Lulu Oaten Ancient History Notes on Pompeii and Herculaneum PDF
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Lulu Oaten's notes for a podcast about the ancient Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The notes describe the geographical setting, natural resources, and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.
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About Campania: - Approximately 200 km south of Rome - Located on the coast of the Bay of Naples → harbour allowed for trade (imports and exports) - River Sarno flows into the Bay of Naples - Weather conditions could be favourable - Mediterranean climate...
About Campania: - Approximately 200 km south of Rome - Located on the coast of the Bay of Naples → harbour allowed for trade (imports and exports) - River Sarno flows into the Bay of Naples - Weather conditions could be favourable - Mediterranean climate - Incredible scenery ue to the location of Pomepii on the side of Vesuvius, the soil was incredibly fertile. Vines covered the side of D Vesuvius. Lava spurs meant that both Pomepii and Herculaneum were built on top of these larger spurs. Physical setting: - Mt Vesuvius is part of a chain of Volcanoes which includes Mt Etna and Mt Stromboli - Earthquakes and tremors were common - The people of the Campanian region had adapted to their geographical landscape, established and agricultural vase, used the natural resources of the Sarno River and rich volcanic soil to produce a staple food supply to support farmers and six settlements: Misenium, Stabiar, Sarno, Nocera, Pomepii, and Herculaneum - Climate- temperate with cooling coastal breezes in summer and short winters - Near Vesuvius was an area known as the Phlegraean Fields (burning fields) where geothermal activity was common. It produces steam and bubbling mud. The Romans built hot spas/health resorts in the area at Baia. Natural Resources: - Fishing (garum) - Sea salt used to preserved food - Grain - Vineyards produced wine and olives - Olive oil - Wheat - Barley - Vegetables (cabbage and chickpeas) - Fruits (figs and olives) - Sheep and goats (wool, an important export) eneral: G Vesuvius erupted in two phases with a brief lull between them. 1. ‘Plinian’ phase that produced a rain of pumice and ash 2. ‘Peléan’ phase of devastating pyroclastic surges and flows. - he Romans didn't realise it was a volcano T - Earthquake 17 years before the eruption was a precursor to the eruption - 79 AD force was equivalent to 100s of Hiroshima bombs - At least 5000 people died in Pompeii - Being in Herculaneum → could see the eruption, without being covered by it 2 4 August. Late morning - A number of small explosions were heard (phreatomagmatic explosions) Early afternoon (Plinean phase) - bout 1pm - Vesuvius erupted emitting a gigantic ash column resembling an ‘umbrella pine’→ millions A and millions of tons of debris. White frothy pumice carried to fall on Pompeii 9km to the south, and a light dusting on Herculaneum - 5-6pm- Buildings began to collapse. Some fled, others took refuge inside buildings - 8pm- Magma composition changed to grey pumice (tephritic phonolite) discharging at 150 000 tonnes per second, carried to heights of 32-33 km This was followed by a brief lull. 2 5 August. 1-2.15am (most devastating phase of the eruption- Peléan phase) - The towering column started collapse under its own weight, generating the first two of a series of six lethal avalanches of red-hot volcanic debris and gases (pyroclastic surges and flows) - Surges 1 & 2 overwhelmed Herculaneum. S1 blasted through Herculaneum with the force of a hurricane, killing most of the people immediately. S2 was hotter and more powerful, and responsible for the widespread destruction of buildings (buried it in some parts to the depth of a four story building. These two pyroclastic surges completely destroyed Herculaneum, sealing it fully. 2.15 - 6.30am - Grey pumice continued to fall as the column again rose to about 30 km - Lull at Pompeii- allowed some to leave for shelter and escape to the south 6.30-8am - The column collapsed, and within hours, surges 3-6 overwhelmed the countryside - S3 reached the north wall of Pompeii - S4-6 covered the whole town and killed all who remained - S6 covered the city with 90-110cm of material and knocked down all walls protruding above the pumice layers of the first phase. S6 reached as far south as Stabiae 8am+ - A final fall of pumice, followed by the collapse of the caldera and some final phreatomagmatic activity ompeii: P Giuseppe Fiorelli - Inspector of Excavations at P in 1860 - He is known as a pioneer of modern technology because of the methods he introduced at P Numbering Houses & Buildings → introduced by Fiorelli - He divided P into 9 regions, each containing up to 22 blocks or insulae, and numbered the entrance to each building in each block. Buildings were identified by 3 numbers - region, block, & entrance - This system made it easier for archaeologists to accurately record where objects were found - Fiorelli also gave names to the streets and city gates Systematic Excavation - Under Fiorelli → he removed debris from earlier excavations, and approached new excavations according to a plan, rather than randomly searching for special projects - He carefully andcompletelyuncovered each building within a block before moving on to the next block Top-down Excavation - Before Fiorelli, most buildings → excavated from the side - This often resulted in the destruction of the walls and other valuable evidence - Fiorelli introduced top-down excavation which did less damage to wall structures and made it possible to identity and record evidence which could be used in restoration Plaster Casts - iorelli → observed cavities in the hardened ash deposit left by the decomposed bodies or objects F made from organic materials - Guisseppe Fiorello → poured plaster of paris into the holes within Pomepii’s ruins → revealed the imprints of the deceased human and animal bodies, and impressions of wooden furniture and fitting August Mau - A german archaeologist originally working on the inscriptions from P - Main interest → art and architecture - He made a study of the frescoes of P and classified them into 4 styles - He also provided a date range for each style which aided in the dating of buildings au’s classification of Pompeian Wall Painting: M First Style (175-80 BCE) - Masonry style. It was painted to look like stone or marble. ond style (80-10 BCE) - Architectural style. Created a 3d illusions columns etc Third style (10 BCE--50 CE) - Ornamental style usually showing a mythological painting. The wall was divided up into zones and panels Fourth style (50-79 CE) - Intricate style using bright colours. This style is common amongst the paintings found in Pompeii and Herculaneum (Generally combined style 2 and 3) This classification is still used today. Vittorio Spinazzola - Superintendent of Excavations at P between 1911 & 1924 - Spinzazolla excavated streetscapes to reveal the external appearance of buildings - He excavated systematically and carefully. - He excavated a considerable length of one of the main streets- via dell’ Abbondanza (street of Abundance) - He carefully restored the facades of the buildings, revealing houses, shops, taverns and workshops → and exposed lead pipes (part of the aqueducts system) - Spinazolla used evidence from the remains of buildings and paintings of Roman houses to reconstruct upper storeys and balconies which had been destroyed during the eruption. Methods - He used photography to record the stages of his excavation (source of archival photographs) - These photographs have provided valuable information for conservators working to repair 20th century damage to buildings from theft, vandalism, war, earthquakes and exposure to the elements Amedeo Maiuri - Superintendent of excavations from 1924-1961 - Oversaw the most extensive period of excavation - Was interrupted by the Allied bombing of Pompeii in WWII - He uncovered significant areas including a number of insulae along the via dell’Abbondanza, the amphitheatre and the large palaestra - He was also interested in P’s pre-Roman history - Excavated right around the walls of P and established the sequence of construction - Uncovered the cemetery along the southern wall - He excavated several large houses including the Villa of the Mysteries and the estate of Julia Felix - Attracted lots of tourist to Pompeii and made it well-known internationally Controversy - Maiuri used mechanical equipment to clear away debris from earlier excavations and to assist in the areas that been considered too hard to excavate - He protected some excavated buildings by buildings roofs over them (Julia Felix) - Criticised for how rushed his work was and the lack of documentation - Some excavated buildings were unprotected and unrecorded - Wall paintings in such buildings faded without ever being recorded Fausto Zevi - Halted excavations, concentrated instead of protecting and conserving - Photographed wall paintings and mosaic floors Pietro Giovanni Guzzo (1999) → “Moratorium on excavations” - Attracted international teams to carry out specialist projects 1. N eoclassicism- movement in the decorative & visual arts, theatre, music and architecture that drew its inspiration from Ancient Greece and Rome 2. Romanticism- an artistic, literary, musical, and intellectual movement characterised by its emphasis on emotion, imagination, individualism, and glorification of the past and nature - omantic artists- recorded what they felt rather than what they saw R - Heavy romanticisation of the event - Grisly scenes, complete with skeletal remains, were often staged (conveniently discovered) for visiting dignitaries - Used as a powerful metaphor for ‘death’s abrupt invasion’ Modern representations: - Documentaries - “Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time” (2013) BBC Documentary. Focuses on the sites archaeological discoveries, daily roman life, and the eruption of Mt Vesuvius - Museums and exhibitions- The British Museum’s Pompeii and Herculaneum Exhibition (2013) One of the most famous exhibitions- detailed views of life, artefacts, multimedia presentations, and reconstructions - Tourism and virtual experiences One of the few ways to see an accurate modern depiction of the site. Many virtual guides can also be found on youtube. Plans & Streetscapes of P & H Intro - either site has been completely excavated and it is unlikely that they will be as a result of their N proximity to urban development. - Both towns = long rectangular residential blocks (insulae), separated by narrow streets which ran at right angles through the traffic thoroughfare - Insuale blocks varied in size = from 850 - 5,500 square metres Buildings in insulae: - Luxurious suburban villas (occasionally covered an entire insulae) - ented flats R - Bath houses - Shops - Taverns - Workshops ompeii P Basic info - The larger of the two sites → approx 60 hectares (45 have been excavated) - Larger resort and residential town → grander scale, port and trade, forum, temples, markets, administrative and commercial buildings - 3.5km of surrounding walls - 8 gateways - Lavishly decorated and adorned with various protective gods and goddesses - 1st AD- walls were no longer needed. South west corner demolished and replaced with terrace housing - Narrow footpaths- higher than road - Stepping stones (muck in street) - Single stone streets (one way) - Carts could still pass over the stepping stones, some designed specifically taller to stop carts from entering pedestrian areas - Wider roads Pompeii’s gates: 1. The Vesuvio and the Capua Gates (north side) 2. Marina gate (west side) 3. Herculaneum gate (north-west) 4. Nola and Sarno gates (east side) 5. Gates of Nocera and Stabiae (south side) Pompeii’s roads: - Major roads running East to West-Upper and Lower Decumanus - Minor roads running North to South-Cardo Maximus erculaneum H Basic info - Located on a headland between two inlets- had a town wall and sea wall - Estimated covered approx 20 hectares (4.5 have been excavated) - Smaller resort and residential town with fewer public and commercial buildings (some may be buried) - Fewer ruts (wear and tear on roads)- less traffic, quieter area - Cleaner town + roads → better drainage system - Stepping stones not provided for residents (no need as clean streets) Role of the Forum - conomic/commercial, religious, and political centre of Pompeii E - Main industries: olive oil, wine, garum, perfume, textiles (dyeing) - Many small businesses e.g bakeries, wine shops, capone and thermopolia Religious buildings 1. Temple of Jupiter = Capitolium a. The triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva= worshipped in the temple from mid century BCE as the capital gods 2. Temple of Apollo a. Primary god- healing, music, and the sun 3. Temple of Vespasian a. Aka the sanctuary to the Genius (spirit) of Augustus b. Worship of deceased emperors c. Marble altar in middle of the room = with decoration depicting a ritual sacrifice of a bull 4. Temple of the Lares a. Believed to be build AFTER 62 CE earthquake b. Worship the Lares (protective gods of Pompeii) perhaps as a gesture to appease the gods (after natural disaster) c. Altar stands in the centre of the building Administrative Buildings 1. The Basilica a. One of the oldest buildings in Pompeii b. Economic centre → housed law courts c. Decorated with 28 fluted ionic columns (Greek influence) = 11 metres high d. Town magistrates (duumviri) sat on a raised stage, were judges of legal cases 2. The Comitium a. Voting took place b. Citizens would enter through the five doors from the Forum, and exit into the Via dell’Abbondanza 3. The Municipal Buildings a. South of Forum → three buildings linked with administration b. Suggested one buildings → curia where Decurions met to discuss council matters c. Two other buildings → suggested to be Office of the Duumviris and the Office of the Aediles Commercial Buildings 1. The Macellum a. Open air market → fresh fish b. Centre of building → tholos (made up of columns + conical roof) 2. Granary a. Multi room storehouse for grain b. Stored amphora/e 3. The Building of Eumachia a. Built by the public priestess Eumachia & dedicated to Augustan Concord and Piety (harmony and devotion) b. A statue of Eumachia → back of building c. Inscription says = the fullers, who were dryers and clothing makers, had dedicated the statue in her honour d. Building is linked to the wool industry e. Could have been wool market or meeting place for the Fuller’s guild The Mensa Ponderaria he Mensa Ponderaria was a system of measurement. It consisted of a table, with a marble slab complete with T nine circular indents in which foodstuffs could be inspected and measured. Trade, Commerce, Industries, and Occupations Agriculture and Fishing - Agriculture was the most respectable way of earning a living - gardens (horti)within the walls of Pompeii provided the raw materials (wine, olive oil, cereals, fruit, vegetables, meat and wool) for much of the retail and industrial workforce. - valued crustaceans, molluscs and fish, the latter also used for making the garumor fish sauce for which Pompeii was renowned - Garum - source of wealth Grapes and Olives - ine and oil were the principal sources of income W - The commercial cultivation of vines and olives was mainly attributed to the more privileged classes, - due to the cost of wine and olive presses, + lengthy gap of waiting between the planting and first harvest of the crops- - A trapeta was used for the initial round of oil pressing, to separate the flesh from the pip (to prevent a bitter taste) - Wine press- torcular - Wines were brought in from countryside farms when they were in demand - Due to mild climates, wine was usually buried underground in jars, in order to protect them from any unfavourable weather. - Oil used for cooking, lighting, in public baths and gymnasia, ingredient in perfume Thermopolia - he Thermopolia = type of food bars (‘fast food’) T - also operated similar to a grocery store - Provided less wealthy Pompeians with a sense of community + a simple way to eat if they had smaller houses or kitchens - Food taken away or eaten standing up Via dell’abbondanza - p resence of ancient shops through the close study of their facades - the wide openings onto the street - lengthy stone indent (where a wooden shutter would have slid back and forth to open and close the shops) - provided an indication to the building’s history as commercial establishments. ulleries F 18 scattered through Pompeii, 4 were large Identified by a number of interconnected basins or tanks with built in steps for rinsing, washing ne dried → cloth bleached with sulphur + dyed O Urine = essential → provided the levels of ammonia they believed necessary to properly remove stains from the dirty clothes. - Camel urine was preferred, but human urine was mostly used - In such high demand, laundries often encouraged men to supply urine by filling a range of collection jugs outside these establishments - Tax was placed on urine collection- an indicator of its prevalence in the industry. Brothels/prostitution - No stigma attached for men - Wealthy men could invite a prostitute to their home - Those who engaged in sex for payment were stigmatised- given name lupa (she-wolf) - Criteria classically used to identify brothels (lupanar)- a masonry bed in a small room, sexual graffiti, presence of erotic paintings - Prostitutes mostly foreigners and lower class - Cost- 16 to 2 asses - Registered with the aediles and 23 april each year was set aside as a holiday for them Main factors that determined place: - Citizenship status - Place of birth - Freedom - Amount of wealth - City or country dwelling Freeborn men: - Had full legal rights - Could hold political office - Controlled public finances, spaces, and religion - Received honorary statues and tombs - Could be members of town council - Had privileged seats in amphitheatre and theatre - Included wealthy landowners and businessmen Freeborn women: - Could not hold formal political office - Under legal controls of fathers and husbands - Could own property/conduct business - Held priesthoods - Constructed buildings and tombs - Received honorary status + tombs Freedmen: - Men freed from slavery - Often worked for former masters (clientele system) - Couldn’t hold formal political office - Voting allowed - Became wealthy + influential - Participate in some religious cults - Could become a Augustiles Freedwomen: - Couldn’t hold any political position - Some worked for former masters - Women freed from slavery Slaves: - pproximately 40% of the population of Pompeii A - Little evidence of their lives remains - Few houses had separate slave quarters - Domestic work - common - Few tombstones attributed to slaves Client Relations: - Patron assisted client from lower social class → e.g help with legal matters, give food - In return got favours → e.g support in elections - Emperor = ‘super patron’ over Roman world → individuals, family, town all paid homage and gave allegiance - Every morning clients would flock to their patron’s house to pay their respects (salutatio) omen: W More freedom in P + H than in Rome Roles of Women: - Running a household - Bringing up children - Actively engaged in public life - Made public decorations supporting politicians - Controlling finances - Could not vote - Business owners Public Women 1. Poppaea Sabina → wealthy, married emperor Nero, owned nearby villa 2. Eumachia → business woman, owned large public building in Forum- used as political leverage for son, priesthood of Venus 3. Julia Felix → wealthy land owner, estate, unmarried orking Women W Work for less wealthy women: - Statia owned bakery, Asellina tavern owner, Specula cloth trade - Servants, cooks, cleaners, prostitutes Gaps in our knowledge - everyday politics → specifics are not known - how and where government business was conducted on a daily basis - exactly how annual city elections were held ocal government organisation L Split into three groups: - Magistrates (executive) - 4 elected - 2 duumviri - 2 aediles - both had a one year term (July - July) - had to be a male citizen over 25 and wealthy, with a good reputation - aediles = junior magistrate - public and religious buildings, enforcing public order, sponsoring events - d uumviri = senior/chief magistrate, justice system (curia), census (lectio) every 5 years, sponsored public events - both wore toga with a purple border - Ordo Decurionum (legislative) - called decurions - had to be a freeborn (but not all freeborn qualified) - generally of high status - 100 members → seat for life, until death or disgrace - Comitium - a roofless building → “people’s assembly” gathering place - to elect the magistrates - it met every March - candidates had to receive majority of votes to be elected - votes were written on wax tables then place in ballots - evidence → inscriptions in graffiti on building Political Buildings - The Comitium- voting space - voting took place - citizens would enter through the five doors from the Forum and exit via the Via dell’Abbondanza - The Basilica- law court - decorated with 28 fluted ionic columns (greek influence) = 11 metres high - town magistrates (duumviri) sat on a raised stage, were judges of legal cases - Curia chamber - city council meetings - people’s assembly meetings - decurions met to discuss council matters - Tabularium - government business recorded - Offices of magistrates (all at/around the forum) - office of the Duumvir - office of the Aediles Eligibility to Vote and Stand for Office - o ver 25 - male - freeborn - prestigious, honourable, and have a high standard of integrity - reputation - have considerable wealth → old money rather than new votes had to be: - male - not slaves Support for candidates - prior to election, candidates wore a white toga - employed slaves to whisper the names of their owners in people’s ears - teachers, students, families, and women all participated in the campaigning process - candidates employed sign writers to paint their advertisements on walls outside homes, bars, taverns, and on public buildings candidates did not: - write manifestos themselves or sign them - make electoral promises about tax cuts, road maintenance or a building program - boast about what they did in the past Unsuitable supporters in elections - negative propaganda may have been delivered by adding unsuitable supports for a candidate- e.g the “late drinkers”, “pick pockets”, “runaway slaves” - When C. Julius Polybius was running for office, a manifesto signed by two prostitutes, Zmyrina and Cuculla, appeared on a wall- he was furious and demanded that it be removed - there was a degree of corruption. This was highlighted in graffiti and caricatures around the Forum - “No one gives a damn about the way we’re hit by the grain situation. To hell with the aediles! They’re in with the bakers…so, the little man suffers” The ‘price’ for holding office - members of the political system were often expected to use their own money to finance government projects - this is seen through inscriptions in the Forum - Lucius Aeneas Mammianus Rufus → funded building of the theatre - Marcus Calatorius → bronze statue stood in theatre among those of emperors and empresses - Marcus Nonius Balbus → 10 statues dedicated to at important sites - Marcus Holconius Rufus - h e came from the Holconnii family, one of the four wealthiest in Pompeii → had dominated politics for generations - extremely wealthy = came from operating a clay pit and brickworks + his families nation-wide wine empire - elected as duumvir five times and quinquennial twice - awarded an honorary position as military tribune by Augustus on recommendations by the Pompeian community Marcus Nonius Balbus - c ame from the richest and most influential family in Herculaneum - had been Roman governor of Crete and Cyrenaica (Roman owned area in North Africa) - patron of Herculaneum The Impact of Public Life on others - other groups outside the male elite were honoured publicly 1. Eumachia a. inherited considerable fortune from her father Lucius Eumachius (brickworks) b. social position (wealth) allowed her to assume the important public office of Priestess of augustales c. matron of an imperial cult of Concordia Augustus (dedicated to the deified emperor) d. patroness of the Guild of Fullers 2. Mamia a. daughter of Publius Mamius b. Priestess of venus Female influence ≠ the same as having the formal power of an elected duumvir or city councillor. ousing H Excavated houses = valuable archaeological sources for Roman domestic life + development Weatherier inhabitants - Elaborate, multi-roomed dwellings Poorer residents ⇒ - E.g shopkeepers + craftsmen one room apartments or in cramped space at the rear of the business premises, or on the floor above Types of private buildings: - Townhouses- domus urbanus - Mansion- villa urbanus - Rural estate- villa rustica - Apartment buildings- insula Housing styles 1. The domus or atrium house (e.g house of menander) 2. The atrium-peristyle house (e.g house of the vetti) 3. The insulae or apartment/ lodging houses (e.g house of the trellis) 4. Villas (e.g villa of the mysteries) ccording to Andrew Wallace-Hadrill A 4 MAIN types of housing which reflected socio-conomic status in P + H 1. S hops & workshops w just one or two small apartment-type residences above them 2. Larger workshops/residences for bigger businesses- between two and seven rooms on the ground floor, often had a decorated atrium 3. The average Pompeiian private house with between eight and 13 rooms and a peristyle 4. Larger houses, which were designed to admit many visitors and had separate rooms for slaves. These houses were the most decorated, with large gardens. Insulae - S ome people → Rented rather than owned a house/apartment - insulae= apartment blocks - Housed a variety of tenants - rander, spacious, more opulent than townhouses G - Located on outskirts of both towns - Villas on the coast + countryside → stunning scenery + mediterranean climate benefits A Villa Rustica - Any villa set in the countryside - Located on agricultural land - Houses of the wealthy vineyard + farm owners Water and Sanitation Street Drainage - ompeii- raised stone blocks (pondera) designed to protect inhabitants from waste + excrement within P the streets - erculaneum- conversely to Pompeii → well-contrcustrced high footpaths + excellent drainage system H + subterranean sewers beneath several roads → run on a north-south axis in the city. Water Supply Pompeii - relied upon springs ofAcquaeofor water supply, utilizeddeep wells (from groundwater), and rain collectingcisternsto capture it as a secondary means - imperial aqueducts built by Emperor Augustus - some private homes were connected directly to supply, however, it was also publicly available through water fountains (42 uncovered) Herculaneum - more elaborate water system, with most private homes connected directly Acqua Augusta - built between 3032 BC by Emperor Augustus → longest, most complex and costliest aqueduct systems in the Roman world, covering distance of 140km - 10 branches + supplied entire Campagnian religion, roman naval base Museum, Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae Public latrines - water supply served the needs of public latrines (foricae)located adjacent to densely populated areas → e.g amphitheatre or forum - posed serious health risks to users despite modern representation as cleanly - some were incorporated into bath complexes Clothing - c lothing made from wool or linen - woolen cloth made by women of household, slaves, or purchased from a market - linen imported from other areas of empire e.g Egypt - fulleries in both P and H men - ost men wore a tunic (rectangle of wool/linen pinned at the shoulders) m - knee length and off white, belted at waist - colder months- thicker coat over tunic social status - en could wear a toga, formal woolen garment worn over tunic m - toga praetexta- purple border, worn by some high priests and magistrates (formal) - poorer freeborn working men, freedmen and slaves- similar tunics loosely tied at waist - adult male citizens of higher status- personalised signet ring- impression in sealing wax to authorise a document - not all female slaves dressed poorly - women of all social classes- similar garments, varying materials (wealth) women - ore a stola- full length pleated garment, made of wool or silk (depending on social status) w - worn over the top of a toga, and pinned on one shoulder by a clasp called a fibulae - stolae (plural) variety of colours- red, yellow, green - prostitutes- toga, symbol of lower status children - generally wore tunics - girls- ankle length tunic with a belt - boys- shorter tunic - upper class children- toga praetexta until age 14 to 16 years Baths Archeologists identified 4 bath complexes in Pompeii 1. Stabian baths 2. Forum baths 3. Central baths 4. Sarno baths 5. priv bath Julia Felix Two in Herculaneum - the suburban baths and the forum baths → Suburban preserved best in both cities - d ivided into sections for women men, if no separation, then attended at diff times - walls and ceiling decorated with elegant stucco work and floor on mosaics, often marine theme baths had areas for - Exercise - changing and waiting (shelves for storing clothes), - cold baths - warm rooms heated by a brazier and a hot room with a heated bath at one end and a cold qatar ablution ast the other. ltimate in luxury U Suburban Baths Herculaneum - financed by marcus nonius balbus - faced the sea - architecturally notable vestibule that contains - four red columns - a fountain - marble bust of apollo - valve on fountain still works - had a combined waiting room/frigidarium with various coloured marbles - framed white stucco panels constraint bas-reliefs of naked warriors, winged cupids and a red spiral stucco frieze running around the room - to prevent condensation dropping on ppl, ceiling had grooves with collected this and channeled it down the walls - a charcoal burning furnace located in the back of the caldarium worked as the heating system. hot air circulated under marble floor raise 70-90cm and through air ducts behind the walls Activities - opened midday and arvos, daily routine for many - complexes stayed open at night too - slaves came to carry their masters or mistresses oil, soda , strigil for cleaning and massage - slaves helped owners disrobe - valuables placed in small cupboards - women more a two piece or more modest costume, men wore leather tunics or bathed naked - before bathing ppl did exercise, e.g bladder-ball (pila) for men after activities inc light snack, book in library, or strolling among the gardens heatre T traditional tragedy to comedy to pantomime were very popular - two theatres, greek in design, in pompeii - larger theatre older than any theatre in rome and strong greek influence - a small covered theatre or odeon was built later (1st century) its construction instigated by two local magistrates. used for more serious performances such as concerts, lectures and poetry. performances - religious festivities - celebrate dedication of a monument or achievement - magistrates tendered the staging of the performance - entry free to all, except slaves - admission to theatre gained by small piece of bone or ivory as an indication to whether to sit - those with the image of a bird, had the highest seats against the wall port S Pompeii: - open air theatre or palaestra opp the amphitheatre - 107-141 metres rectangle - surrounded by a portico - large swimming pool in centre Herculaneum; - occupied a whole block - swimming pool in shape of cross 50m in length - field outside pool - athletics, wrestling, javelin, and discus Overview - Pompeii and Herc - heavily influenced by the greek (hellenic) and hellenistic cultures - Greek influences → greek colonies in southern Italy + Sicily - Magna Graecia (greater Greece) → settlement of Greeks in 8th-7th centuries BC - Hellenistic influences → Rome's conquest + trades of Egypt and the east from the 2nd century BCE (many prostitutes from this area) - Hellenistic kingdoms established by alexander the great - Trade between Campania and Egyptian port city of Alexandria - Roman adoration of Greek + hellenistic culture= - Architecture - public and private - Art, e.g frescoes, mosaics, decorative objects - Attitude of ‘ a sound mind in a sound body’ - Religion → Greek pantheon + mystery cults from Greece + Egypt etc Greek influence - Art- statues (copies of og Greek statues), frescoes, mosaics )e.g alexander mosaic from house of faun) - Strong influences of Hellenistic culture ACROSS Roman world - Religious - dionysus, apollo (patron god of Augustus), demeter Temples, cults - Architecture - theatre, palaestra, columns/designs - literature/drama - papyrus scrolls from Her written in ancient Greek, homer + virgil studied - Names of towns - Herculaneum- Hercules (town patron god) - Venus as patron god of Pompeii - ‘Sound mind in a sound body’ Three orders of Greek columns 1. Ionic 2. Doric 3. Corinthian rand residences/villas → reflected magnificence of oriental Hellenistic palaces → House of the Faun, Pompeii, G and the Villa of Papyri, Herculaneum House of the Faun - Named after a bronze statue of a dancing faun found in the impluvium- was built in two stages during the early and late 2nd century BC - Covering 3000 square metres - Largest house in Pompeii- occupied an entire insula - Two entrances - Two atria - Two peristyles - Possibly four triclinia- dining/kitchen rooms - Two-roomed bath suite - Examples of all three orders of Greek columns reat Alexander Mosaic G Produced towards the end of the 2nd century BC → copied from a fourth century painting Stats - 5.82 by 3.13 meters - Composed of over a million and a half tesserae - High detail, yet simple colours - white, red, yellow, black - Discovered in 1831, but part of it is missing (damage) - 2005 → replica of this installed in the house for visitors, took International Centre for the Study and Teaching of Mosaics in Ravenna, Italy, 22 months to make Info - ifficult to ‘read’ → many different interpretations of subject matter over the years D - One idea- Alexander of Macedon defeating Darius III - Other idea- a composite of various historical battles/end of Persian Empire Amadeo Maiuri and his excavations at Herculaneum - Ahead of his time experiment- rapid excavation of a particular house - furnishing shops, replanting gardens, setting up display cases - Left parts of external wall open- give tourists a better view - Mairui ‘assumed that the true challenge lay in exposing more to the sunshine, not in conserving it.” A crisis: its cause and effects 2 1st century- Herculaneum- acute state of crisis, described as the worst example of archaeological conservation in a non war-torn country. Due to: - Uncontrolled ambition of the excavations of the 1930s - Profits of tourism ≠ used to maintain the sites - E.g- collapsed roofs, broken tiles, disintegrating mosaic floors, fading frescoes, carbonised timber reduced to dust, growth of vegetation, infestation of pigeons Herculaneum Conservation Project (HCP) Groups - P ackard Humanities Institute - Special Superintendency for the Archaeological Heritage of Naples and Pompeii - British School At Rome The practice of the HCP would be to focus on urgent site-wide interventions and repairs. eed to be a specific set of procedures put in place before work began: N Find a team of experts who would - Analyse initial problems + facilitate prompt intervention in case of emergencies, research and experiment solutions - “A level of autonomy that freed it from state bureaucracy” - Evolve a formula for future long-term maintenance of the site Water Problem - Herculaneum (seaside) was built on a sloping spur, number of levels - The ancient site → 20 m below level of the modern town of Ercolano - The drainage system in modern town did not function effectively → seepage into Herc. below. Every rain → water flooded, this: - Eroded masonry - Weakened foundations - Waterlogged ancient timbers - Brought salts out of the walls - Destroying fragile wall paintings - Saturated the Suburban baths complex - Deterioration of the vaulted roof of the tepidarium he Sewers T Problem was solved- bringing the ancient water drainage back into operation (under-street sewers) - Excavated sewers + reopening the conduits that drained houses, shops, and insulae - Clearing the area of sea front to 79 AD level - Laying a network of drainage pipes above + below ground level, drain water away from the site This work → - Preserved material remains for future research - Generated a whole series of archaeological results Discoveries on the beachfront - atural tufa bedrock of the ancient shoreline (pre-Roman) N - 79 AD, the ancient shoreline → bradyseism, a phenomenon occurring in seismic areas - sea appears to retreat and encroach Stabilization of Buildings - Steep escarpment dividing ancient site and Ercolano/Resina needed to be stabilised - Buildings overhung the archaeological site along the Decumanus Maximus → dangerous for rubble clearing + conversation - Collab between the Superintendency and Commune of Ercolano + support of the town’s mayor → dozen of decaying Resina houses were demolished, allowing greater knowledge of the layout of the Basilica Noniana Conservation of Decorative Surfaces 2008- Getty Conservation Institute + Herculaneum Conservation Project - Stabilise and restore (non invasive) badly damaged decorative surfaces Villa of Papyri Debate Villa rediscovered in 1986 roup of scholars, chiefly associated with the Friends of Herculaneum Society (FHS) , called for renewed G excavation of the Villa. Call was led by Professor Robert Fowler. In 2007- some limited excavation by the Superintendency took place at the Villa- lower room on a lower level, revealed stucco decorations that showed the room was being redecorated at the time of the eruption. 2012- still 2800 square meters left to be excavated of the villa, due to - Cost - Fact that any decision is a political one- involve excavation under inhabited areas - Landowners in modern Ercolano are hostile to any extension of excavations as they do not want to surrender their properties. chievements of the HCP A After the first decade - Escarpment that looms over the ancient site was consolidated - All streets- reopened to public - Most buildings stabilized - Inadequate existing roofing - replaced/repaired - Original water drainage network re-established - 20th century concrete lintels, reinforced - Monitoring system introduced, wall paintings/mosaics consolidated - Shoreline restored with walkways - replicas of skeletons in boatsheds, still in final poses - Villa of Papyri- surrounding areas restored
