MAC 242 Foundation of Broadcasting PDF Course Guide

COURSE GUIDE MAC 242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING Course Team Dr. Femi Onabajo (Course Developer) – UNILAG Prof. Ritchard M’Bayo (Course Editor) – Bowie State University, USA Chidinma H. Onwubere (Course Coordinator) - NOUN NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA © 2021 by NOUN Press National Open University of Nigeria, Headquarters, University Village, Plot 91, Cadastral Zone, Nnamdi Azikiwe Expressway, Jabi, Abuja. Lagos Office 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island, Lagos e-mail: [email protected] URL: www.nouedu.net All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed 2006, 2021 ISBN: 978-058-555-9 ii COURSE GUIDE JLS 742 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Introduction………………………………………………... 1 Course Aims……………………………………………….. 1 Course Objectives………………………………………….. 1-2 Course Requirements………………………………………. 2 Course Materials…………………………………………..... 2 Study Units…………………………………………………. 2-3 Assessment File…………………………………………….. 3 Strategies for Studying the Course…………………………. 3 Presentation Schedule………………………………………. 3 Summary…………………………………………………… 4 iii Introduction I wish to welcome you to MAC242, Foundations of Broadcasting 3 unit course for postgraduate students in Journalism. The materials for this course have been developed in line with what obtains in Nigeria. This guide provides an overview of the course requirements and organization. Course Aim For a thorough understanding of what broadcasting entails, it is necessary to know how programmes in form of signals are generated and transmitted from broadcasting studios to receiving radio and television sets wherever they are located. The broad aims of this course will be achieved through the following:  Introducing you to the concept of broadcasting and the agencies concerned with the broadcast media;  Taking you into the world of electromagnetic spectrum; and  Acquainting you with the nature of radio and television, the broadcast equipment and personnel that make broadcast transmissions achievable. Course Objectives In order to achieve the aims set out, MAC242 has overall objectives. Each unit also has objectives. The unit objectives are stated at the beginning of each unit. Please ensure that you read them before venturing into any unit. You may want to refer to them during your study of each unit to check if you are making progress. Here are the wider objectives from the course as a whole. By meeting the objectives you will also have met the aims of the course. On successful completion of the course, you should be able to: 1. Define broadcasting 2. Understand the nature of radio and television. 3. Understand the internet and its social implications. 4. Trace the emergence of the Nigerian broadcast media. 5. Identify the roles played by the media concerned with broadcasting. 6. Define radio waves. 7. Explain the concept of modulation 8. Discuss the multistage nature of broadcast signals 9. Understand the functions of a transmitter. 10. Explain what goes on in radio and television studios and control rooms. MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 11. Understand the operational characteristics of the microphone and camera. 12. Explain the production process 13. Identify the functions of key production personnel. Course Requirements To complete the course you are required to read the study units and other related materials. You will also need to undertake practical exercises through visiting radio and television studios. The exercises are to aid you in understanding the concepts being presented. At the end of each unit, you will be required to submit written assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of the course, you will write a final examination. Course Materials i. Course guide ii. Study units broken down into 25 units iii. Assignments file iv. Relevant textbooks including the ones listed under each units v. Cultivate friendship with broadcast personnel so as to have easy access to broadcast studios. Study Units There are 25 units incorporated into 5 modules in this course. The modules are listed below. Module 1 The Concept of Broadcasting Unit 1 What is Broadcasting? Unit 2 The Nature of Radio Unit 3 The Nature of Television Unit 4 The Interactive Media Unit 5 Emergence of the Nigerian Broadcast Media. Module 2 Agencies Concerned with the Broadcast Media Unit 1 Federal Ministry of Communication Unit 2 Federal Communications Commission. Unit 3 Nigerian Communications Commission. Unit 4 National Communications commission. Unit 5 Nigerian Telecommunications Limited. Module 3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum. Unit 1 What are Radio Waves? Unit 2 Modulation Unit 3 The multistage nature of Broadcast Signals. Unit 4 The Transmitter. Unit 5 Transmission of Signals through a Transmitter. Module 4 The Broadcast Studio and Control Room. Unit 1 The Radio Studio Unit 2 Radio Control Room v MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING Unit 3 The Television Studio Unit 4 The Television Control Room Unit 5 Master Control in Television. Module 5 The Production Process in Broadcasting. Unit 1 Preproduction Planning Unit 2 The Production Process Unit 3 Microphones and how they work Unit 4 The Television Camera Unit 5 Studio Personnel Assessment File An assessment file will be made available to you. In this file, you will find details of the work you must submit to your tutor for marking, and the marks you obtain will be part of your final marks. A marking scheme has been provided. Strategies for Studying the Course You will be required to study the units on your own. However, arrangements have been made for you to meet with your tutor for tutorials on a regular basis in the study center. Also you can organize interactive sessions with your course mates. Presentation Schedule The dates for submission of all assignments will be communicated to you. You will also be told the date of completing the study units and dates for examinations. Summary This course guide gives you an overview of what to expect in MAC242: Foundations of Broadcasting. I wish you success as you go through the course. vi MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Module 1 The Concept of Broadcasting.......................... 1 Unit 1 What is broadcasting? 1-5 Unit 2 The Nature of Radio…………………………... 6-11 Unit 3 The Nature of Television……………………... 12-16 Unit 4 The Interactive Media………………………… 17-23 Unit 5 Emergence of the Nigerian Broadcast Media… 24-30 Module 2 Agencies Concerned with the Broadcast Media… 31 Unit 1 Federal Ministry of Communication………….. 31-34 Unit 2 Federal Communications Commission……….. 35-41 Unit 3 Nigerian Communications Commission……… 42-46 Unit 4 National Communications Commission………. 47-51 Unit 5 Nigerian Telecommunications Limited……….. 52-56 Module 3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum…………….. 57 Unit 1 What are Radio Waves?............................ 57-62 Unit 2 Modulation……………………………………. 63-66 Unit 3 The Multistage Nature of Broadcast Signals…... 67-69 Unit 4 The Transmitter……………………………….. 70-73 Unit 5 Transmission of Signals through a Transmitter.. 74-77 Module 4 The Broadcast Studio and Control Room…… 78 Unit 1 The Radio Studio……………………………… 78-83 Unit 2 Radio Control Room………………………….. 84-91 Unit 3 The Television Studio………………………… 92-96 Unit 4 The Television Control Room………………… 97-100 Unit 5 Master Control in Television…………………. 101-104 Module 5 The Production Process in Broadcasting…… 105 Unit 1 Preproduction Planning……………………….. 105-107 Unit 2 The Production Process……………………….. 108-111 vii MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING Unit 3 Microphones and how they work……………... 112-120 Unit 4 The Television Camera……………………….. 121-128 Unit 5 Studio Personnel………………………………. 129-135 Bibliography………………………………………………… 136 viii i MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING MODULE 1 THE CONCEPT OF BROADCASTING Unit 1 What is broadcasting? Unit 2 The Nature of Radio Unit 3 The Nature of Television Unit 4 The Interactive Media Unit 5 Emergence of the Nigerian Broadcast Media. UNIT 1 WHAT IS BROADCASTING? CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Defining Broadcasting 3.2 The Purpose of Broadcasting 3.3 Encoding and Decoding Information 3.4 The Ionosphere and Broadcasting 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Readings 1.0 INTRODUCTION Broadcasting has to do with the transmission of information as signals from a radio or television source to receiving sets at home. It is important at this point to examine the purpose of broadcasting and how this is achieved and what may obstruct broadcast signals in their journey from a radio or television studio to radio and television sets wherever they are located. 2.0OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit of study, you should be able to: i. Define broadcasting ii. Understand what it means to encode and decode iii. How the atmosphere affect broadcast signals. 1 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Defining Broadcasting Broadcasting has been defined as the transmission of information through radio waves from a radio or television station, to the audience in far and near places, through their receivers, which help in decoding such information (Onabajo, 2000). Similarly, broadcasting can also be defined as the dissemination of information by an organization (radio or television station) to a large widely dispersed heterogeneous audience through their radio or television receivers. As opposed to other forms of mass communication like newspapers, magazines and books, broadcasting is an entirely electronic means of communication because it uses electronic technology to encode, distribute and decode messages; newspaper is not a form of electronic communication because it does not use electronic technology in all the stages of encoding. However, there are now online or internet based newspapers designed, produced and distributed electronically using new forms of technology. Broadcasting is distinguished from “cablecasting”– the transmission of television and sometimes radio signals directly intothe home by means of coaxial cable – because whereas broadcasting is open to everyone provided you have your television or radio receiver, cable is restricted and its services are exclusively available to only those who have decoders. Similarly, broadcasting, from its definition and meaning, is distinguished from “narrowcasting” – the transmission of special interest programmes too much smaller audiences. SELF ASSESMENT EXERCISE 1 1. What is the major difference between broadcasting and cablecasting? 3.2 The Purpose of Broadcasting Basically, broadcasting serves three broad purposes; it informs, educate and entertain the audience. However, broadcast stations (radio or television) perform six main functions. These are the news, opinions, education, propaganda, commercial and entertainment functions. News Function: Broadcast stations survey the environment and give reports or information about things going on in the environment, 2 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING especially those things that are likely to have impact on people, and those things that are new and of human interest. Opinion Function: Here, the broadcast media provide an avenue for the different shades of opinion to be aired in society. Broadcast media enable us to know what different segments of the society are thinking. Education Function: Through the broadcast media, people acquire new knowledge, attitudes and skills, thus enabling them to cope better with life. Education function can deal with formal, non-formal and informal learning. Propaganda Function: Governments have often used radio and television as megaphones to exaggerate performance or make something out of nothing. Commercial Function: Radio and television stations carry adverts which help inform audiences about the existence of certain goods and services. Entertainment Function: Musical, drama and comic programmes are transmitted to ease boredom and help relax audiences of radio and television stations. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 1. How does the news function differ from the education function in broadcasting? 3.3 Encoding and Decoding Broadcast Information From the original source, information must be encoded into the language of a given communication system. The encoded information is fed into a communication channel, which has a maximum information capacity. At the other end, decoding takes place, reproducing the original communication with certain degree of fidelity. In the course of encoding – decoding process, unwanted information noise contaminates the channel and limits its capacity and this can affect the outcome at the receiving end. Encoding – decoding processes are never absolutely perfect, hence, a distortion rating is also commonly applied to communication equipment, giving a measure of the extent to which the components inherently alter the original information in the course of communicating it. The communication channel in the case of sound broadcasting is a group of radio frequencies. Radio, like visible light, is a form of radiant 3 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING energy, which can travel through space. To use radio energy for communication involves four fundamental operations: 1. Radio energy must be generated. 2. Information must be encoded by modulating the energy and imposing on it an information pattern, such as a pattern of sound energy. 3. The modulated signals must be detected at the receiving end. 4. The signals must be demodulated to recover something approximately the original pattern of information in its original form. 3.4 The Ionosphere and Broadcasting The ionosphere is situated within about 50 to 400 km above the surface of the earth. It consists of ionized atmosphere, that is, air whose atom have a characteristic electricity property induced by the action of the sun’s radiations. At certain times the ionosphere reflects Medium and High frequencies waves back to the earth. Waves of other frequencies pass though the ionosphere and dissipate their energy in space. The ionosphere is not a fixed and constant reflector, nor do all its layers reflect as a given radio frequency equally well; moreover, disturbances related to sunspots and other extra terrestrial events affect its efficiency. For broadcast frequencies, the most important variable is time of day. During daylight hours, the ionosphere does not reflect standard broadcast frequencies well, but after the sun goes down, the ionosphere gradually cools, until two hours after sundown when it reaches maximum efficiency as a reflector. The ionosphere thus makes possible long-distance night time reception of standard broadcast signals. 4.0 CONCLUSION While it is desirable to transmit broadcast messages to audiences’ radio and television sets, wherever located, however not all messages in form of signals reach their targets. Natural phenomena such as the ionosphere and bad weather can distort these messages or prevent them from reaching us. 5.0 SUMMARY Broadcasting is the dissemination of information from a radio or television station through the air waves. Apart from the general functions of broadcasting which are to inform, educate and entertain, radio and television stations perform six main functions. They are: the news, opinion, education, propaganda, commercial and entertainment functions. For information to travel through the air waves, it is encoded and decoded when it arrives at this destination, if the ionosphere or bad weather does not obstruct or significantly alter the direction of the broadcast signals. 4 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT 1. Name the six main functions of a broadcast station. 2. What are the four operations that are necessary before radio energy can be used for communication? 7.0 REFERENCE/ FURTHER READINGS Onabajo, Olufemi. (2000). FOUNDATION of Broadcast Journalism Lagos: Gabi Concept Ltd. Aspinall, Richard (1976) Radio Programme Production – A Manual for Training Paris: UNESCO. 5 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING UNIT 2 THE NATURE OF RADIO CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Advantages of Radio of Broadcasting 32 Characteristics of Radio 3.3 Objective of Radio Broadcasting 3.4 Effective Utilization of Radiocasting 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Readings 1.0 INTRODUCTION After having known what broadcasting is in Unit 1, we now zero-in to radio, which is a major channel of broadcasting. Since radio is a vital instrument for communicating information, it is important to know its advantages over other media, its characteristics and how to effectively utilize radio as a veritable means of communication. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to know: i. Advantages of radio as a mass medium of communication. ii. What radio broadcasting can be used to achieve. iii. How to effectively use radio for national objectives. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Advantages of Radio Radio broadcasting is one of several means of getting a message, to a large number of people at the same time, because it transcends the boundaries of space and time, and also leaps across illiteracy barriers. In terms of general availability, radio is the leading mass communication medium. In today’s world, especially in the developing world of parts of Asia and Africa, there are more radio sets than television sets, newspapers and cinema sets. Radio stations are comparatively inexpensive to run, after the initial capital outlay of transmitters and receivers. It has immediacy in a higher degree than other media of communication. Radio can talk back to its listeners by telephone, where the technical facilities exist, thus putting members of an audience in touch with one another. Radio is flexible, because a scheduled programme can be dropped at short notice and replaced with something more topical or more urgent. Within limits, radio can persuade and effectively influence large audience, 6 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING thereby contributing substantially to the building of a national consensus. It is a powerful instrument in the area of public enlightenment, on health issues, family planning, cultural re-awakening, business improvement and other social development issues. 3.2 Characteristics of Radio 1. Radio signals can reach almost all corners of the world, with an instant message. 2. The message can be understood easily. 3. Radio appeals to the ear and other human faculties, particularly the imagination. 4. Radio programmes can be very stimulating to human emotions, depending on the way they are presented. 5. Radio is very profitable for group listening, because of the discussion which naturally follows. Radio can reach the farthest areas of a country with educational programmes that stimulate the Normal process of learning. More schools and more people can be reached with radio broadcast through careful planning and imaginative programming. According to Aspinall (1971), experimental radio clubs (the rural radio forum) in India and Ghana have produced ample evidence that radio can be used to promote and support nation building in developing countries. Effective programming should take into account the traditional techniques of communication in the developing world and apply them to modern radio. Although radio is dependent only on sound, it follows therefore, that the listeners must be able to hear distinctly and accurately for it to benefit them. The quality of sound in the studio and at the receiver must be of the highest, so that listeners will not lose interest in the message being sent across. Producers of radio programmes should ensure high quality programming, bearing in mind the idiosyncrasies of their audiences. Radio is a vehicle for projecting personality, through which it attracts and holds an audience. Voice, mannerism, identification with the listener, the things the radio announcer or presenter says and how they are said, are some of the factors that go into making a radio personality. Good personalities heard throughout the day, in every phase of programme activity, give a station a personality of its own and help win and hold audiences for the more serious business of broadcasting. Situations have arisen in the developing world, in which radio is playing an active role in speeding the process of change and making it understandable and acceptable, because it has embarked upon extensive education schemes and projects for rural improvement and national integration and development. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 1. What makes a radio personality? 3.3 Objective Of Radio Broadcasting In many countries in Africa, Radio Broadcasting has come a long way. It has evolved from transmitting programmes from the home countries of the colonial masters to what 7 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING were once colonies. Radio in this sense had been effective in brain-washing the Africans on what their colonial masters were doing to cater for their interests. At independence, the African leaders were to know the effect of broadcasting on the people and so used it as government megaphone. Broadcasting is a medium that could be used for a lot of purpose. It could help inform people about government orchestrated programmes. It could also help to report the activities of the people for government attention and because of the high illiteracy level, broadcasting is preferred to other media of communication because of its flexibility in programming. Government policies could be translated into languages and broadcast to the people. It is not surprising therefore that broadcasting has been adapted to propagating the ideals of a government in power to the detriment of the people they are supposed to serve. Over the decades, broadcasting in Africa has served as the channel for government propaganda. Radio for example has been found to be very useful, because it is popular with the rural population and also enjoys the intimacy which other media of communication lack. In the developed world, radio has been used for developmental purpose. Programmes that are meant to achieve these developmental purposes have been conceived and executed at the various levels of the society. However, in Africa, radio has been seen as a one-way communication channel in which the government communicates to the governed without an appropriate feed-back system. This is contrary to Budd Hall (1981), who said that communication should be a four way process. 1. That the urban people could communicate to the rural people (Urban- Rural Communication). 2. That communication can also emanate from the urban to the urban people. (Urban-Urban Communication). 3. That the rural people are also at liberty to communicate with the urban population (Rural-Urban Communication). 4. That the rural people could also communicate amongst themselves (Rural- Rural Communication). 3.4 Effective Utilization of Radio Broadcasting 1. Radio is a singular medium that is most effective for mass mobilization. This presupposes the fact that any serious government must identify the various segments of the society and be able to develop messages through the help of their leaders in order to ensure the appropriateness and relevance of such messages to their audience so that mobilization efforts could be accepted and adopted by these communities. A number of scholars have discovered that the reason for the failure of past mobilization efforts is that urban broadcasters have designed messages which have no relevance to their audiences, since these programmes are not backed by research. 8 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING Moemeka (1981) and Onabajo (1995) in their various researches discovered the importance of involving local and community leaders in programme conceptualization, implementation and execution and that rural people showed distancing effect to programming that did not involve their leaders. 2. Radio is also useful in mass education. The citizenry could be educated about government policies that really have a bearing on their lives. The radio could be used to introduce illiterates to some formal education, through teaching them some basic hygiene principles, environmental cleanliness and lessons in preventive health care. This could be augmented with simplified literature as follow up. Tanzania, Uganda, Sudan and to some extent Ghana have been involved in using radio as a medium for mass education. 3. Radio could be used as an instrument for formal education. Radio Nigeria tried this approach in the 60’s and early 1970’s before the idea was terminated prematurely, either because of lack of funds or ideas. While it lasted, formal schools were informed of time of broadcasts of the various subjects which were meant to prepare students still in school and drop-outs for examination in the General Certificate of Education (Ordinary Level). The open correspondence schools also experimented with this system, so also the University of the Air (in Tanzania). 4. Radio could be used in cultural innovation or diffusion. Since culture is not static, radio could help remove the negative aspects of some of our cultures and help the citizens to absorb that which will improve their welfare. 5. Information dissemination is fastest through radio. Radio does not succumb to rigid programming because more urgent issues could be discussed at a moment’s notice. 6. The entertainment value of radio is very great. Music that softens the nerves could be played to lift the audience from their stressful moods. While the entertainment value of drama is high, it has been discovered that it is a potential tool for development. Onabajo (1995) in a study of the Badagry Local Government area’s utilization of the broadcast media did find out that drama was the most preferred programme type by the people of the area. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 1. In what ways can radio be effectively utilized? 9 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 4.0 CONCLUSION The flexibility in programming makes radio a great asset in the dissemination of information. It should not just be used as an entertainment medium, but a means of transmitting development messages to Nigerians especially those who reside in rural areas. 5.0 SUMMARY Radio is the leading mass communication medium in terms of general availability. In Africa and Asia there are more radio sets than there are television sets, cinema seats and newspapers. It is a powerful instrument in the area of public enlightenment and this is made possible because of the reach of its signals and its appeal to the ear and imagination, and its profitability for group listening and discussion. Radio is popular with the rural population and enjoys an intimacy with its audience. It can be used effectively for mass education, formal education and in cultural innovation and diffusion. Radio is the most effective for mass mobilization and has a great capacity to disseminate information fastest as well as entertain its audience. 6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT 1 List 4 advantages of radio over other mass media. 2 Budd Hall (1981) says that communication should be a 4-way process, what are they? 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS Hall, Budd (1981) "Mass Communication and Education" in Lalage, B. & Okedara J. T. (eds). An Introduction to the Study of Adult Education, Ibadan: University Press. Aspinall, Richard (1976) Radio Programme Production - A Manual for Training, Paris: UNESCO. Onabajo, Olufemi (1995)"The Impact of Radio and Television Rural Development Programmes on the People of Badagry Local Government Area of Lagos State". Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Lagos. 10 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING UNIT 3 THE WRITING PROCESS IN TELEVISION CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 The Nature of Television 3.2 Writing for Television 3.3 Features of Standard Television Script 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Readings 1.0 INTRODUCTION You are welcome to the world of television, whose aesthetics make it a medium to relish. The popularity of television is because of its nature of sound and picture and the peculiar broad appeal to all segments of the audience through the various programmes offered. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of unit of study, you should be able to: i. Understand the nature of television ii. Know what it entails to write for television iii. Articulate the features of a standard television script. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 The Nature of Television "Television is an electronic device that brings to us informational, educational and entertainment programmes. It is the greatest communications mechanism ever designed and operated by man. It pumps into our brains an unending stream of information, opinion, moral values and aesthetic taste. Television influences our perception of politics, religion, governance, fashion and culture" (Akpan, 1988). Television is not just a mere transmission device, but it is a medium, which brings its massive audience into a direct relationship with particular sets and values and attitudes. Its compact structure makes it an intimate medium which brings the world into our homes. Television is team work, in the sense that it requires so many hands to perform a wide variety of duties, in order to produce a single programme. Each area of responsibility requires expertise and every production passes through many hands and stages. The content is scrutinized, so that something worthwhile is produced and beamed to its viewing public. 11 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING Good television programming is not a one-man show, but the creative work of a quantum of clearly knit crafts and arts, which include acting, cinematography, architecture, scene design, interior decorating etc. Television viewing is an experience which is unique for both the viewer and the artistes or performers and this can be used to the television communication’s advantage. Because of the medium’s intimate qualities and the viewing environment, audiences tend to be involved with television stars and personalities in a unique relationship (Wurtzel 1985). For actors who portray a role, the intensity of the identification can result in viewers confusing fantasy with reality. The predominance of the close-up shots and the ability of the camera and microphone to detect, capture and magnify the slightest gesture, expression or vocal inflection, means that a performer or presenter, must always behave maturely on screen. Television is often a high-pressured operation with close deadlines, limited budgets, rushed rehearsals and short production periods. An unexpected technical problem can force sudden changes in the script, revision in the blocking and a reshuffling of rehearsals and shooting schedules. Experienced television personnel and artistes, are able to cope with these inevitable pressure and be able to deliver an effective and seemingly effortless performance. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 1. In four sentences, describe the nature of television. 3.2 Writing For Television Every television programme deserves a script, and the nature of scripting varies from one programme to another. Some scripts are very elaborate, in that they include the narration or the dialogue, as well as specific camera shots and directing instructions; while some other scripts are just a little more than a production outline. Scripting on television aims at establishing a programme format, indicate the programme content, as well as helping to organize important production information. Every production staff should be familiar with script formats and should be able to translate written material into a television script or make inputs into a programme script. Scripting is the development of a situation, story, characters, copy and dialogue, with the special talents and skills of a writer. Writing for television is different from writing for other media of mass communication; therefore a script writer must understand the medium’s capabilities and limitations and be familiar with basic techniques of television production. Since television is a visual medium, the television script writer must be comfortable working with images and words. Sometimes, script writing deals with very little spoken copy, because the images may convey the message alone, or in combination with appropriate sound effects or music. 12 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING The visual quality of television notwithstanding, a television script must be written for the ear and not the eye. This is because the audience never reads the script, but only listens to its delivery. Sentences should be kept simple, direct and to the point. It is advisable to write in informal style, as much as possible, sometimes using slangs and colloquial expressions when necessary. Otherwise a stiff formal style may interfere with the audience understanding of the message. For the viewing public to follow the script, the television producer must establish a clear logical sequence of presentation. He should not crowd too many facts, figures and ideas into few sentences and the use of flashback and flash forward must be deftly utilized so as not to confuse the viewers. The use of language and style in scripting also depends on the production situation and the intended audience. The writer should also take into consideration, the composition of his audience. A news bulletin directed to a local audience will be different in style and presentation from that meant for a national audience. 3.3 Features of A Standard Television Script A complete television script contains the spoken copy or dialogue, sound and music information, and the major visual elements, which should accompany the audio. It should also contain important production information, such as timings, video and audio sources. A script should always be typewritten and should be double spaced. Sound effects and music cues should be in capital letters and underlined to separate them from dialogue. The typewritten script is divided into two, the video side (left-of the page) and the audio side, is at the right side of the page. The audio side, apart from containing the dialogue, also houses the sound elements of the show. Performers’ stage movements are also included in the audio and are usually capitalized to avoid confusion with spoken copy. The video side is left almost blank to give room for the director’s camera shot notations. However, important visual elements such as titles, graphics, special effects, film or videotape inserts, are usually typed in capital letters, opposite the corresponding audio. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 1. What are the components of a complete television script? 4.0 CONCLUSION Television has a great potential for improving the lots of Nigerians and to justify the confidence the public has in it if it helps promote socialization, education, culture and economic well-being of its audiences. 13 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 5.0 SUMMARY Television is not just a mere transmission device, but an electronic device which brings to us informational, education and entertainment programmes. Every television programme deserves a script and the nature of scripting varies from one programme to another. A complete television script contains the dialogue; sound and music information; major visual elements accompanying the audio; and production information such as timings, video and audio sources. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT 1 What makes television programming a team work? 2 What does scripting aim to achieve in television programmes production? 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS Akpan, Emmanuel. (1990). “Beyond Message Transmission: A Comparative Approach to TV Production.” Nigerian Journal of Mass Communication. Vol. 1, No. 1. Eme–Nwagbo, Ebele. (1995). Television Production Principles and Practice. Lagos: STRAAD Ltd. 14 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING UNIT 4 THE INTERACTIVE MEDIA CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 The Internet and the Future of Interactive Media 3.2 Social Implications of Internet 3.3 Telephone Communication 3.4 Data Transmission 3.5 Analog versus Digital Transmission 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Readings 1.0 INTRODUCTION As we continue our study of types of broadcasting, let us look at the new media which is based on computer technologies that allow people to respond to messages they receive, select which images they want to receive and even send out their own messages. We shall also take a look at the social implications of the internet, telephone communication, data transmission as well as the differences that exist between analog and digital transmission. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of the unit, you should be able to know: i. The interactive nature of the new media. ii. The differences between “new” and “old” forms of media. iii. Social implications of Internet. iv. The differences between analog and digital transmission. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 The Internet and the Future of Interactive Media A whole new generation of media, based on computer technologies, emerged in the 1980s. These disparate forms of media, often called the “new media”, have capabilities that differ significantly from the previous generation of mass media. One principal difference is that the new media can be used for interactive communication. This breaks with the one-way nature of “mass” communication and has many of the characteristics of face-to-face communication. In essence, new media technologies provide citizens with the technical apparatus to do more than just receive information. They can respond to messages they receive, select which images they want to receive, or even send out their own messages. 15 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING Corporations use a similar technology on a smaller scale for “teleconferencing” which brings people together via television screen even when they may be thousands of miles apart. Perhaps most significant, the Internet provides computer links that permit electronic mail, audio conversation with video images, internet-based publishing and broadcasting, on-line shopping and stock trading, and 24-hours-a-day electronic access to news and government information. In all these examples, the sender and receiver the technology are mere passive audiences. The differences between “new” and “old” forms of media are substantial. As with the introduction of previous technologies, the new forms of communication have produced often-wild speculation about their social impact. One critic, representing the extreme view, has argued that innovations in computer networking technology are producing “the most transformative technological event, fundamentally changing the way we live. However, such views do not adequately conceptualize the social forces that influence the development of technology or the cultural practices that shape how people use them. New media do indeed; provide resources and opportunities for new forms of social interaction and new ways of relating to, or even manipulating the limitations of time and space. But, again, this is only part of the story. If we are to understand the social significance of the new media, we must look at how their technological properties intersect other social forces. Rather than focusing on only one causal element, we need to understand the relationship between the “technological drivers,” the social psychology of media use, and the economics of the media industries. The new media have technical capabilities that pull in one direction, but social psychological and economic forces pull back hard in the other direction. The short-run outcome will likely be only small social changes, even if opportunities for more significant changes emerge in the long term. In other words, change will be evolutionary, not revolutionary. The key to understand the new media is that they all connect with one another. This is because we are witnessing the evolution of a universal interconnected network of audio, video print, graphics and electronic text communications that will blur the distinction between interpersonal and mass communication and between public and private communication. These integrated media networks have several key capabilities.  The new media will become increasingly less expensive  They will once again alter the meaning of geographic distance  They provide the possibility of increasing the speed of communication  They allow for a huge increase in the volume of communication  They allow for more channels of information flow  They provide opportunities for interactive communication  They provide more control for individual users  They allow forms of communication that were previously separate to overlap and interconnect. In short, new Internet-based media allow for more, faster, diverse, two- way communications between users who have both more control and more choice. These properties of digital media provide resources for increased media diversity and give 16 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING communications power to citizens instead of to central authorities. However, we have looked at one side of the thug-of-war. The new media may pull toward diversity and participation, but other social forces pull toward uniformity and spectatorship. For example, powerful economic actors who have influenced other media are affecting the development of the Internet as well. In early 1999, the Web’s 50 most popular sites (as monitored at www.hot100.com) included those run by traditional media giants Disney, CNN/Time Warner, Sony, CBS/Westinghouse, USA Today/Gannett, the New York Times and MTV/Viacom, among others. As the size of the on-line audience grows, the prominent presence of such traditional media conglomerates on the Internet is likely to increase. In the long run, then, it may turn out that “new media” end up being dominated by well-known “old” producers. Audience preferences are another way the potential impact of technology is tempered. Most of us have deeply ingrained media habits that are not likely to change dramatically simply because of new technological capabilities. In addition, most of us use media for entertainment purposes, not for strictly information or political purposes. The development of the Internet continues to accommodate these habits: while some of the more popular sites provide news and information, many others are focused on either entertainment or shopping. Most major retailers now have company web sites where customers can electronically browse store shelves and purchase items without leaving their home or office. However, this exponential growth of the Internet does not automatically mean that users radically change their media habits. The impact of technology is limited by how people actually use it. Though producers find on-line material easier and cheaper to produce than a magazine or newsletter, they continue to face the difficult task of finding an audience. Most Internet sites are largely unknown. Because potential audiences have to actively seek Internet sites, most producers trying to reach a broad audience through the Internet will instead find that their sites reach a small, select audience, many of whom will be familiar with the producers from their off-line activities. This works to the benefit of already well-known media producers. Popular names like Disney and CNN can translate their brand name recognition into an advantage on the internet; uses are already familiar with them. Smaller producers, however, still face the same task they had with traditional media; getting people to know that they exist. 3.2 Social Implications of Internet Ultimately, social forces will determine how new communication technology will be used. Long-standing media habits will not be changed overnight. Most people will relate to new forms of media in much the same way they do to the old media. Same people, though, will make use of the full range of capabilities offered by the new media. For these individuals, new media technology can offer a significantly different way of accessing, manipulating, and using information. But any communication advantage provided by the new media is likely to be distributed unevenly, replicating existing information inequalities. Those who are already better 17 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING educated, more familiar with emerging technologies, and better able to afford devices such as sophisticated home computers will be precisely the people who benefit most from the new media. New media may even inadvertently expand the gulf between the technological ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots.’ Economic forces will also pull away from diversity and toward sameness. The shift from broadcast to cable television is a good example of this dynamism. We now have 50 or more channels, but more programming has not meant diverse programming. The cable coming into our homes can do more than bring us programmes; it can easily transmit out of the home, as well. However, experiment with interactive cable programming have shown little profit potential beyond home shopping. In short, though the internet has certainly opened up access to the mass media, market forces will greatly constrain the-vast technological potential of the new media. If we weigh the technological properties of the new media along with media habits and market forces, the Internet is not likely to revolutionize the media environment. Instead, it is an important supplement to the old media, serving as a key promotional device for extension of print, broadcast, and film. The situation is not static, however. Media habits are likely to change, albeit slowly, and larger numbers of citizens are taking advantage of the internet each year, providing new markets. Still, larger changes are likely to occur at the margins, as small numbers of people use interactive digital media in new and intriguing ways Indeed, the Internet appears to be important contributor to the continuing fragmentation of the mass audience. The currently fashionable niche orientation of mass media, driven in large measure by advertisers was already underway before the internet’s arrival. But the specific organization and technological capabilities of the Internet is helping to accelerate the pace of audience’s segmentation. This marking strategy is an example of how the technological properties of new media – especially their flexibility and relatively low cost work in concert with both social developments, such as multiculturalism and a growing identity politics, and economic forces, such as the search for new consumer markets, to produce a new pattern of social communication. 3.3 Telephone Communication Telephone conversations can be examined in terms of their frequencies in much the same way we have been examining radio and television signals. To reproduce the human voice in a telephone conversation, a range of about 30Hz to 300Hz is necessary. Consequently, wired telephone communication takes place at certain frequencies, much like unwired radio communication. Many different telephone conversations can take place at the same time. When telephone conversations are sent over the air, they are simply separated and each switched to its own space on the spectrum. Each telephone conversation occupies an available space within the larger space assigned to the telephone company. 18 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 3.4 Data Transmission With the increased use of computers and communication between computers, there is an increasing demand for space on the electromagnetic spectrum in which to transmit data. Data Communication requires different standards than a typical radio station because they cannot tolerate interference and they need a considerable amount of spectrum space. Our A. M. radio receiver may experience some interference from nearby electrical generator or a thunderstorm, but such interference would play havoc with sensitive computer data. As a result, computer data is transmitted at higher frequencies where line-of-sight transmission takes place, because of the low noise ratio that exist there and because of the available spectrum space. Much data transmission occurs at frequencies from 1 to 10 gigahertz (GHz) (One GHz equals one billion cycles per second). Frequencies between 1 and 10GHz are referred to as microwave frequencies, the prefix micro indicating that the waves are very short. Long-distance telephone and television-transmission relay take place at microwave frequencies, as does satellite communication. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Why does data communication require different standards from that of a radio station? 3.4 Analogue Versus Digital Transmission Two types of transmission can exist in both wired and over-the-air communication systems: analog and digital. For example, the voice of a radio announcer is modulated in a certain way, transmitted over the air, and received on a radio receiver. The transmission is continuous over a given frequency range, and unless the receiver or transmitter is turned off, the sound at the receiver is the same as the sound that was transmitted. A typical telephone conversation may consist of voice vibrations that are turned into analogous electrical vibrations. What a television camera sees is transformed into an analog signal, which creates in the television receiver a picture similar to what the television camera witnessed. With digital transmission, however, the signal is not continuous; it is broken up into numbers. The signal consists of a series of on/off pulses transmitted in the same way that information flows in a computer circuit. The pulses are bits of information in a binary-number code. For all practical purposes digital and computer are the same. With the increased use of computers, digital transmission systems are gaining more and more importance. Since computer data are digital, analog systems that transmit them must convert them first to analog, and then back to digital. A modem serves this function by connecting a telephone with a computer. Overall, this is an inefficient way to move information. Yet because world telephone systems are significantly analog and considerable money has been spent on analog equipment, in many areas it is the only way to send information. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 1. What is the difference between analogue and digital transmission? 19 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 4.0 CONCLUSION Although the world of the Internet is a welcome relief, it is evident that long standing media habits will not change overnight. Most people are likely to relate with new forms of media as they do with the old media. 6.0 SUMMARY The new media is a potent weapon for interactive communication and has many of the characteristics of face-to-face communication. The key to the understanding of the new media is that they all connect with one another resulting in the evolution of a universal interconnected network of audio, video, print, graphics and electronic text communication that will blur the distinction between interpersonal and mass communication and between public and private communication. Telephone conversations can be examined in terms of their frequencies as in radio and television signals. When telephone conversations are set over the air, they are simply separated and each switched to its own space on the spectrum. Data communication requires different standards than a typical radio station because they cannot tolerate interference and they need a considerable amount of spectrum space. Signals in analog transmission are continuous over a given frequency range, while with digital transmission, they are not continuous but broken up into numbers. The signal consists of a series of on/off pulses transmitted in the same way that information flows in a computer circuit. 6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT 1. What are the capabilities of the new media? Name 5 of them. 2. Mention at least 5 social implications of the Internet. 7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READINGS Bittner, J. R. (1985). Broadcasting and Telecommunication.2nd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Onabajo, Olufemi. (2004). Introduction to Broadcasting. Lagos: Gabi Concept Ltd. 20 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING UNIT 5 EMERGENCE OF THE NIGERIAN BROADCAST MEDIA CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Historical Perspective 3.2 Radio Distribution Services (RDS) 3.3 Nigeria Broadcasting Service 3.4 Nigeria Broadcasting Corporation 3.5 Regional Stations 3.6 Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria 3.7 Broadcasting Organization of Nigeria (BON) 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Readings 1.0 INTRODUCTION The Nigerian broadcast media have gone through various transformations before becoming what they are today. As part of an experiment by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) in 1932, the broadcast industry has emerged as the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) and Nigerian Television Authority (NTA). Both broadcast organs rank as the most powerful political and social mobilizer of the Nigerian society. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of the unit, you should be able to appreciate the following: 1 Trace the historical evolution of the Nigerian broadcasting regional 2 How regional stations started 3 The historical antecedents of Broadcasting Organisation of Nigeria (BON) 21 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Historical Perspective The broadcasting media in Nigeria have come a long way and gone through a lot of changes, in trying to keep pace with the intricacies of an ever-changing society. What took off as a mere rudimentary, experimental monitoring station, can now boast of direct satellite communication equipment. The actual beginning of broadcasting in Nigeria was in 1932, when as part of an experiment by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Lagos was chosen, as one of the centres around the world, to receive and retransmit British Empire service signals from Daventry, England. Then the Lagos Station began to experiment with rediffusion service, under the supervision of engineers and technicians at the Posts and Telegraphs Department, who were also mandated to design a system for distributing the signals to major population centres across the country. This relay system of the BBC was replicated in mainly English speaking countries across the globe and succeeded in taking BBC news and programmes to many parts of the world. The objectives of this innovation by the BBC were: 1 To develop links between Great Britain and English-speaking people throughout the world; 2 To propagate the British way of life, particularly in the empire and; 3 To keep British citizens outside Britain informed about happenings back home. Therefore, news, music and other aspects of programming, at the time, were designed towards fulfilling these objectives. 3.1 Radio Distribution Services (Rds) On December 1, 1935, radio finally made its debut, when the first Radio Distribution Service (RDS - Rediffusion), was commissioned in Lagos. By 1939 when the Second World War started, the Post and Telegraph department which was overseeing the Lagos experimental station, had popularized the medium, and had extended the service to Ibadan, the largest city in West Africa. All through the war years, the British made good the service of RDS, through which the BBC kept the King’s subjects and citizens across the globe informed about the progress of the war against Nazi-Germany. Few years later, Radio distribution Services were opened in Kano, Abeokuta, Port- Harcourt, Ijebu Ode, Enugu, Jos, Zaria and Kaduna. 22 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 3.2 Nigerian Broadcasting Service Seeing the success of RDS, the British government decided to establish a proper radio station in Nigeria by integrating all the Radio Distribution Services in the country, following the Turner-Bryon report. On June 1, 1952, colonial governor, Sir John Stuart McPherson commissioned the Nigerian Broadcasting Service (NBS). Although at inception, BBC programmes dominated the Nigerian airwaves, efforts were also made to produce programmes that the local population could relate to. There were programmes and news in three main Nigerian Languages, as well as many dialects. However the NBS soon became the target of criticism, based on the dominance of BBC programmes in its broadcasts, and for what critics described as lacking the Nigerian orientation. The BBC augmented Nigeria’s efforts by providing all the needed training and technical equipment. Infact BBC’s T. W. Charmes became first director-general of NBS, while his counterpart, J. W. Murray, became the chief engineer. 3.3 Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation Having rejected the NBS, which was seen merely as the colonial government’s megaphone, the central government thought it necessary to convert the NBS into Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation on April 1, 1957, by an act of parliament. This was to address the issue raised against the former organization (NBS) and to shield it from government interference, and the propagation of the view of the ruling political party. The duties of the corporation, as spelt out in its Act, included the right: “to provide as a public service, independent and impartial broadcasting services by means of wireless telegraph and by television for general reception within Nigeria; to provide an External Service for general reception, in countries and places outside the country; and to ensure that the services which it provides, when considered as a whole, reflect the culture, characteristics, affairs and opinions of the people of each region, or part of the Federation.” There were other duties allowed the corporation, such as providing facilities for ministerial statements, political broadcasts, religious services, and organization or providing public entertainment, for the purpose of broadcasting. When the corporation began operation, its recurrent expenditure was N4.9 million, over the period 1956 – 1960, while its capital expenditure was N1 million, plus additional grants after incorporation. Apart from annual government subvention, NBS had few other sources of income. It existed mainly on development loans, repayable with interest. This naturally created problems for the corporation, especially in terms of acquiring relevant technology and improving staff training. The new corporation came up with four distinct programme schedules, one each for the East, West, and the Northern 23 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING region and the fourth schedule of each region, reflected the characteristics and needs of the area, it was meant to serve. Within two years however, the regional premiers and NBC officials were in a war of words, over what the role of the corporation should be. The regional governments were particularly unhappy with what they saw, as the station’s partisanship in the coverage and reporting of news. Since the centralization of broadcasting had been thrown out in the 1954 constitution, the response of the regions was to establish broadcasting stations of their own. 3.4 Regional Stations The government of the defunct Western region blazed the trail when it commissioned the Western Nigeria Television (WNTV) on October 31st, 1959. In May, 1960, it established its radio station, known as Western Nigeria Broadcasting Service (WNBS). Their mandate, according to Chief Obafemi Awolowo, then Premier of the Western Region, was to serve as teachers, entertainers and stimuli to all and to transform Nigeria into a modern and prosperous nation. The East and the North soon copied the initiative of the west, with the establishment of the Eastern Nigeria Broadcasting service and the Broadcasting, Company of Northern Nigeria in 1960 and 1962, respectively. Right from inception, it was clear that the three regional stations were mainly instruments for promoting the views of their proprietors. Each station designed programmes to project the political interests of its owner. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 1. What was the mandate given to Western Nigeria Television (WNTV)? When it started transmission in October 1959? 3.5 Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) The Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) still ranks as the most powerful, political and social mobilizer of the Nigerian society. All past governments have used it as a means of out-manoeuvering their rivals in the struggle for the country’s leadership. Consequently this had led to credibility problem and poor image perception of the system by its national audience. The nine –point objectives of FRCN are: a. To provide efficient broadcasting services to the whole Federation of Nigeria based on national objectives and aspirations and to external audience, in accordance with Nigerian foreign policy. b. To provide a professional and comprehensive coverage of Nigerian culture through broadcasting; to promote cultural growth through research into indigenous culture, and to disseminate the results of such research. c. To contribute to the development of Nigerian society, and to promote national unity, by ensuring a balance presentation of views, from all parts of Nigeria. 24 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING d. To ensure the prompt delivery of accurate information to the people. e To enhance free enlightened and responsible discussion of important issues and maintain a 2-way contact between the government and the governed. f To provide special broadcasting services in the field of education, and in all other areas, where the national policy calls for special attention. g To promote orderly and meaningful development of broadcasting in Nigeria, through technical improvements, the training of appropriate professional staff, programme and other exchanges with other broadcasting organizations in the country. h. To promote research into various aspects of the communication media and their effects on the Nigerian society. This includes audience research, the investigation of fresh methods of production and the true indigenization of the broadcast media. i To ensure that facilities and techniques of broadcasting in Nigeria, keep pace with developments in the world of communication (e.g. FM transmission, colour television e.t.c) FRCN once operated a three-tier system of broadcasting in accordance with the provision of the 1956 ordinance that created it. It has the National, Zonal (states), and Provincial broadcasting House (PBH), which were primarily established to serve certain large local communities, considered to be of political, cultural and economic importance. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 1. How had past governments utilized the FRCN? 3.6 Broadcasting Organization Of Nigeria (Bon) The Broadcasting Organization of Nigeria (BON) started in 1973 as a child of necessity. It was then aimed at bringing together the radio and television stations in the country, to pool resources for effective coverage of national and international events. The All Africa Games of 1973 hosted by Nigeria was one of such events that motivated the formation of BON. After that event, BON went moribund until 1977, when it surfaced again due to the world Festival of Arts and culture, FESTAC ’77; by then its membership had risen to ten stations. However, BON also went moribund again until 1988 before it was resuscitated. Before the resuscitation of BON in 1988, there were other electronic media groupings. Such groupings included: 1. “SOBON” – State-owned Broadcasting Organizations of Nigeria. This was a child of the Second Republic Politics which dichotomized the states and the Federal party in the centre. 2. “CEFASERO” – Chief Executives of Federal and State – owned Radio Organizations. 25 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 4.0 CONCLUSION The broadcast media in Nigeria which started as a Federal government parastatal, later as arms of regional and state governments have witnessed private participation through Decree 38 of 1992 which also established the National Broadcasting commission (NBC). You will be acquainted with the duties of the NBC in the next module. 5.0 SUMMARY Broadcasting started in Nigeria as an experiment of the British Broadcasting Corporation in 1932. By 1935, Radio distribution Service (Rediffusion) was commissioned in Lagos and this resulted into the Nigerian Broadcasting Service (NBS) in 1952. The Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation emerged in 1957 as an act of parliament after the rejection of the NBS which was seen merely as the colonial government’s megaphone. NBC had its name changed to FRCN by Decree 108 of April 1978. The regional governments first ventured into television broadcasting with Western Region blazing the trail in 1959. The former Eastern Region started television broadcasting in 1960 and the Northern Region in 1962. The Nigerian Television Service went on air in April 1972 and this became the Nigerian Television authority by NTA Act of 1977. Private participation in the broadcast media began in 1992 though Decree 38, which established the National Broadcasting commission to regulate the broadcast industry. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT i What were the reasons that led to the beginning of broadcasting by the BBC in Nigeria in 1932? ii. How did television broadcasting start in Nigeria? 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS Mackay, Jan. (1964). Broadcasting in Nigeria. Ibadan: University Press. Onabajo, Olufemi. (2000). FOUNDATION of Broadcast Journalism. Lagos: Gabi Concept Ltd. 26 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING MODULE 2 AGENCIES CONCERNED WITH THE BROADCAST MEDIA Unit 1 Federal Ministry of Communication Unit2 Federal Communications Commission. Unit 3 Nigerian Communications Commission. Unit 4 National Communications commission. Unit 5 Nigerian Telecommunications Limited UNIT 1 FEDERAL MINISTRY OF COMMUNICATION CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 What the Ministry Stands For 3.2 Technical Provisions before Application 3.3 Why Station Dials Interfere 3.4 VHF versus UHF 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Readings 1.0 INTRODUCTION There is the need for you to know that broadcasting needs the assistance of certain agencies to function effectively. The Federal Ministry of Communication is one of them and its principal function is to ensure that broadcasters act in accordance with stipulated principles as contained in their frequency allocation letter. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit of study, you should know: i What the Federal Ministry of Communication stand for. ii. The process for approval of broadcast. iii The difference between Very High Frequency (VHF) and Ultra high Frequency (UHF). 27 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 What The Ministry Stands For The Ministry of Communication in Nigeria is charged with the responsibility of allocating frequencies to sound broadcast media, monitoring of sound media activities and the management and control of sound media, in relation to stipulated policies and international organizations or associations in charge of managing, controlling and monitoring sound broadcasters’ activities. The aim of the Ministry of Communication is to ensure that sound broadcasters act in accordance with stipulated principles as contained in their frequency allocation letter. One major objective of the Ministry of Communication is to ensure discipline among sound broadcasting operators. This is because more operators with fraudulent tendencies always give false information about their areas and modes of operation. When such people are found out, their offices of operation are usually closed down and their equipment seized or impounded. Until recently, the Ministry of Communication was responsible for policy formulation and implementation for sound broadcasting. However the function of policy formulation and implementation has been moved to the Ministry of Information. The Ministry of Communication issues out 530 – 110 bands to stations to operate. The Ministry also issues out frequencies to stations e.g. TK 720, TK 230. There is a section called frequency planning that assigns frequencies to stations and guards against overshot. An overshot is a situation where a company with the intention of broadcasting between Lagos and Abuja but seeks for licence of operation between Lagos, Ibadan and Ife. The result is an overshot because signals will pass over intended location to the licensed location. 3.2 Technical Provisions Before Application First and foremost, all equipment must be in accordance with the band to which it would be used for broadcasting. Before an equipment is approved, it has to go through a type approval testing in which the equipment are standardized or tropicalized to meet with the Nigerian climate. Unless permitted the equipment cannot be used outside its allocated area of operation. The ITU (International Telecommunication Union) in Geneva is the overall world body responsible for regulating communication policies. National policies are added to those of the ITU. Some of the factors that affect the approval of equipment include the following:- 1 The strength/power of the equipment. 2 Equipment gets impounded because the users loan equipment when seeking for licence. 3 In some cases, users use the wrong equipment for the wrong purpose(i.e. wrong frequency, location and band). 4 Lack of conformity with the standard required of equipment. 28 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 3.3 Why Station Dials Interfere Stations (both radio and television) signals interfere with one another. This is because some stations are not operating within their jurisdiction. What happens is that the station at fault could be closed down or equipment impounded. Years back, Radio Lagos signals were interfering with the police. Radio Lagos equipment were impounded as a result of the interference. 3.4 VHF versus UHF Very High Frequency (VHF) is reserved for the NTA only. This is because the VHF travels very wide and has a strong reception. NTA uses this as its programmes are networked and received in every state of Nigeria. The Ultra High Frequency (UHF) travels at short distances though powerful. States and Private Television Stations use the UHF because of their restricted coverage. During network, the NTA uses NITEL lines for network programmes. What happens is that programmes are sent through telephone lines to magnetic cables and to the antenna for transmission. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Which television stations use VHF and UHF for their transmission? 4.0 CONCLUSION The Ministry of communication ensures that sound broadcasters act in accordance with stipulated principles and ensures that there is discipline among sound broadcasting operators. 5.0 SUMMARY The Ministry of Communication is charged with the responsibility of allocating frequencies to sound broadcast media and monitoring their activities in relation to stipulated policies. It does this through technical provisions which applicants must comply with, before they can be allocated frequency to operate. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT 1 Name 3 functions of the Federal Ministry of communication. 2 Name 4 factors that affect the approval of broadcast equipment by the ministry. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS Onabajo, O. (2004) Introduction to Broadcasting. Lagos: Gab Concept Ltd. 29 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING UNIT 2 THE FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSIONS (FCC) CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Roles of FCC as Agency of Government 3.2 The Communications Acts of 1934 3.3 Composition of the FCC 3.4 Functions of the FCC 3.5 Licensing Radio and Television Stations 3.6 Renewal, Revocation and Transfer Licence 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Readings 1.0 INTRODUCTION We shall continue with our study of the agencies concerned with the broadcast media by looking at the activities of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) of the United States of America which was established to bring order to the confusion which would have occurred in the competition for the airwaves that are necessary for broadcast transmission. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this study unit, you should be able to understand: i What the FCC was set up to achieve. ii What America’s public policy toward radio and television are. iii. What can lead to renewal and revocation of broadcast licenses? 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Role Of FCC As Agency Of Government The Federal communications commission of the United States is the agency of the Federal Government authorized to carry out the law of radio and television. It started as Federal Regulatory Commission (FRC) in 1927 before it became the FCC in 1934. It was specifically established to bring order out of chaos and confusion that seem imminent in the competition for airwaves that are very scarce in face of thousands of privately owned radio and television stations. The FCC in 30 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING order to make sure that the stations carry out their public commitments and obligations, licenses all the radio and television stations and these licences are renewed every three years. The FCC was set up to check radio monopoly and to allocate frequencies to broadcasters. Also the FCC conducts auctions for electromagnetic spectrum. 3.2 The Communications Acts Of 1934 As defined by the Communications Act, the word “radio” is construed to mean television as well as sound broadcasting. The communications Act is meant: “To maintain the control of the United States over all the channels of interstate and foreign radio transmission; and to provide for the use of such channels, but not the ownership thereof, by persons for limited periods of time, under licences granted by Federal Authority, and no such license shall be construed to create any right, beyond the terms, conditions, and periods of the license. No person shall use or operate any apparatus for the transmission of energy or communications or signals by radio except under and in accordance with Act and with a license in that behalf granted under the Provision of this Act.” In order to leave no doubt about the matter of ownership of radio frequencies and the right of the government to regulate broadcasting, the law states that no licence may be granted “until the applicant therefore shall have signed a waiver of any claim to the use of any particular frequency…… against the regulatory power of the United states”. The yardstick for issuing or renewing radio licences shall be “public convenience, interest, or necessity”. The FCC is specifically directed to “encourage the larger and more effective use of radio in the public interest”. From these provisions we can see that America’s public policy toward radio and television involves the following key ideas: 1 The airwaves belong to the people; 2 the federal government shall maintain control over all broadcasting channels. 3 Use of these channels is limited to persons licensed by the federal government. 4 Licenses may be issued to persons only when the “pubic interest, convenience, or necessity” will be served thereby. 5 Licenses are good for limited periods of time only. 31 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 6 Radio and television shall be maintained as media for free speech. 7 Use of a radio or television frequency in no way creates an ownership right to that frequency. 8 The regulatory power of the federal government supersedes the right of any individual to the use of a radio or television frequency. The Act of 1934 created the Federal Communication Commission to carry out the law. The FCC is an independent regulatory commission, quasi judicial in many of its functions, but primarily administrative and policy making in its day-to-day operations. 3.3 Composition of the FCC The FCC is composed of seven commissioners appointed by the United States President for seven – year term and it was established by the communications act of 1934. It has jurisdiction over the radio, television, telephone and telegraph industries. The FCC’s control over Broadcast advertising indirectly stems from its authority to license broadcasters or take away their licences. 3.4 Functions of the FCC The FCC has the following general functions pertaining to radio and television: 1 It advises the State Department in negotiating international radio agreements and acts as the agent of the United States in carrying out the American end of such treaties. Radio waves cross international borders, and so there must be coordination and agreement in a master allocation plan on a world wide basis to prevent mutual interference. Furthermore, nations must agree on which bands to assign airplane communications, distress signals, ship-to-shore radio, etc. 2 It allocates bands of frequencies to various radio and television services. Examples of this allocating function were the decisions, to use the 88 to 108 megacycle bands for FM radio and to add channels 14 to 83 to the television band. 3 It licenses television and radio stations and broadcast operators. The power to issue licenses is supplemented by power to revoke or renew licences and to approve or disapprove transfers of licences. In carrying out these functions, the FCC holds hearings, conducts investigations, and issues decisions in individual cases involving licence application. It also promulgates regulations bearing directly or indirectly on the entire television and radio industry. 4 It classifies television and radio stations and prescribes “the nature of the service to be rendered by each class of licensed stations and each station within any class”. 5 It assigns bands of frequencies to the various classes of stations and assigns frequencies for each individual station, determining the power that each station shall use and the time during which it may operate. 32 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 6 It determines the location of stations and regulates the kind of apparatus television and radio stations may use. 7 It makes regulations necessary to prevent interference between stations and to carry out the provisions” of the Act. 8 It is authorized to make special regulation applicable to stations engaged in network broadcasting. 9 It requires stations “to keep such records of programmes, transmissions of energy, communications, or signals, as it may deem desirable”. 10 It designates call letters of all stations. 11 It ensures that broadcasters stay on their assigned frequencies and that no unauthorized person uses the airwaves. Volunteer groups made up of such people as radio and television repairmen and amateur radio operators assist the FCC in this work. 12 It encourages new uses of radio, particularly those that will promote safety of life and property. 13 It supervises all common carrier telephone, cable, and telegraph services. The American Telephone and Telegraph Company and other companies whose microwave equipment and telephone lines are used in network broadcasting are regulated by the FCC. In wartime, the FCC coordinates the use of television and radio with the national security programme. During World War II, the FCC set up a foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service that monitored enemy propaganda broadcasts. 3.5 Licensing Radio and Television Stations In licensing radio and television stations when “the public convenience, interest, or necessity will be served thereby”, the FCC must also try to allot stations among the various states and communities so as to provide a fair, efficient, and equitable distribution of radio service. The period for which licences are good is limited by law to a maximum of three years; the FCC at fist issued six-month licences for standard radio stations; now AM, FM and TV stations are licensed for three years. There is considerable agitation in the broadcast industry to amend the law to provide for five years licenses. Applicants for radio or television stations must file written statements describing their citizenship and character and their financial, technical and other qualifications to operate broadcast stations. Aliens, foreign corporations, or any corporation “of which any officer or director is an alien or of which more than one-fifth of the capital stock is owned or voted by aliens” may not obtain a station licence. Applicant for a licence must set forth: 33 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 1. The location of the proposed station. 2. The frequency and power he wants to use 3 The hours of the day during which he proposes to operate the station. 4. The purpose for which the station will be used; and 5. A full statement of his proposed programme service. To preserve competition in radio and television, the law directs the FCC not to grant licences to applicants when, by doing so, competition would be substantially reduced or commerce restrained. The commission has ruled that not more than one AM, one FM, and Seven TV (five VHF and two UHF) stations serving different areas may be licensed to or controlled by the same persons or corporations. The Commission has no direct authority to license or regulate television and radio networks. It does in fact, however, regulate networks through rules directed at stations owned by or affiliated with Network. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 List the 5 items an applicant for a licence with the FCC must state in its application. 3.6 Renewal, Revocation and Transfer of Licence At least four months before the expiration of a licence, a station must file a renewal application with the FCC. In this application the station is obliged to provide a statement of the programme service it has broadcast in the last three years. The FCC may take this record of actual programme service and compare it with the statement of proposed programme service the station made in its original application for a licence. If the FCC is satisfied that performance reasonably matches the promises, it will renew the application. If numerous complaints about the station have been made to the FCC, if the comparison between promises and performance does not show a high correlation, or if a competing application is filed, the FCC may order a public hearing on the renewal application. In this hearing, the applicant bears the burden of proving that renewal of this licence will serve the public interest. The FCC has the power to revoke a licence when the station fails to operate in accordance with the law or with FCC regulations, or substantially as it said it would in its application. In revocation proceedings, the FCC bears the burden of proving that the station is not serving the public interest. The commission hesitates to use its power of revocation because such extreme action is usually excessive punishment for most violations and prior to 1952, the commission usually limited itself to giving a sharp warning to an offending station and waiting until the licence renewal application was submitted for further action. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 When must a broadcast station file a renewal application with the FCC? 4.0 CONCLUSION The FCC regulates the radio and television industry in the United States and all National Communications Commissions of other countries are affiliates of FCC and are allocated frequencies for external broadcasting. The FCC through this function 34 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING helps bring order into the electro- magnetic spectrum. 5.0 SUMMARY The FCC was established to bring order into broadcast transmission through the Communications Act of 1934. It is directed to encourage the larger and more effective use of broadcasting in the public interest. It is in charge of renewal, revocation and transfer of licenses. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT i. What does the word ‘radio’ mean in the Communications Act of 1934? ii. Name 5 functions of the FCC. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS Hasling, John (1980) FOUNDATION of Radio Broadcasting, USA: McGraw Hill 35 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING UNIT 3 THE NIGERIAN COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION (NCC) CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Roles of NCC 3.2 The Functions of NCC 3.3 Objectives of NCC 3.4 Achievements of NCC 3.5 Powers of NCC 3.6 Issuing Of Licences 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Readings 1.0 INTRODUCTION We shall continue the examination of agencies concerned with the broadcast media through a close look at the activities of the Nigerian Communications Commission (NCC). This will help us understand its relationship with broadcasting in Nigeria. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit of study, you should be able to articulate (i) The purpose for establishing NCC (ii) The objectives of NCC (iii) The powers of NCC 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Role of NCC NCC is the acronym of Nigerian Communications Commission, a body that acts as the national regulatory authority for the telecommunication industry in Nigeria. The broad business purpose of NCC as derivable from the enabling Decree 75 of 1992 is to facilitate the private sector participation in telecommunication service delivery, coordinate and regulate the activities of the operators to ensure consistency in availability of service delivery and fair pricing. The headquarters is situated at Abuja with three Zonal Offices in Lagos, Kano and Port Harcourt. The Commission’s organizational structure has attained a structure comprising of five directorates, fourteen departments and five units under the Chief Executive Officer. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What is the role of the NCC? 36 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING 3.2 The Functions of NCC The Nigerian Communication Commission as an organization that is responsible for the growth and upliftment of telecommunication has various functions that it performs. The Nigerian Communication Commission is totally responsible for the issuing of licences to any company that wants to operate a private telecommunication. The organization also facilitates the private sector participation in the telecommunication industry, so as to enhance as many as possible competent operators that will compete favourably for progress in the communication sector. The NCC also invests in the telecommunication sector of the Nigerian Economy. With its enormous investment in the industry, the organization will have a say when it comes to matters that concern the progress of telecommunication in Nigeria. The NCC establishes and supervises the technical and operational standards and practices as well as type approval of equipment for the operators such that whatever equipment the operator has adopted, it must suit the country’s gateway carriage and must not cause any harmful interference with communications. NCC also oversees the quality of services provided by the operators and sets the terms of inter connection of different networks, NCC also ensures that the interest of the consumers of telecommunication services are protected by promoting competitive pricing of such services and combating the abuse of market power which gives room for mediating between operator, carrier and consumer. NCC is solely responsible for reporting and giving advice to the minister of communication in formulating telecommunication policies and control of the telecommunication industry. 3.3 Objectives of NCC Any standard organization has aims and objectives for its existence and the discharge of its service; the same philosophy is applied to NCC as the objectives are listed below: 1. The Nigerian Communications Commission has the objective to encourage massive investment in the telecommunication sector of the Nigerian economy, so as to give room positively. 2. Nigerian Communications Commission also has the objective of extending the available telecommunication service to all Nigerians. 3. NCC also aims at protecting those licensed and the public from unfair conduct of other providers of telecommunication service with regard to the quality of service and payment of tariffs. 4. NCC also promotes effective competition in the market and ensures fair pricing of good quality telecommunication services. 3.4 Achievements of NCC Since the birth of the organization in 1992, through to this time, the organization has done quite a lot in the telecommunication sector that can be regarded as achievements: one of which is the deregulation of the telecommunication sector. 37 MAC242 FOUNDATION OF BROADCASTING Before now, communicating in the country was one difficult thing and somewhat exclusively for the rich. NCC has issued operation licences to considerable amount of telecommunication operators and has allocated them a frequency range with which they will operate without causing any harmful interference with other operators. NCC has also made a remarkable achievement in testing the equipment of the operators before commencing operation and has been able to make telecommunication affordable. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What has the NCC achieved since its birth in 1992? 3.3 Powers Of NCC The Nigerian Communication Commission has the power to give written direction to a licencee or authorized carrier in connection with the functions of the commission solely in the interest of the commission, operators, carriers and the consumers. The Commission can also summon any person or business organization to appear before the commission when necessary for the purpose of effectively discharging its duties under the decree setting it up. It has the power to consult where appropriate with the President, commercial and industrial organizations, consumers and standard organizations as well as other relevant bodies for the purpose of delivering quality telecommunication services. It has the power to give evidence or produce any document, which is likely to assist the commission or any of its committee under the decree establishing it. It can delegate any of its powers to a committee properly constituted by the commission according to the provision of the decree. The Nigerian Communications Commission gets its fund from the sales of application forms and the issuing of licences to telecommunication service operators that wish to operate in Nigeria and another avenue for revenue generation is fees for licence renewal. 3.4 Issuing Of Licences All telecommunication service operators are required to apply to the NCC for relevant licences by obtaining the commission’s relevant application forms and to comply with requirements therein. It is responsible for issuing of licence and allocation of frequency,

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