well as the increasing ease of such movement. World War I brought about many changes, which influenced the volume of tourism.. Early postwar prosperity, coupled with large-scale migration boosted the demand for international travel. Interest in foreign travel was further enhanced by the first-hand experience of foreign countries. After World War I, forms of travel began to change radically. The railways as a means of travel declined with the introduction of the motor car. World War II also led to increased interest in travel. Another outcome of the war was the progress in aircraft technology. Introduction of the Boeing 707 jets in 1958, the age of air travel for the masses arrived, hastening the decline of sea travel. After the post-war recovery years, there was an increase in private car ownership. Travelers switched to the use of private cars and this change affected both coach and rail services. The demand for hired cars on holidays overseas also increased substantially. The post-war economic recovery provided an increase in discretionary income and leisure time, which many people converted into increased recreation and travel. Governments have created more vacation time by incorporating isolated public holidays into the familiar \"long weekends" throughout the year. The annual overseas holiday had become a necessity rather than a luxury. Societal trends are favorable to the continued growth of demand. Origin of Tourism in the PhilippinesTourism in the Philippines began when the original inhabitants of the country roamed around in search for food. Philippines when the country was discovered by Ferdinand Magellan and when galleons or wooden boats sailed between Mexico and the Philippines during the galleon trade. 1920s the steamship and the airline pioneers, the "China Clipper\" and the "Manila Clipper" brought some passengers to Manila via Hong Kong. Travelers from the U.S., China, Japan, and Europe were provided inland tours by entrepreneurs with their unregistered private cars and coaches called \"colorum." Colorum means illegal tour handling and the illegal use of private vehicles for public use. Philippine Tourist and Travel Association (PTTA), which was organized to put together all existing travel establishments serving both domestic and international travelers. Board of Travel and Tourist Industry (BTTI) to regulate, supervise, and control the tourist industry and to subsidize the PTTA as its promotional arm. After the declaration of martial law when tourism in the Philippines prospered. The Philippines became a "bargain destination" to foreign visitors. A temporary "tourist boom\" existed in the Philippines in the early 70s. Factors That Favor the Growth of TourismSome of the positive factors that hastened the growth of tourism are: 1. Rising disposable income for large sections of the population. 2\. Growth in the number of retired persons who have the desire and the energy to travel. 3\. Increase in discretionary time - shorter workweeks and longer vacations. 4\. Greater mobility of the population. 5\. Growth in the number of \"singles\" 6\. Greater credit availability through credit cards and bank loans. 7\. Higher educational levels. 8\. The growth of cities. 9\. Simplification of travel through the package tour. 10\. Growth of multinational business. 11\. Modern transportation technology. 12. Shift in values. 13. Advances in communication. 14\. Smaller families and changing roles. **MODULE 3The Psychology of Tourism** A. Motivation for TravelSeveral studies of tourist motivations have listed various reasons why people travel. Some of these motivations listed in travel literature are: escape; relaxation; relief of tension; sunlust; physical; health; family togetherness; interpersonal relations; roots or ethnic; maintain social contacts; convince oneself of one\'s achievements; show one\'s importance to others; status and prestige; self-discovery; cultural; education; professional/business; wanderlust; interest in foreign areas; and scenery. Basic travel motivators can be divided into four classes: 1\. Physical motivators - include those related to physical rest, sports participation, beach recreation, relaxing entertainment, and other motivations directly connected with health;2. Cultural motivators - include the desire to know about other countries---their music, art, folklore, dances, paintings, and religion; 3. Interpersonal motivators - pertain to the desire to meet other people, visit friends or relatives, escape from routine, from family, and neighbors; 4\. Status and prestige motivators - concern ego needs and personal development. Included in this group are trips related to business, conventions, study, and pursuit of hobbies and education. B. Travel as a Means to Satisfy a Need and Want Tourist motivation is to view vacation travel as a vehicle tosatisfy one\'s needs and wants. Tourists do not go on vacations just to relax and have fun, to experience another culture, or to educate themselves and their children. They take vacations in the belief that these vacation will satisfy, either completely or partially, various needs and wants. C. Relationship of Needs, Wants, and MotivesThe difference between a need and a want is awareness. This awareness must be accompanied by motivation. A motive enables a person to do something. Motivation occurs when an individual wants to satisfy a need. Maslow\'s Theory of Motivation and Travel MotivationsA study of travel motivations found in travel literature indicates that these motivations fit into the hierarchy of needs model of Abraham Maslow, a famous psychologist. Maslow proposed the following hierarchy of needs as determinants of behavior:1. Physiological Needs - hunger, thirst, rest, activity; 2. Safety Needs - safety and security, freedom from fear and anxiety; 3. Social Needs - love, affection, giving, and receiving; 4\. Self-esteem -- self-respect, and esteem from others; and 5. Self-actualization - personal self-fulfillment. This hierarchy suggests that lower needs demand more immediate satisfaction than the satisfaction of higher needs. The first need is physical; the other four are psychological. To this original list, two intellectual needs were added. These are: 1\. To know and understand - acquiring knowledge; and 2. Aesthetics - appreciation of beauty. Those who say that they travel \"to escape\" or \"to relieve tension" are satisfying the basic physiological needs. The motivation may be for physical or mental relaxation. Passive and active vacationers are motivated by a need for tension reduction. Passive vacationers are relieved from tension by submitting to the surrounding environment. The active vacationer, on the other hand, achieves tension reduction through physical activity. Traveling for health and recreation attempts to satisfy one\'s safety needs.The need for belonging and love pertains to the desire for affection, for giving and receiving love. The organized tour is a method of encouraging and satisfying his need for interpersonal relations and social interaction. This motivation is commonly referred to as the "VFR" market \"visit friends and relatives." The first group consists of those who are born somewhere else and would like to return to their own homeland. The second group are those in later. generations who wish to experience the land of their ancestors. Maslow\'s concept of the need for esteem has two components --- that of self-esteem and that of esteem from others. Self-esteem is shown in the desire to exhibit achievement, competence, and independence. Esteem for others is explained by the concepts of prestige, status, and recognition. Self-actualization can be regarded as the goal of leisure. Leisure is the state of being free from the urgent demands of the lower-level needs. Relating travel motivations with Maslow\'s need theory will produce two tangible benefits. The first benefit is that the traveler is better understood and better motivated if she is recognized as a person consuming products and services. The second tangible benefit is that if one accepts Maslow\'s idea that the lower-level needs should first be satisfied before the higherlevel needs, we would expect that products and services, are aimed towards the satisfaction of lowerlevel needs, would be regarded as necessity rather than a luxury. Relationship between needs, motives, and references from tourism literature. Tourist MotivationsA. The Need for Escape or Change The greatest reason for travel can be summed up in one word, \"escape\"-escape from the dull daily routine; escape from the familiar, the commonplace, the ordinary; escape from the job, the boss, the customers, the house, and the accelerated pace of modern life. B. Travel for Health The search for health and long life has popularized the spas, seaside resorts, as well as sun resorts. Majority of people think of vacationing as a means of regaining one\'s energy, interest, and enthusiasm for the job. Health-related travel is not limited to trips to thermal springs. \"Reducing ranches\" attract middleaged women with weight problems. C. Sports People demand activity and excitement during their leisure hours to relieve them from the boredom of their work. They indulge in activities, such as hiking, surfing, scuba : diving, mountaineering, and skiing. The Olympic Games which is held every four years attract millions of tourists. D. Social Contact Human beings are social animals. They need contact and communication with others. They feel comfortable in a tour group. In the group, the traveler may develop friendships that may last for years. E. Status and Prestige Travel provides the means for ego or self-enhancement, Travel to a poor country can provide the traveler with a feeling of superiority. Travel can also provide a means of mingling with the wealthy and social elite. F. Travel for Education The search for knowledge and truth is inherent in every individual. Travel offers an opportunity to satisfy the urge to learn. G. Personal Values The notion of personal values is an important travel motivator. Many people are urged to travel to satisfy personal values, such as the search for spiritual experience, patriotism, and wholesomeness. H. Cultural ExperienceCross-cultural exchanges, experiencing how other people live and fostering international understanding are some of the reasons to satisfy curiosity about other cultures, lifestyles, and places.Studies conducted among travelers abroad reveal that seeking a new cultural experience is a primary reason for international travel. I. Shopping and Bargain HuntingTo many people, the joys derived from buying certain goods may be the major reason for travel. Bargain hunting or being able to get special merchandise at low cost is a travel motivator. Tourists are looking for places that are inexpensive. J. Professional and Business MotivesA great number of people travel for professional and business motives. Conference and conventions about education, commerce, and industry increase annually. Approximately 60%-70% of guests who check into five-star hotels around the world travel for business reasons. Great portion of business travel is mixed with pleasure. For example, a tourist may be attending a convention in Las Vegas, but may spend half of his time gambling in a casino. K. Search for Natural Beauty Travel can satisfy one\'s search for beauty in the environment and in the scenery. Most people are inspired by the beauty of nature. The trips of city dwellers to the rural areas on weekends show man\'s need to see the beautiful scenerytrees, grass, streams, and the open sky. The Learning Process of a Tourist An individual will buy a vacation package if he has learned that the purchase will satisfy an important need. The tourist compares various alternatives with a list of criteria to determine which alternatives will most likely satisfy a particular motive. The resulting inclination will have an effect on the decision to buy. This inclination may be positive or negative, depending on how well a chosen alternative will meet the motivation. The number of alternatives will vary according to the characteristics of travelers. Travelers who have previously visited many foreign destinations have a larger number of alternatives to choose from than those who have not. A destination will be included as an alternative if the destination has previously satisfied the traveler. The level of satisfaction depends on one\'s expectation of a situation, as well as one\'s perception of an actual situation. If the level of expectation is higher than the actual experience, the tourist will be dissatisfied. A destination will be included as an alternative if the destination has previously satisfied the traveler. Effect of Consistency and Complexity on Leisure TravelEdward J. Mayo and Lance Jervis in The Psychology of Leisure Travel, believe that individuals differ in the amount of psychological tension they can handle. Classifications of Travelers Based on PersonalityStanley C. Plog, a biological researcher, classified travelers based on their different personalities as pyschocentrics and allocentrics. Psychocentrics or people centered on self, are inhibited and unadventuresome. They have a strong desire for consistency and the familiar. When traveling, they prefer to visit \"safe\" destinations. The low-energy psychocentric is quite content to stay home. The high-energy psychocentric will take a tour that is completely arranged. At the destination, the psychocentrics usually indulge in activities with low activity level such as golf using a golf cart.Allocentrics, or people having interest and attention on other persons, are highly curious and thrive on stimulation and change. They have a strong need for variety and new experiences. When traveling, they seek destinations that offer them an opportunity to experience totally different cultures and environments. They tend to accept challenges, meet the residents, tryout local food and drinks, and stay in native lodgings. The low-energy allocentric is still curious and adventuresome, but foregoes the more demanding schedule. The high-energy allocentric is the hiker, the biker, the diver; he prefers activities with high activity level. Between the psychocentrics and the allocentrics are the midcentrics. Persons with midcentric personality are not particularly adventurous, yet they are not afraid to try new experiences as long as these are neither too odd nor too challenging. The midcentrics constitute the mass market or the bulk of the population. Classifications of Travelers Based on Purpose of Travel The two major classifications of travelers based on travel-purpose are the business travelers and the pleasure/personal travelers.A. Business Travelers Majority of travelers in most developed countries such as the United States, Canada, and theUnited Kingdom are the business travelers. They are divided into three categories namely:1. regular business travelers; 2. business travelers attending meetings, conventions, and congresses; and 3\. incentive travelers. Regular Business Travelers The volume and rate of growth of business travel is not greatly affected by the cost of travel. This means that business travelers will continue even if the price of travel services increases. These surveys show that there are major differences between male and female business travelers. Some of these are:1. Women business travelers are slightly younger; 2. They tend to stay longer at their destinations; 3\. They are more apt to be unmarried than males; 4. They are more likely to attend a meeting or convention; 5. They are more likely to book through a travel agent; 6. They have a greater preference for downtown accommodation facilities closer to work; and 7. They are more concerned with security aspects of accommodation facilities. Business Travelers Attending Meetings, Conventions, Congresses Travel Pulse surveys indicate that 20 percent of all business travel trips are for the purpose of attending meetings, conventions, and congresses. A congress, convention, or conference is a regular formalized meeting of associations or body or meeting sponsored by an association or body on a regular or ad hoc basis.Conventions are classified into four kinds namely: international, continental, national, and regional conventions. International conventions usually involve members and nonmembers from more than two foreign countries. They are generally non-profit and attract persons with common fields of interest. Continental conventionshave delegates coming from a continent such as North America, Europe, or Asia. National conventions are meetings organized by associations at the state, provincial, or regional level. Incentive TravelersIncentive travel is a special type of business travel. It is travel given by firms to employees as a reward for some accomplishment or to encourage employees to achieve more than what is required. Salespeople are given trips for reaching a set goal in overall sales of a particular item or in the number of new accounts.Prize trips are often combined with business and sales meetings, especially those to foreign destinations in order to be eligible for tax deduction. Corporations usually have the following objectives in buying incentive travel trips:1. Increase overall sales volumes; 2\. Sell new accounts: 3. Improve morale and good will; 4. Introduce new products; 5. Offset competitive promotions; 6. Bolster slow seasons; 7. Help in sales training; 8. Sell slow items; and 9\. Obtain more store displays and support consumer promotions. Companies who buy incentive travel trips are usually those involved in insurance, sales, electronics/radio/television manufacturing, automobile and truck manufacturing, farm equipment manufacturing, auto parts/accessories/tires, heating/air-conditioning, electrical appliances manufacturing, office equipment manufacturing, and building materials manufacturing. B. Pleasure/Personal Travelers This group consists of people traveling for vacation or pleasure. They are also called nonbusiness travelers. This means that non-business travelers are very much concerned with the increase in the price of travel services since the cost of travel is usually shouldered by the traveler himself. Traveling for pleasure is the largest segment of the international market and the fastest growing. The reasons for the growth are the rising income levels in developed countries, urbanization, higher educational levels, increase in leisure time, and the length of paid holidays. Pleasure/personal travelers are classified into the following categories:1. resort travelers; 2. family pleasure travelers; 3. the elderly; and 4. singles and couples. Resort TravelersSurveys have shown that resort travelers are better educated, have higher house-hold incomes, and are more likely to have professional and managerial positions. Family Pleasure Travelers The family pleasure travelers can be divided into three groups namely: junior families, midrange families, and mature families. These are defined according to the ages of the husband and wife and the educational stages of their children as follows: 1. The junior families. With parents aged 20-34 having preschool and/or grade-school children only; 2\. Mid-range families. With parents aged 35-44 with grade school and/or high school children only; and 3. Mature families. With parents aged 45 or over with children who are of high school age and older. Family pleasure travel trips are motivated by three objectives. The first objective is to use travel as an educational experience for their children. The second objective is to do something different. The third objective is to use travel to bring the family closer together. The Elderly These population shifts have made the elderly persons a lucrative target for tourism destination areas. Persons in the "50 plus" age bracket are called active affluents or people with the money and the desire to travel extensively. Singles and CouplesAnother important segment of pleasure travel consists of singles and couples. They take their vacations to fulfill their psychological, intellectual, and physical needs by giving them the opportunity to rest, relax, escape the routine of pressures of daily living, enjoy the naturalness of life, and to express total freedom. Club Med is not the only organization, which taps the singles and couples pleasure travel segment. Travel Constraints The main constraints to travel are: 1. lack of money; 2. lack of time; 3. lack of safety and security; 4. physical disability; 5. family commitments; 6. lack of interests in travel; and 7\. fears of travel; A. Lack of MoneyThe major travel constraint. Less money means less travel. The wealthy members of society are the ones who travel most. B. Lack of Time Lack of available time is another inhibiting factor to tourist travel. The desire to travel and the financial ability to travel are insufficient if one does not have the time to travel. C. Lack of Safety and SecurityLack of security in public places, hotels, and travel centers cause people to prefer to remain in the security of their neighborhood and home. D. Physical Disability The form of bad health or physical handicap may keep people at home. The elderly who are more susceptible to illnesses, such as heart trouble, hypertension arthritis, and bronchitis travel less. E. Family CommitmentsFamily commitments inhibit travel. Parents with young children find it inconvenient and expensive to go on holiday. During the child-rearing period, family obligations increase significantly for women and to a similar but lesser degree, for men. F. Lack of Interest in TravelThis is mainly due to a preference to simply stay at home. This condition may be due to a variety of factors, such as dislike of travel, shyness in meeting people, dislike of changing routine, and many more. G. FearsSome people do not want to travel because of fears of travel Fear of lying is quite common and accounts for many people who insist on driving to a vacation area instead of boarding Fear of the unknown keeps many people from leaving country or even their own city. **MODULE 4 The Economics of Tourism** The Role of Tourism in Economic Development Several developing countries have used tourism development as an alternative to help economic growth. The reasons for this are: First, there is a continuous demand for international travel in developed countries. Second, as income in developed countries increases, the demand for tourism also increases at a faster rate. Third, developing countries need foreign exchange to aid their economic development. Tourism is an invisible export, which differs from international trade in many ways. 1. In tourism, the consumer collects the product from the exporting country, thereby eliminating the freight costs for the exporter, except in cases in which the airline used are those of the tourist receiving country.2. The demand for pleasure travel is largely dependent on non-economic factors, such as local disturbances, political unrest, and changes in the fashionability of resorts/countries created mostly by media coverage. 3\. By using specific fiscal measures, the exporting or tourist receiving country can manipulate exchange rates so that those for tourists are higher or lower (normally the latter is implemented in order to attract large number of tourists) than those in other foreign trade markets. 4\. Tourism is a multifaceted industry that directly affects several sectors in the economy, such as hotels, shops, restaurants, local transport firms, entertainment establishments, handicraft producers, and indirectly affects many others, such as equipment manufacturers and utilities. 5\. Tourism brings many more non-monetary benefits and costs than other export industries, such as social, cultural and environmental benefits, and costs. Economic Impact When travelers outside the destination area spend on goods and services within the destination, tourism acts as an export industry by bringing in revenues from outside sources. Tourist expenditures also increase the level of economic activity in the host area directly. Tourism\'s economic impact on a destination area can be immense since it provides a source of income, employment, and foreign exchange. Direct and Secondary Effects It is important to know the direct and secondary effects of visitor expenditures on the economy of the area. Indirect or secondary effects mean that the money paid by tourists to businesses are in turn used to pay for supplies, wages of workers items used in producing the products or direct services bought by tourists. Tourism Multiplier The term multiplier is used to describe and secondary, of an external source of income economy. Tourism multiplier or multiplier effect direct and secondary effects of tourist expen of country. Leakage is the value of goods and services that must be imported to service the needs of tourism. Cost-Benefit Ratio Benefits divided by costs equal the cost-benefit ratio. To arrive at these ratios, the following procedures are used:1. determine where the tourist dollar is spent; 2. determine what percentage of each expenditure leaves the local economy; 3. derive a \"multiplier effect,\" a ratio applied to income that reflects multiple spending within an economy; 4. apply the multiplier effect to the tourist expenditures to arrive at the total benefits of tourist expenditures in dollars; 5. derive a cost-benefit ratio expressed as dollars received/dollars spent; and 6. apply the cost-benefit ratios to tourist expenditures to provide estimates of income and costs of tourist business to a community, for both the private and public sectors. Undesirable Economic Aspects of TourismSome undesirable economic aspects of tourism are higher prices and economic instability. Because of additional demand and/or increased imports, tourist purchases may result in higher prices in a destination area. How to Maximize the Economic Effect of TourismA. Growth TheoriesSome economic growth theories have been proposed to maximize the economic effect of tourism within a destination area. These are the theory of balanced growth and the theory of unbalanced growth. B. Economic StrategiesThe key to maximizing the economic effects of tourism is to maximize the amount of revenue and jobs developed within the region. To attain this objective, some economic strategies have been adopted, such as import substitution, incentives, and foreign exchange.C. Import Substitution It imposes quotas or tariffs on the importation of goods, which can be developed locally. It also grants subsidies, grants. or loans to local industries to encourage the use of local materials Its objective is to minimize the leakage of money,D. IncentivesThe wise use of incentives can encourage the influx of capital both local and foreign, necessary to develop tourism supply. The most common forms of incentives are: 1\. tax exemptions/ reductions on imported machinery, materials, etc; 2\. reduction in company taxation by means of favorable depreciation allowances on investment, or special treatment in relation to excise taxes, sales taxes, income taxes,turnover taxes, profit taxes, or property taxes3. tax holidays (limited period);4. guarantee of stabilization of tax conditions (for up to 20 years);5. grants (for up to 30 percent of total capital costs); 6. Subsidies (guaranteeing minimum level of profit, occupancy, etc.); 7. loans at low rates of interest; 8. provision of land freehold at nominal or little cost or at low rents; 9. free and unrestricted repatriation of all or part of invested capital profits, dividends, and interest subject to tax provisions; and 10. guarantees against nationalization or appropriation. E. Foreign Exchange Many countries have placed restrictions on spending in order to maximize foreign exchange earnings. They have limited the amount of their own currency that tourists can bring in and take out of the destination to ensure that foreign currency is used to pay bills in the host region. Tourists may be required to pay hotel bills in foreign currency. Visitors may be required to show that they have enough money for their stay before they are permitted to enter the country or they may even be required to enter with a specified amount of foreign currency for the duration of their visit. **MODULE 5 The Sociology of Tourism** Travel is brought about by the social nature of man. Human beings, as social animals, feel comfortable in a tour group. Subcultures, travel is the accepted way of spending one\'s vacation.Tourism evolves a mutual trust and respect for one another and the dignity of life on earth. The Social Effects of TourismTourism is concerned with the movement of and contact between people in different geographical locations. In sociological terms this involves: 1. social relations between people who would not normally meet;2. the confrontation of different cultures, ethnic groups, life styles, languages, levels of prosperity, and the like; 3\. the behavior of people released from many of the social and economic constraints of everyday life; and 4. the behavior of the host population, which has to reconcile economic gain and benefits with the costs of living with strangers. Socioeconomic Variables and Their Effect on Travel A. AgeThere are several differences between patterns of travel based on age. Younger people tend to select more active recreational activities than older people. The elderly (those in the late sixties and upward) prefer more passive forms of recreation, such as visiting friends and relatives, fishing, sight-seeing, and playing golf. B. Income and Social StatusIncome and social status have a great influence on travel. Rich persons, as well as persons with higher social status travel more than those with lower income and social class status. C. EducationThere is a strong correlation between education and Generally speaking, the better educated members of the population have a greater desire to travel. Researchers hay that the more educated the travelers are, they tend to be sophisticated in their tastes. They prefer activities, which the development of interpretative and expressive skills, s attending plays, concerts, art museums, reading books, plaving golf, tennis, and skiing.D. Life Stages of the FamilyThe presence of children in the family limits travel. More leisure time is spent at home. As the children grow up and leave home, the married couples renew interest in travel. Couples in this life stage usually have more discretionary income and are more financially capable to travel. The Rise of New Travel PatternsA. Travel Clubs The most significant development in group travel consists of travel clubs. Avery good example of these is the Club Mediterranee which started in Western Europe and then spread to North America and other areas of the world. B. Airline Group and ArrangementsAnother development in group travel is the introduction of different types of tour fares promoted by airlines. These are the following:1. groups of 15 or more are given reduced fares; 2. charter service is given by some airlines to affinity group tours which are intended for those affiliated to a legitimate group for a period of six months or longer; 3\. public charter in which an entire airplane is made available to a group of persons who travel to the same destination, and 4. incentive tours which are given by firms to employees as a reward for a special achievement or as a motivation for achievement. C. Special Interest ToursSpecial interest group travel is becoming more popular present. These are tours arranged for those who are interested in a particular activity such as bird watching, festivals, fishing hunting, scuba diving, photography, flower arrangement, golf skiing, mountain climbing, etc. Preferences of the International TouristThe preferences of the international tourist are divided into four categories, namely:1. complete relaxation to constant activity; 2. traveling near one\'s home environment to a totally strange environment;3. complete dependence on group travel to traveling alone and4. order to disorder.A. Relaxation Versus ActivityBefore, the workweek for most people including the middle class was long and exhausting. Thus, they demanded holidays that offered relaxation and rest. At present, the workweek has been shortened and the annual holiday leave has been lengthened. Work has become less tiresome and people have become used to greater leisure. Relaxation has become possible throughout the year. Accordingly, people have started to use their no holiday-time leisure to exercise new sactivity skills, such as sailing, climbing, horse riding, and sports. The demand for activity-oriented travel has greatly increased. B. Familiarity Versus NoveltyIn general, most tourists, on their first trip abroad, tend to seek familiarity rather than novelty. They search for something that will remind them of home, whether it be food, newspapers, living quarters, or another person from their own country. C. Dependence Versus AutonomyIn the past, tourists joined package tours in which transportation, lodging, food, sightseeing, and entertainment were fixed in advance by the tour agency. At present, there is the emergence of a group of tourists who would like to acquire a sense of personal autonomy regarding their leisure time. C. Dependence Versus Autonomy In the past, tourists joined package tours in which transportation, lodging, food, sightseeing, and entertainment were fixed in advance by the tour agency. At present, there is the emergence of a group of tourists who would like to acquire a sense of personal autonomy regarding their leisure time. Now, the new generation of tourists are not very much concerned about what to wear and how to behave when on holiday. Types of Tourist Roles The continuous combination of novelty and familiarity forms the basic variable for the sociological analysis of the phenomenon of modern tourism. This combination leads to the four types of tourist roles. Each type represents a characteristic form of tourist behavior. The first two types---the organized mass tourist and the individual mass tourist are called institutionalized tourist roles, because they are dealt within a routine way by the tourist establishment, such as travel agencies, hotel chains, which cater to the tourist trade. The last two types---the explorer and the drifter are called noninstitutionalized tourist roles, because they are loosely attached to the tourist establishment. A. The Organized Mass TouristThis type of tourist is the least adventurous. He buys a package tour in which the itinerary of his trip is fixed in advance and his stops are well-prepared and guided. He seldom makes decisions for himself. He prefers a familiar environment rather than a new environment.B. The Individual Mass TouristThe individual mass tourist is similar to the organized mass tourist, except that the individual mass tourist has a certain degree of control over his time and itinerary and is not bound to a group. However, all the major arrangements of his tour are still made through a travel agency. Like the organized mass tourist, he also travels within his own country and goes out of it only occasionally.C. The ExplorerThis type of tourist arranges his trip by himself and looks for comfortable accommodations and reliable means of transportation. He tries to associate with the people he visits and to speak their language. The explorer dares to leave his country much more than the previous two types, but goes back to it when the experience becomes too rough D. The DrifterThe drifter goes farthest away from the accustomed ways of life of his own country. He is almost totally immersed in his host culture. He tries to live the way the people he visits live and to share their shelter, food, and habits. He retains only the most basic of his native customs. He arranges his own trip and does not seek the help of a tour agency. Social Tourism In a general sense, social tourism is a subsidized system of travel through the intervention of the government, employer, or labor union to achieve social goals and purposes. In 1963, the International Bureau of Social Tourism (BITS) was founded in Brussels to encourage the development of social tourism on an international scale. The BITS is promoting urism to achieve social objectives by studying such issues as youth id senior citizen travel the staggering of holidays, camping and caravanning, building and financing moderate cost tourist facilities and preservation of local culture and environment. A number of European governments subsidize tourism in several ways. Belgium grants subsidies for the modernization and construction of family hotels. Spain has provided money for winter sports, camping sites, as well as rural and mountain recreational facilities. France gives assistance to holiday villages and camping grounds. Norway and Sweden grant loans for less expensive accommodation.