History: Introduction and Historical Sources PDF

Lesson 1 HISTORY: INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL SOURCES ➔ History refers to the study and interpretation by a historian on the data and other sources of the past human activity, people, societies and civilizations leading to the present day. ➔ There are three important concepts in...

Lesson 1 HISTORY: INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL SOURCES ➔ History refers to the study and interpretation by a historian on the data and other sources of the past human activity, people, societies and civilizations leading to the present day. ➔ There are three important concepts in the definition: 1. History as we all know is based on past events. 2. It is interpreted by someone, usually by historians. They gather, discard and interpret the sources that they encounter. 3. History relies on data and documents which historians call historical sources. HISTORY’S SUBJECT MATTER ➔ Like other social sciences the subject matter of history is the life of people and humanity. ➔ But history has always been known as the study of the past. While this definition of history is not wrong, it is incomplete. ➔ Etymologically, the word history came from the Greek word Historia which means inquiry. ➔ Clearly the word Historia does not mean past events. It denotes asking questions or investigations of the past done by a person trained to do so or by persons who are interested in the human past. ➔ We can say that historical accounts must be based on all available relevant evidence. Therefore a version of the past that cannot be supported by the evidence is worthless. ◆ Ever heard the taong-ahas story? The half human, half snake creature that supposedly stalked the ladies room of one of the department stores in Manila. The most famous victim of this creature was supposedly the actress Alice Dixson. It happened three decades ago when Alice Dixson was only 21 years old. Because it happened in the past, would that story qualify as history? Or would that story classify as gossip or urban legend? HISTORY AND THE HISTORIAN ➔ Historian is an expert or student of history, especially that of a particular period, geographical region or social phenomenon. ➔ These historians seek not only historical evidence and facts but also to interpret these facts. He also gives meaning to these facts and organizes them chronologically. ➔ A person who must be able to recognize the evidence, decide how useful it is and come to a conclusion based on what he has found out. ➔ The historian therefore is responsible for reconstructing the past. ➔ According to Gottschalk ◆ historians are many times removed from the events under investigation. He added that only a part of what was observed in the past was remembered by those who observed it, only a part of what was remembered was recorded;  only a part of what was recorded has survived, only a part of what was survived has come to the historian's attention. ◆ Moreover only a part of what is credible has been grasped, and only a part of what has been grasped can be expounded or narrated by the historian. ➔ Some authors define history as a study of historical perspective. ➔ In reconstructing the past, a historian can be subjective; after all he is human, fallible and capable of error. ➔ People’s memories are filled with bias, self righteousness, pride, vanity, spinning, obstruction and outright lies. Each has his own frame of reference or a set of interlocking values, loyalties, assumptions, interest and principle of action. ➔ The historian is influenced by his own environment, ideology, education and influence. His interpretation of the historical fact is affected by his context and circumstances. It’s like the Indian parable of an elephant and the blind men, historians have different historical perspectives. ➔ Because certain events happened so long ago and because sometimes the evidence is incomplete, historians have different approaches and views about what happened in the past. ➔ This is the subjective nature of history, one historian claims an event happened a certain way, while another disagrees completely. The best approach is to do all we can to reconstruct as fully as possible our picture of the past. To do this, most scholars use historiography or what they call history of history. ◆ Historiography is the study of how history was written, by whom and why it was recorded as such. ◆ It is concerned with how historians have presented history. ◆ Interpretation about the past can be objective or true as long as they are free of inherent contradictions, are not contrary to the laws of nature and are based on actual remains from the time period referred to. ◆ There should also be a scientific discourse among historians on a particular controversial event. If an idea that says Jose Rizal retracted on being a mason stands up to the critique of historians who are skeptical of his retraction then the idea must be true. ◆ One big advantage of historiography is that the liars of history are usually quite transparent. ➔ Another way for a historian to be objective is to follow the historical method. It is the core protocol historians’ use for handling sources. An agreed ground rules for researching and writing academic research or professional history. ➔ An objective historian must verify sources, to date them, locate the place of origin and identify their intended functions. ➔ It is important for a historian to base their accounts on source materials. SOURCES OF HISTORY ➔ Historical sources are tangible remains of the past. ➔ It is an object from the past or testimony concerning the past on which historians depend in order to create their own depiction of the past. ➔ There are three kinds of sources namely: primary, secondary, and tertiary sources. ★ Primary sources ○ A primary source is a testimony of an individual who was a participant in or a direct witness to the event that is being described. ○ It is a document or physical object which was written or created during the time under a study. ○ Those sources were present during an experience or time period and offer an inside view of a particular event. ○ Primary sources are characterized by their content, regardless of whether they are available in original format, in microfilm, in digital format or in published format. ○ There are five main categories of primary sources. It includes written sources, numerical records, oral statements, relics, and images. Written sources or Documents. They are written or printed materials that have been produced in one form or another sometime in the past. They may be published materials such as travelogue, transcription of speech, autobiographies, journals or newspapers (La Solidaridad). They can be also in manuscript form or any handwritten or type record that has not been printed. ○ Examples of these are archival materials, memoirs, diary, personal letter or correspondence. ○ Travelogue ○ Newspaper ○ Archival material ○ Memoir Numerical records It includes any type of numerical data in printed or handwritten form. ○ Printed numerical graph Oral Statements It includes any form of statement made orally by an eyewitness. It may be through video recordings, audio recordings, or transcribed. ○ “My first day was a scary one. There was a patient whose earlobes were so long…he had no nose, only two holes on his face, and no fingers, only the palm of his hands…the other patients were in different stages of deformity.” Sr. Maria Luisa Montenegro, SPC 1940  ○ Oral statement of an eyewitness to the Culion Leper Colony ○ A person interviewing an eyewitness Relics Any objects whose physical or visual characteristics can provide some information about the past. These include artifacts, ruins and fossils. ○ Artifacts (Balanginga Bells) ○ Ruins ○ Fossil (Callao man) Images It includes photographs, posters, paintings, drawing cartoons and maps. ○ Photograph (Bud Dajo Massacre) ○ Painting ○ Cartoon ○ Map (Murillo Velarde map c.1734) ★ Secondary Sources ○ A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. ○ These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. ○ It is prepared by an individual who was not a direct witness to an event, but not who obtained his or her description of the event from someone else. ○ Secondary sources may have pictures, votes or graphics of primary sources in them. ○ Some types of secondary sources are history textbook, printed materials (serials or periodicals which interpret preview research), biographies, nonfiction text such as newspaper, magazine, journals, works of criticism and interpretation. ★ Tertiary Source ○ It provides third hand information by reporting ideas and details from secondary sources. ○ An eyewitness is more reliable than testimony at second hand, which is more reliable than hearsay or tertiary sources. ○ This does not mean that tertiary sources have no value, merely that they include potential for an additional layer of bias. Some examples of this kind of source are encyclopaedias, almanac, Wikipedia, YouTube, dictionaries, message boards, social media sites and other search sites. Lesson 2: HISTORICAL CRITICISMS A. DEFINITION ➔ It is also known as the historical-critical method. ➔ Historical criticism is a branch of criticism that investigates the origin of text or source in order to understand the word behind the text. ➔ The primary goal of historical criticism is to discover the text's primitive or original historical context and its literal sense. ➔ The secondary goal seeks to establish a reconstruction of the historical situation of the author and recipients of the text. ➔ Moreover, in order for a source to be used as evidence in history, basic matters about its form and context must be settled. ➔ These are two types of historical criticism namely: a. external criticism (investigates the documents form) b. internal criticism (investigates the content of the documents) B. ADDITIONAL GOAL OF HISTORICAL CRITICISM ➔ Historical criticism seeks greater understanding of the texts by analyzing the historical and social contexts in which they developed. ➔ The goal of historical criticism, traditionally, has been to try to understand the text’s meaning in its original context and to answer questions about the text, such as: ◆ Who wrote it? ◆ When was it written? ◆ What else is happening at the time of its writing? ◆ How did it come to be in the form we have it today? ◆ What did it mean to the people who first read or heard it? ➔ Historical criticism has also often sought answers to the ever-elusive question of what is called “authorial intent”: ◆ What did the author intend for this text to mean in his or her time and place? (http://queergrace.com/historical-criticism/) C. EXTERNAL CRITICISM ➔ This type of criticism looks for the obvious sign of forgery or misrepresentation. ➔ This type of criticism tests the authenticity of the sources. ➔ It is interested in the writing styles of the eyewitness and his ignorance of the facts. ➔ The historian also analyzes the original manuscript; its integrity, localization and the date it was written. ➔ To ascertain if a particular data is fabricated, forged, fake, corrupted or a hoax, that source must undergo the test of authenticity. ➔ Since external criticism is concerned with the explicit sign of misrepresentation, it is the first test the historian employs to ascertain sources validity. D. TEST OF AUTHENTICITY ➔ The first step to test a source is to determine the date of the document to see whether it is anachronistic.  ◆ Anachronism means out of time or order, something that could not have been there at that particular time. ◆ It could be a person, thing or idea placed at the wrong time. Being able to spot anachronism is important because it helps us test the reliability of a source. If a source is unreliable then we probably should not use it. Example can be found in Rizal’s allegedly first poem “ Sa Aking Mga Kabata” where we could find the word “kalayaan”. Rizal admitted that he first encountered the word through Marcelo H. Del Pilar’s translation of Rizal’s essay “ El Amor Patrio”. Rizal wrote this essay in 1882 while the poem supposedly was written by him in the year 1869. ➔ The second step is to determine the author’s handwriting, signature or seal. ◆ We can compare the handwriting of a particular author to his other writings. ◆ Obvious signs of forgery include patch writing, hesitation as revealed by ink blobs, pauses in the writing, tremor causing poor line quality and erasures. However, some people are highly skilled in imitating others' handwriting. ◆ Even a skilled forger can be caught because the act of writing is a skill learned through repetition until it becomes a habit. Thus, there is natural variation in everyone's handwriting. In addition, no one can duplicate all of the intricate subconscious writing habits of another in an extended writing sample. Example of this is the handwriting in the alleged retraction letter of Jose Rizal. ➔ The third test in determining the authenticity of the source is by looking for the anachronistic style. ◆ In this test we will examine idiomatic expressions or the orthography used in the documents. ◆ An idiom is an expression, word or phrase that has a figurative meaning conventionally understood by native speakers. When we say ‘break a leg’ we all know that it means good luck. ◆ Orthography is a set of conventions for writing a language. It includes norms of spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks, emphasis and punctuation. ➔ The fourth test is the anachronistic reference to events. For example if the event cited in the document is prior to the actual event, then the document must be forged or fake. ➔ The fifth test of authenticity is the provenance or custody of the document. ◆ Provenance is the place of origin of the earliest known history of documents. It traces the roots of any source. ➔ The other two tests of authenticity are the semantics and hermeneutics. ◆ Semantics is the linguistic study of meaning. In this test semantics determine the meaning of the text and words of the source. We may ask: is the meaning of the statements different from its literal meaning?  ◆ Hermeneutics on the other hand is theory and methodology of interpretation. Hermeneutics is more than interpretation or method used when immediate comprehension fails. ➔ In historical criticism we determine ambiguities which are a word or expression that can be understood in two or more possible ways. Historians may also look if the statement is meant to be ironic (i.e. mean other than what it says). E. INTERNAL CRITICISM ➔ This type of criticism looks for deeper or more intense study of sources. Usually historians first apply external criticism before undergoing the test of credibility because of internal criticisms implicit character. ➔ It is important that the document must be verisimilar or as close as what really happened from a critical examination of best available resources. ➔ It refers to the accuracy of the content of a document. ➔ Internal criticism has to do with what the document says. It investigates the content or substance of a document and the author’s point of view. ➔ This type of criticism tests the credibility of the source. F. TEST OF CREDIBILITY ➔ The first step is the identification of the author. ◆ It determines if the witness is reliable or if he is consistent by comparing his other works. ◆ In these steps historians also examine the mental processes of the witness, if he is capable of telling the truth, or if he is mentally challenged. ◆ Finally we will look for his personal attitudes, if he is telling something beyond what he saw or bragging about it. ◆ Many historians use some kind of rubric to test the credibility of the author. ➔ The second step in testing the credibility of the eyewitness is to determine the approximate date. Example of this is again Rizal’s poem “Sa aking mga kabata”. He wrote that poem when he was only eight years old and that poem is with rhythm and meter. To think that when Rizal was 8 years old the primary education in the Philippines was nonexistent. ➔ The third step in testing the credibility of the source is its ability to tell the truth. ◆ Historians examine how near an eyewitness is to the event. ◆ The closer a source is to the event which it purports to describe, the more one can trust it to give an accurate historical description of what actually happened Historians also look for the competence of the eyewitness. ◆ Basically they look for the background of the author like education, health, age or social status. ◆ The last test for this step is the degree of the attention of the eyewitness. Whether the sources witness the event only partly or if he witnesses the event from the start to finish.  ➔ The fourth step is the willingness to tell the truth. If the eyewitness is coerced, forced or somebody threatens him to tell something then his account is not valid. ◆ If the eyewitness wants to hide something for personal reasons. ➔ The last step is to look for corroboration. This particular step rests upon the independent testimony of two or more reliable sources. The words independent testimony must be emphasized. ◆ For instance, if the soldier who fought the battle, a general who oversaw the battle and a doctor who treated those wounded who fought the battle, all recorded the same fact or all agree that historians consider that event proven. Main CONTENT AND CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF Topic II: SELECTED PRIMARY SOURCES A. BACKGROUND OF THE AUTHOR/CREATOR ➔ First the researcher must provide a brief biographical sketch of the author or creator of the primary source. ➔ Family background, educational attainment, religion and many others shall be given priority in presenting the biography of the author. Special attention must also be given to the first four steps of the test of credibility discussed in the previous module. B. BACKGROUND OF THE DOCUMENT/PRIMARY SOURCE ➔ Basic background of the source like the type of primary source, how many parts or chapter, how long is the document shall be given attention. ➔ Next is to locate where the primary source can be found. ➔ The repository of primary sources may be found in the library, archive, museum, historical society or special collection of private individuals. ◆ To check the authenticity of the source, check the provenance or origin of the said document. ➔ Determine also the intended audience or the people the author wants to convey their ideas with. If it is a letter the recipient in the address will be the audience while if it is a diary the author is the audience. ◆ While it is easy to determine the audience of the aforementioned sources, most of the time you have to guess. What to do? A researcher must find out who the creator and the time of creation. ◆ Most of the sources have a unique type of audience like academic journals are for students and other university audiences or books are for the general public. ➔ Next task is to look for the purpose or motive of the source. How do you discover the purpose or the reason it was originally made? First understand the historical context. ➔ Next is to do background research. Then look at important historical events at the time the source was made.  ➔ Finally ascertain the intended audience. C. CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE IMPORTANT HISTORICAL INFORMATION FOUND IN THE DOCUMENT ➔ First look for corroboration between the research you gather from the internet and the primary source that your instructor has given to you. ◆ They may not use exactly the same word or they can express the same information in different ways and we can still use it as corroboration. ◆ Look also if your source agrees with information from another source. Attention also must be given to the intended audience and purpose. ➔ Next, in order to analyze the primary source, look for bias. There is a bias when a source’s information is unbalanced or prejudiced. ◆ There are two kinds of bias: strongly positive (strongly in favor of) strongly negative (strongly against). ◆ If you’re looking for a bias in a written source you’ll need to find word choices that are extreme in their description. ◆ If it is a visual source you’re looking for a depiction that is clearly exaggeration ➔ Most of the primary source we will encounter is written documents so we will focus our attention on that kind of primary source. How can we find bias in word choices? If it is too positive that provides little negative information then there is an extreme positive bias. Example of this is the Gunita ng Himagsikan by Emilio Aguinaldo. It too much negativity that provide little positive information on the person, then there is extreme negativity. Example of this is the Filipino Grievances Against General Leonard Wood. If the document is silent or when the source intentionally leaves important information of which you are aware from other sources. Example of this silent bias is the Declaration of the Philippine Independence. The author of this document intentionally leaves important information about the Katipunan. The last is if there are obvious errors or when the source provides information that you know to be false from alternative sources. ◆ How do you point out the bias in your analysis? First provide a direct quote. Then explain the creator’s perspective and lastly explain the creator's purpose. ➔ Next is to analyze the historical perspective or a point of view a creator describes the event. ◆ To accomplish this, do a background check of the author with regards to his nationality, social status, political persuasion, cultural background, religion or education. ➔ Last task is to analyze the historical context of the document. ◆ Context is the awareness that sources were created at times which were very different to our own. ◆ Historical empathy understands the past without judging it by modern standards.  To determine historical context, we must look when the source is made (preferably the exact date). Next is where it was created. Third, what event occurred at the time and then read the source to identify specific language D. CONTRIBUTION AND RELEVANCE OF THE DOCUMENT IN UNDERSTANDING THE GRAND NARRATIVE OF PHILIPPINE HISTORY ➔ In this activity look for the cause and consequences of the primary sources. A cause is a person or thing that makes something happen while a consequence is a direct result of the cause. ◆ Example is the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan. That event is the cause while being converted to Catholicism is the effect or the consequence. ➔ In this part of the analysis look also for the turning point or dramatic moment of change that was caused by the event or primary source. E. RELEVANCE OF THE DOCUMENTS TO THE PRESENT TIME. ➔ Look for the historical significance or what modern people consider to be important from the past. There are many events in our history we have to choose but few people, events or ideas to focus on. ➔ Since significance is a decision we make, it means different people can decide different things, particularly the most important. ➔ They can also disagree about the reason why a particular event is important. How to determine the significance of the event? ➔ We have to follow the acronym or Novelty, Applicability, Memory and Effect. NAME ◆ Novelty or when something is new or never been seen before. Example is when Cory Aquino became President; it is significant because she is the first female president of the Philippines. ◆ Applicability or when it is similar to the present. The Spanish Flu of 1918 suddenly became an important topic because of Covid-19. ◆ Memory or how it has been remembered over time. Typhoon Yolanda is remembered because it is the strongest weather disturbance that hit the country. ◆ Lastly the Effect or how people have been affected. Taal Volcanic Eruption is significant particularly in Batangas area because many were affected. Main Topic III: ONE PAST BUT MANY HISTORIES THE FIRST MASS SITE IN THE PHILIPPINES - Background of the Author - Antonio Pigafetta ★ Francisco Antonio Pigafetta or Antonio Lombardo ★ Born between the 1480s and 1490s Native Vicenza Republic of Venice in Italy ★ Parents: Giovani Pigafetta and Angela Zoga  ★ The eldest child among his siblings of 2 ★ He had an aunt named Elisabetta who married Valerio Chierecati ★ Died in 1531 Chiericati - Educational Background: ★ He is an Italian researcher and explorer. ★ He studied the following: Astronomy Geography Cartography ➔ According to Pigafetta, the first Mass was celebrated on March 31, 1521, an Easter Sunday. Pigafetta referred to the venue as “Mazaua.” ◆ Pigafetta pronounce Limasawa as “Mazaua” ➔ Some say that the venue is the island of Limasawa in Leyte. Others, however, claim that Pigafetta was referring to Masao, the community at the mouth of Agusan River adjacent to what is now the city of Butuan. Nearing 500 years since the first Mass, debates continue whether it was held on Limasawa Island, in Agusan or somewhere else. ➔ At the end of the voyage, Pigafetta was on board the last ship among the five, the Victoria, which made it back to Spain. Pigafetta kept a detailed journal, the original of which is lost; this caused the situation where what language used to write the libretto to be unknown. ➔ His libretto, The First Voyage Around the World, was originally for the Spaniards as documentation of the expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan, but it also serves as an important piece of literature in studying Philippine History. ➔ What is the Motive of the Author? ◆ Antonio Pigafetta's primary reason for writing the document is to discover and learn more about the world. He desired to record details and account information about their journey or expedition. 1. Readings - Primary sources - Antonio Pigafetta. First Voyage Around the World - Francisco Albo Logbook 2. Reading - Secondary sources - Bernad, Miguel A. Butuan or Limasawa? - The Site of the First Mass in the Philippines: A Reexamination of the Evidence. - Kinaadman: A Journal of Southern Philippines, vol. III (1981) pp 1-35 THE TWO FACES OF THE 1872 CAVITE MUTINY Two major events happened in 1872: ➔ First was the 1872 Cavite Mutiny ➔ The martyrdom of the three martyr priests in the persons of Fathers Mariano Gomes, Jose Burgos and Jacinto Zamora (GOMBURZA). ◆ However, not all of us knew that there were different accounts in reference to the said event. All Filipinos must know the different sides of the story—since this event led to another tragic yet meaningful part of our history—the  execution of GOMBURZA which in effect was a major factor in the awakening of nationalism among the Filipinos. ➔ What was the real reason for the Cavite Mutiny? ◆ The Cavite Mutiny is the aim of the natives to get rid of the Spanish government in the Philippines, due to the removal of privileges enjoyed by the laborers of the Cavite arsenal such as exemption from the tribute and forced labor. ➔ What happened during the Cavite Mutiny of 1872? ◆ Cavite Mutiny, (January 20, 1872), the brief uprising of 200 Filipino troops and workers at the Cavite arsenal, became an excuse for Spanish repression of the embryonic Philippine nationalist movement. Ironically, the harsh reaction of the Spanish authorities served ultimately to promote the nationalist cause. 1. Readings - Primary sources - Montero y Vidal, Jose, “Spanish Version of the Cavite Mutiny of 1872” in Gregorio F. Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Vol.7 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990) 269-273 - Izquierdo, Rafael, “ Official Report on the Cavite Mutiny” in Gregorio F. Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Vol.7 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990) 281-286 - Pardo de Tavera, Trinidad, “ Filipino Version of the Cavite Mutiny” in Gregorio F. Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Vol.7 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990) 274-280 - Plauchut, Edmund, The Cavite Mutiny of 1872 and the Martyrdom of Gom-BurZa” in Gregorio F. Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Vol.7 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990) 251-268 CRY OF BALINTAWAK OR PUGADLAWIN? ➔ The controversy among historians continues to the present day. ➔ The “Cry of Pugad Lawin” (August 23, 1896) cannot be accepted as historically accurate. It lacks positive documentation and supporting evidence from the witness. The testimony of only one eyewitness (Dr. Pio Valenzuela) is not enough to authenticate and verify a controversial issue in history. Historians and their living participants, not politicians and their sycophants, should settle this controversy. 1. Readings- Primary Source - Valenzuela, Pio, “Cry of Pugadawin” in Gregorio F. Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Vol.8 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990) 301-302 - Alvarez, Santiago, “Cry of Bahay Toro” in Gregorio F. Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Vol.8 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990) 303-304 - De Jesus, Gregoria, “ Version of the First Cry” in Gregorio F. Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Vol.8 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990) 305-306  - Masangkay, Guillermo, “Cry of Balintawak” in Gregorio F. Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Vol.8 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990) 307-309 2. Reading Secondary Source - Guerrero, Milagros C. et.al. Balintawak : The Cry for a Nationwide Revolution POSITION PAPER ➔ an essay that presents an arguable opinion about an issue typically that of the author or some specified entity. ➔ The goal of a position paper is to convince the audience that your opinion is valid and defensible. Ideas that you are considering need to be carefully examined in choosing a topic, developing your argument, and organizing your paper. ➔ The purpose of a position paper is to generate support for an issue. It is based on facts that provide a solid foundation for your argument. FIVE STEPS TO WRITING STRONG POSITION PAPER ➔ In a position paper assignments, your charge is to choose a side on a particular topic, sometimes controversial, and build up a case for your opinion or position. ➔ You will use facts, opinion, statistics, and other forms of evidence to convince your reader that your position is the best one. ➔ To do this, you’ll collect research for your position paper and craft an outline in order to create a well-constructed argument. ➔ Collect Supporting Evidence ◆ Once you’ve determined that your position is supportable and the opposite position is (in your opinion) weaker than your own, you are ready to branch out with your research. ◆ Go to a library and conduct a search, or ask the reference librarian to help you find more sources. ◆ You can, of course, conduct online research as well, but it’s important to know how to properly vet the validity of the sources you use. ◆ Ensure that your articles are written by reputable sources, and be wary of singular sources that differ from the norm, as these are often subjective rather than factual in nature. ➔ Try to collect a variety of sources, and include both an expert’s opinion (doctor, lawyer, or professor, for example) and personal experience (from a friend or family member) that can add an emotional appeal to your topic. ◆ These statements should support your own position but should be read differently than your own words. The point of these is to add depth to your argument or provide anecdotal support. A position paper can be arranged in the following format: 1. Introduce your topic with some basic background information. Build up to your thesis sentence, which asserts your position. Sample points:  ★ For decades, the FDA has required that warning labels should be placed on certain products that pose a threat to public health. ★ Fast food restaurants are bad for our health. ★ Fast food packages should contain warning labels. 2. Introduce possible objections to your position. Sample points: ★ Such labels would affect the profits of major corporations. ★ Many people would see this overreaching government control. ★ Whose job is it to determine which restaurants are bad? Who draws the line? ★ The program would be costly. 3. Support and acknowledge the opposing points. Just be sure aren’t discrediting your own views. Sample points: ★ It would be difficult and expensive for any entity to determine which restaurants should adhere to the policy. ★ Nobody wants to see the government overstepping its boundaries. ★ Funding would fall on the shoulders of taxpayers. 4. Explain that your position is still the best one, despite the strength of counter-arguments. This is where you can work to discredit some of the counter-arguments and support your own. Sample points: ★ The cost would be countered by the improvement of public health. ★ Restaurants might improve the standards of food if warning labels were put into place. ★ One role of the government is to keep citizens safe. ★ The government already does this with drugs and cigarettes. 5. Summarize your argument and restate your position. End your paper focusing on your argument and avoid the counter-arguments. You want your audience to walk away with your view on the topic being one that resonates with them. When you write a position paper, write with confidence and state your opinion with authority. After all, your goal is to demonstrate that your position is the correct one.