Pompeii and Herculaneum Past Paper PDF

1. Survey ========= a) the geographical setting and natural features of Campania ------------------------------------------------------------ Campania is the region around Vesuvius - - - - - - **Natural features** - - +-----------------------------------+---------------------...

1. Survey ========= a) the geographical setting and natural features of Campania ------------------------------------------------------------ Campania is the region around Vesuvius - - - - - - **Natural features** - - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Pliny the Elder** | - - - - - - | | | | | *Natural history* | | +===================================+===================================+ | **'Bacchus and Vesuvius' Fresco | - - - - | | from the House of the Centenary | | | (Pompeii)** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ b) the eruption of AD 79 and its impact on Pompeii and Herculaneum ------------------------------------------------------------------ **The date of the eruption:** - - **Warning signs:** - - - - - - - **The Eruption:** - - - - - **Pliny the Younger's letters:** **Pliny Letter 6.16** - - - - **Pliny Letter 6.20** - - - - **The volcanic phases:** **The Plinian phase:** - - - - - **The Pyroclastic phase:** - - - - +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | Pompeii | Herculaneum | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | PLINIAN PHASE | Downwind, east winds | Western location | | | → rain of pumice = | (upwind) → light dust | | | toppled buildings | of ash/pumice | | | | | | | City covered in 2.8m | | | | of pumice | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | PYROCLASTIC PHASE → | | | | 25th August | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Surge 1 | Surges 1-2 did not | Overwhelmed instantly | | | reach Pompeii, only | by ash and | | | Herculaneum because | superheated gases at | | | of its proximity to | 200km/hr → people die | | | the crater (5km) | instantly | | | | | | | | ⇒ wood found heated | | | | to 400℃ | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Surge 2 | | Hotter and more | | | | powerful → buildings | | | | destroyed, town | | | | completely sealed | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Surge 4 | Pyroclastic density | Town sealed | | | currents (PDC's) | completely under 23m | | | reach the wall of | of hardened volcanic | | | Pompeii | material | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Surges 5-6 | Covered by | | | | superheated | | | | avalanches, knocking | | | | down the walls of the | | | | highest buildings | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **The escape:** **In Pompeii:** - - - - **In Herculaneum:** - - - - **How people died in both towns:** - - - - - - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Pompeii** → 1214 bodies found | **Herculaneum** → 349 bodies | | | found | +===================================+===================================+ | - 1/3 on top of pumice, encased | - Found outside houses, near | | in ash, outside buildings | beach | | | | | - Intense heat and suffocating | - Petrone: max temp of 520℃ on | | gases → thermal shock and | charred wood → thermally | | asphyxiation | induced preservation | | | | | - Refugees from Pompeii → names | - G. Mastrolorenzo: skeletons | | appeared in Northern towns | natural positions = instant | | | death, fulminant shock | | | | | | - Blackening of bones → 240℃ in | | | buildings, died due to | | | tissues drying out, not heat | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ c) early discoveries and the changing nature of excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Giuseppe Fiorelli 1860-1875** - - - - - - - **August Mau 1873-1909** - - - - - **Victor Spinazzola 1910-1923** - - - - - **Amedeo Maiuri 1924-1961** - - - - d) representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time ------------------------------------------------------- **Designs:** - - - - - **In the 20th and 21 centuries, representations were:** - - - - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **PAINTINGS** | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Example:** | **Explanation:** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Peaceful, serenity, mystical, | | | idyllic | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ |  | - - - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ |  | - - - | | | | | | | | | | | | - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Destructive, evil, terror, harsh, | | | helplessness, suffering | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ |  | - - - - - - | | | | |  | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ 2. Focus of study ================= a) The evidence provided by the range of sources: ------------------------------------------------- **Written Evidence** - **Archaeological evidence** - - - - - **Limitations of sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum** - - - - - **Where would you find commemorative plaques...** - - **What kind of public notices could be found on the walls of Pompeii...** - - - +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Source** | **Description** | **Values** | **Limitations** | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Pliny the | - 'Letters to | - Reactions | - Glorify | | Younger | Tacitus' → | and fates | Pliny the | | | eyewitness | of victims | Elder's | | | account of | | bravery | | | eruption | - Retells | | | | from | first | - 25 years | | | Misenum | phases of | later | | | | Plinian | | | | | phase: | - Not 79AD | | | | Umbrella | | | | | pine, earth | - Second-hand | | | | tremors, | | | | | ash cloud | - Only two | | | | | letters | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Other ancient | - Strabo → | - Understandi | - V's | | writers | dormant | ng | description | | | Vesuvius | Campania | does not | | | | before the | match | | | - Vitruvius → | eruption | physical | | | architectur | | evidence | | | e | - Earthquakes | | | | | | - Specific | | | - Seneca → | | inquiries | | | earthquake | | | | | | | | | | - Pliny Elder | | | | | → natural | | | | | history | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Public and | Public | - The | - P → 2/3 | | private | structures: | eruption | excavated | | buildings | | | | | | - Roads, | - Economy: | - Little | | | gates, | commerce, | literary | | | fountains, | trade | evidence to | | | courts and | | check | | | markets | - Religion → | | | | | temples, | - Few public | | | Private | household | spaces | | | structures: | gods | excavated → | | | | | no forums | | | - Houses, | - Social | in P, | | | apartments, | structure | limits | | | shops | | understandi | | | | - Everyday | ng | | | | life | of | | | | | political | | | | - Greek and | and | | | | Egyptian | commercial | | | | influence → | life | | | | art, | | | | | religion, | | | | | architectur | | | | | e | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Household items | - Related to | - Kitchen → | - Unnamed → | | | daily lives | domestic | owners are | | | | | unknown | | | - Objects | - Wood | | | | similar to | cradles → | - Excavation | | | modern ones | carpentry | = missing | | | | and jobs | and | | | - Items | | destroyed | | | include: | - Horse | | | | wooden | equipment | - Left in | | | furniture, | from H → | situ = | | | utensils, | early | deteriorate | | | medical | transport | d | | | instruments | available | | | | , | | - Yet to be | | | some | - Surgical | excavated | | | religious/r | instruments | | | | itual | → ancient | - Not the | | | artefacts | medical | full | | | | techniques | picture | | | - Wooden | | into | | | furniture | | everyday | | | in H | | life | | | survived in | | | | | carbonised | | | | | form | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Official | - Written on | - Form of | - Only | | inscriptions | bronze, | government, | recorded | | | marble and | important | lives of | | | stone | families, | the wealthy | | | | political | → not | | | - Civic | elite | common | | | charters: | | people | | | laws and | - Main | | | | rights | political | - Mostly | | | | players | important | | | - Epitaphs: | when | events, not | | | used during | buildings | everyday | | | funerals | built | life | | | | | | | | - Dedications | - Society | | | | : | changes, | | | | wealthy | 1st AD | | | | people who | | | | | funded | | | | | buildings, | | | | | festivals | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Graffiti | - A form of | - Everyday | - Mostly | | | inscription | life | related to | | | | | gladiators | | | - Everyday | - Local | | | | people → | politics | - White | | | scratched | | walls, | | | into walls | - Daily | eruption | | | with nails, | behaviour | | | | splinters | | - Fragmentary | | | | | nature | | | - Pompeiians | | | | | shared | | - Could be | | | their | | biased | | | feelings, | | | | | jokes, | | - Lack of | | | gossip or | | context | | | political | | | | | opinions | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Public notices | - Written on | - Propaganda | - No daily | | | walls by | | life | | | professiona | - Materials | | | | ls | and skills | - Mostly just | | | | of scribes | economical | | | - Electoral | | and | | | posters, | - Advertiseme | propaganda | | | announcemen | nt | | | | ts | | | | | of | | | | | amphitheatr | | | | | e | | | | | programs, | | | | | notices for | | | | | sales and | | | | | rentals | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Wax tablets and | **Herculaneum** | - Reported | - Struggled | | papyri | | funerals | to open, | | | - 1,800 | and age | may have | | | papyri | | been | | | found in | - Herculaneum | destroyed | | | | → legal | | | | - Scrolls | status of | - Too fragile | | | were | freed | and burnt | | | carbonised | slaves, | | | | by heat | neighbours, | - Philodemus | | | | family | project | | | **Pompeii** | structure, | underway to | | | | arguments | digitally | | | - Two bundles | | unwrap | | | of | - Papyri → | scrolls | | | wax-covered | Epicurean | | | | wooden | philosophy | | | | tablets | → | | | | found | philosopher | | | | | Philodemus | | | | - Business | of Gadara | | | | activities | | | | | of banker | | | | | Caecilius | | | | | Jucundus | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Wall paintings | Fresco = type | - Backstories | - Events | | (Frescoes) | of wall/ceiling | of art | exaggerated | | | painting | | or | | | | - Events | inaccurate | | | - Found in | | | | | all levels | - Lifestyle → | - No | | | of society | what they | knowledge | | | | value, find | of complex | | | - Mythologica | interesting | concepts | | | l | | | | | themes | - Cultural, | - All based | | | (megalograp | religious, | on | | | hy) | social | interpretat | | | | aspects of | ions | | | - Wealthy | life | if no | | | homes → | | written | | | decorative | - Beliefs/myt | evidence to | | | | hology | support it | | | - Not in | | | | | kitchens/sl | | | | | ave's | | | | | rooms | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Mosaics | Mosaic = | Mosaics: | | | | picture created | | | | | with tiny | - Sign of | | | | pieces of | wealth | | | | coloured | | | | | glass/pottery | - Appreciatio | | | | | n | | | | - Floors in P | for art | | | | and H → | | | | | geometric | - Likes/value | | | | and | s | | | | figurative | of owner | | | | designs | | | | | | | | | | - Common on | | | | | walls, | | | | | ceilings, | | | | | floors | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Plant remains | - Root | - Recreate | - Tourism → | | | cavities, | gardens of | damage | | | soil | wealthy → | | | | contours, | common | - Start of | | | vines/fruit | plant life | excavation | | | trees, | | poorly | | | pollen, | - At least | documented: | | | food | 10% of P | remains may | | | remains | was used | have been | | | | for crops | damaged, or | | | - Over 184 | | documents | | | plant | | were lost | | | species | | | | | discovered | | | | | | | | | | - Able to | | | | | identify | | | | | timbers | | | | | used | | | | | | | | | | - Pliny the | | | | | Elder → | | | | | plants and | | | | | uses | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Human remains | **Pompeii** | - Age → teeth | - Exposure | | | (plaster casts) | | elements = | | | | - Appearance | quick | | | - Plaster | → facial | deteriorati | | | casts → | | on | | | decayed | - Health → | | | | corpses | large bones | - Children's | | | left | for height | bones | | | cavities in | | missed/mist | | | ash/pumice | - Sex | aken | | | → liquid | | for animals | | | plaster | - Cause of | = wrong | | | poured in = | death | estimate | | | cast | | population | | | | - Social | | | | - Skeletons | status | - More | | | destroyed, | | excavated, | | | excavation | - Occupation | change | | | | → stress | knowledge | | | **Herculaneum** | markers and | of remains | | | (skeletons, | injury | | | | closer to V) | | - Plaster | | | | - Population | casts → not | | | - Skeletons | | in situ | | | in good | | | | | condition → | | - People | | | 20m layer | | unknown → | | | of moist | | stories | | | material | | made up | | | | | | | | - 51 male, 49 | | | | | female, 39 | | | | | children | | | | | | | | | | - Biochemical | | | | | → what they | | | | | ate | | | | | | | | | | - Dr Sara | | | | | Bisel → | | | | | quick, wash | | | | | each bone, | | | | | dry, dip in | | | | | acrylic-pla | | | | | ster, | | | | | harden, | | | | | reconstruct | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ b) The Economy: the role of the forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupations ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Evidence suggests that Pompeii was a bustling regional commercial centre:** - - - - - **The role of the forum - Pompeii:** - - - **The Forum and it's buildings:** - - - - - - - - - - - **Markets in the Forum:** - - - **The role of the forum: - Herculaneum** - **Trade, Commerce, Industries, Occupations:** - - - - **Wine and oil industries** - - - - **Garum**: - - - - **Cloth manufacture and treatment:** - - - **Bakeries:** Some bakeries had separate area for selling own bread - - - **Other industries:** - - **Shops:** - - - - **Hotels and Inns:** - - **Prostitution:** - - - **Agricultural production and fishing:** - - c) The Social Structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves ----------------------------------------------------- - - - **Slaves (servi):** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Freedman (libertus or liberta or liberti):** - - - - - - - - - - - - **Freeborn (ingenui):** - - - - - - - - - - **Women:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Prominent members of society:** **Pompeii:** - - - - - **Herculaneum:** - - d) local political life: decuriones, magistrates, comitium ---------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - **Ordo Decurionum:** - - - - - - **Magistrates:** Four elected annually: - - - - - - - - - - - - **Commitium:** - - **Elections:** - - - - - - **Patron-client relationship:** - - **Evidence for local political life:** Pompeii: - - - - - Herculaneum: - - - - - - - e) Everyday Life: ----------------- **Housing:** - - - **Main features of a house:** - - - - - - - **Types of House:** **House of the Surgeon:** - **House of the Faun:** - - - - - **House of Menander:** - **Notes from a lecture by Dr Penelope Allison:** - - - - **Villas:** - - **The Villa of the Mysteries:** - - - - - - **The Villa of the Papyri:** - - - - - - - - - **Villa Regina at Boscoreale:** - - - - f) Leisure Activities --------------------- - - **Theatre:** all classes attended (except slaves) - **Two theatres in Pompeii:** - - - - - - **Theatre in Herculaneum:** - **Features of theatres & performances:** - - - - - - **Palaestra:** - - **Pompeii:** - - - - - - **Herculaneum:** - - - - - - **Amphitheatre:** - **Pompeii:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Painting:** - **Music:** - - - - **Games:** - **Gambling and drinking:** - - - - - - **Prostitution:** - - - - - - - - - - g) Food and Dining ------------------ **Food:** - - - - - - - - **Dining:** - - - - - - - h) Clothing ----------- - - - - - - - - - i ) Health ---------- - - - - - - **What Estelle Lazer has drawn from her studies:** - - - - - - j) Baths -------- - - - - - - - - - **Pompeii:** - **Herculaneum:** - **Features of a bathing complex:** - - - - - - - - - - **Pompeii- Forum Baths:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Herculaneum Forum Baths:** - - - - - - k) Water Supply --------------- - - - - - - - - l) Sanitation ------------- - - - **Pompeii:** - - - - - - - - **Herculaneum:** - - - **Sewerage:** - - m) Religion ----------- - - - - **Official religions** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Capitoline Triad | - The chief temple in the city | | | dedicated to Jupiter, Juno | | (Temple of Jupiter → Capitolium) | and Minerva, located next to | | | the Forum | | | | | | - Modelled on the Capitolium in | | | Rome, symbol of Rome's power | | | | | | - Jupiter = protector of the | | | state | | | | | | - Juno = protector of women | | | | | | - Minerva = patron of craftsmen | +===================================+===================================+ | Imperial Cult | - The worship of Roman emperors | | | as gods → Augustus | | (Imperial family) | | | | - Augustales = freedmen who | | | supervised the cult of the | | | emperor | | | | | | - Forum: Temple of the Genius | | | of Vespasian | | | | | | - Sanctuary of the Household | | | Gods at Pompeii → Lares | | | became linked to the emperors | | | → statue of Augustus with | | | Lares | | | | | | - Temple near the forum was | | | dedicated to the goddess | | | Fortuna, but later Augusta | | | was added, linking emperor | | | with goddess of fortune | | | | | | | | | | | | - - - | | | | | | | | | | | | - Collegium of Augustales → | | | headquarters of the cult of | | | priests, H | | | | | | - Building of Eumachia: | | | | | | | | | | | | - - | | | | | | | | | | | | - Cult of the Emperor's Genius | | | (generating force) | | | | | | | | | | | | - - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Mystery/foriegn cults → Egyptian/Greek influence** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cult of Isis (Egypt) | - Isis = goddess of nature and | | | magic, protection of the dead | | | and children | | | | | | - Temple of Isis in Pompeii → | | | most important sanctuary in | | | city | | | | | | | | | | | | - - | | | | | | | | | | | | - Julia Felix had shrines | | | dedicated to Isis in her | | | garden, with statuettes and | | | paintings of Egyptian deities | | | | | | - Only building to be | | | completely restored after 62 | | | AD earthquake → by freedman | | | Numerius, dedicated to his | | | son to promise his political | | | future | | | | | | - Egypt style wall paintings | | | | | | - Male and female priests | | | | | | - One in Herculaneum mentioned | | | in an inscription | | | | | | - Also a sacellum (chapel) | | | dedicated to Isis, Sarpis and | | | Anubis in private home in | | | Pompeii → House of the Gilded | | | Cupids | | | | | | - Images of Isis discovered in | | | at least 26 lararia in | | | Pompeii | | | | | | - Statue of Osiris with a | | | panther found beside the | | | sanctuary → sacred enclosure | | | was a small vaulted | | | underground room | | | (purgatorium) where Nile | | | water was used for sacred | | | washing was stored | | | | | | - Large rooms behind the temple | | | → biggest had an | | | ecclesiasterion (hall) for | | | secret meetings of initiates, | | | with walls decorated with | | | frescoes of cult motifs | | | referring to Isis, Serapis | | | and Osiris | +===================================+===================================+ | Cult of Dionysus/Bacchus (Greece) | - Dionysus = Greek god of wine | | | and fertility | | | | | | - Best evidence in the Villa of | | | Mysteries: | | | | | | | | | | | | - - - | | | | | | | | | | | | - Bacchus was sometimes added | | | to the lararium | | | | | | - The cult depicts sensuality, | | | with the afterlife pictured | | | with debauchery → many were | | | drinking and dining clubs | | | that assumed the exalted | | | patronage of Bacchus | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Household religion/ private worship:** Most houses had small shrines, lararia, with small statues and painted images of household gods → Vesta, Roman goddess of the home, as well as: - - - - - Types of lararia: - - - - - - - - Worship and offerings - - - - - - Family rituals: - - - **Death and burial:** - - - - - - n) Temples ---------- **Temples in Pompeii:** - - - - - **Purpose:** - - - **Design Features:** - - - - - - **Temple of Jupiter (VII,8,1):** - - - - - **The Imperial Cult- Temple of Vespasian** - - - - - **Temples in Herculaneum:** - - - - - - - - - **Other Temples in Pompeii:** **The Temple of Apollo (VII,7,32 - excavated 1816-1820)** - - - **The Temple of Venus (VILL,1,3)** - - - **The Temple of Fortuna Augusta (VII,4,1- excavated 1824)** - - o) Foreign Cults and Religions ------------------------------ Two most important hellenistic cults were associated with Isis & Dionysus/ Bacchus. **Cult of Isis:** - - - - - **Temple of Isis:** - - **Cult of Dionysus/ Bacchus:** - - - - - - p) Tombs -------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - q) The Influence of Greek and Egyptian Cultures: art and architecture --------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - **Art:** - - **Greek and Egyptian influences:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Statues:** - **Images of Hercules:** **Pompeii:** - - **Herculaneum:** - - - **Mosaics:** - - - **Architecture:** - - - - - - r) Streetscapes --------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3. Reconstructing and conserving the past ========================================= a) Changing Interpretations: impact of new research and technologies -------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - **New Research** **The British School at Rome Pompeii Project:** - - - - - - - - - - **The Insula of Menander Project:** - - - - - - - **The work of some individual archaeologists:** **Wilhelmina Jashemski (1910-2007):** - - - - - - - **Sarah Bisel:** Skeletons of Herculaneum: - - - - 1. 2. **Estelle Lazer:** - - - - - - - - **Some new technologies:** **Use of CAD and 3D imaging/ model making:** - - - - - **Philodemus Project:** - - - - b) Issues of Conservation and Reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilities ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Building collapses in Pompeii 2010:** - - - - - **The Second Death of Pompeii and Herculaneum:** - - **Some problems that have affected Pompeii:** - - - - - - - **The Herculaneum Conservation Project:** - - - - - **Poor conditions in Herculaneum:** - - - - **Conservation work conducted:** - **Water problem:** - - - **Stabilisation of buildings:** - **Conservation of decoration surfaces** - - **New research conducted:** - - - - - - **The Great Pompeii Project:** - - - **Conservation work conducted:** - - - - - c) Ethical Issues: excavation and conservation, study and display of human remains ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - **Matters to consider in the study and display of human remains:** - - **Plaster casts on display in Pompeii:** - - **Is it ethical to display these remains?** - - - - - 'Stolen from Death': The Casts, the Photography': prevents restored cast from being touched by tourists- in secluded room = no one to touch **Notes from a lecture by Estelle Lazer:** - - - - - - - - - d) Value and Impact of Tourism: problems and solutions ------------------------------------------------------ **Impact of Tourism:** - - - - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Positive Impact:** | **Negative Impact:** | +===================================+===================================+ | - - - | - - - - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Pink Floyd:** - - **Sculptures on display in Pompeii** - **Exploitation of the site for commercial purposes:** - - - - **Changes in the nature of tourism and its impact on Pompeii:** - - - - - **Poor site security and the impact of tourism:** - - - - - - - -