Lecture Notes on Biotechnology (PDF)

Lecture One School of Biotechnology Vocabulary  Enzyme vital proteins that speed up the chemical reactions taking place within cells. Gene The most basic unit of heredity. Genome The complete genetic blueprint of a living thing. Bioengineering A mandatory labeling claim to be used on many f...

Lecture One School of Biotechnology Vocabulary  Enzyme vital proteins that speed up the chemical reactions taking place within cells. Gene The most basic unit of heredity. Genome The complete genetic blueprint of a living thing. Bioengineering A mandatory labeling claim to be used on many foods and dietary supplements with at least one ingredient that has measurable DNA from another species Mutagen Substances such as radiation or chemicals that can create random changes in the genetic material  Species A group of living organisms that are capable of sharing genetic information through breeding Cell The lowest denomination of life thought to be Possible. Vitamins Various substances that are essential in minute quantities to the nutrition of animals and plants. Virus A noncellular biological entity that can reproduce only within a host cell.  Reading The Importance of Science and Technology Working Together Biotechnology is the use of living things, like cells or bacteria, to make products or solve problems. It is a mix of biology (the study of living things) and technology (the use of tools and machines). This field is important because it helps scientists and engineers create new medicines, improve food, and find ways to protect the environment. One example of biotechnology is using bacteria to clean oil spills in the ocean. Another is making vaccines to protect people from diseases. Biotechnology also helps farmers grow better crops that are resistant to insects or harsh weather. The reason biotechnology is so useful is that it combines two powerful fields: science and technology. Science helps us understand how living things work, and technology gives us the tools to make changes and solve problems. In the future, biotechnology might help us make cleaner energy or find cures for diseases we can't treat today. This makes it an exciting field for scientists, engineers, and everyone who wants to help the world. Choose the correct answer from (a,b,c and d):- 1- What is biotechnology? a) The study of machines b) The use of computers to study space c) The use of living things to make products or solve problems d) A type of farming 2- Which two fields does biotechnology combine? e) Medicine and cooking f) b) Biology and technology g) c) Art and science h) d) Engineering and sports 3- How can biotechnology help farmers? a) By giving them more land b) By making crops that grow without sunlight c) By making crops that resist insects and bad weather d) By helping farmers travel faster 4-What do scientists use in biotechnology to clean oil spills? a) Fish b) Bacteria c) Robots d) Trees 5-What is an example of biotechnology in medicine? a) Making new kinds of computers b) Creating new types of food c) Making vaccines to prevent diseases d) Building stronger hospitals 6-Why is biotechnology important? a) It helps us study history b) It combines science and technology to solve problems c) It teaches people to use computers d) It makes food taste better 7-What is one possible future use of biotechnology? a) Finding cures for diseases b) Building faster cars c) Creating new sports d) Making airplanes safer 8-What does biology help us understand in biotechnology? a) How machines work b) How living things work c) How to build roads d) How computers function 9-What can biotechnology create to protect people from diseases? a) Cars b) Houses c) Vaccines d) Clothes Grammar  The present simple The present simple tense is one of the most commonly used tenses in the language. It’s used to describe actions that are habitual, factual, or true. Formation of Present Simple Tense : 1- Affirmative Sentences : To form an affirmative sentence in Present Simple Tense, we use the base form of the verb for all the subjects except for the third person singular (he, she, it), where we add an -s or -es to the end of the verb. The following table shows the formation of affirmative sentences: Subject Verb I, you, we, they work he, she, it works Examples: - I work in a bank. - She works as a teacher. - We play football every Sunday. 2- Negative Sentences: To form a negative sentence in present simple tense, we use the auxiliary verb “do” or “does” along with “not” and the base form of the verb. The following table shows the formation of negative sentences: Subject Auxiliary Verb Verb I, you, we, they do not (don’t) work he, she, it does not (doesn’t) work Examples: - I don’t like coffee. - She doesn’t eat meat. - We don’t watch TV in the morning. 3- Interrogative Sentences To form an interrogative sentence in Present Simple Tense, we use the auxiliary verb “do” or “does” before the subject, and the base form of the verb. The following table shows the formation of interrogative sentences: Auxiliary Verb Subject Verb Do I, you, we, they work? Does he, she, it work? Examples: - Do you - Does she live in this city? - Do they like pizza? Time Adverbs in Present Simple Tense In English grammar, the Present Simple Tense is used to describe actions that are habitual or routine, or that occur regularly. Time adverbs are an essential part of the Present Simple Tense, as they help to indicate when an action occurs. Frequency Adverbs Frequency adverbs are used to describe how often an action occurs. They include words such as always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, and never. These adverbs are usually placed before the main verb in a sentence. For example: I always eat breakfast before work. She usually goes to bed early. He often plays video games on the weekends. They sometimes go to the park to play soccer. We rarely watch TV in the morning. You never forget to brush your teeth. Point of Time Adverbs Point of time adverbs are used to describe when an action occurs. They include words such as today, tomorrow, tonight, every. These adverbs are usually placed at the end of a sentence. For example: I go to the gym every Monday. She has a doctor’s appointment tomorrow. You will see her later. Usage of Present Simple Tense 1- Routine Activities: Present Simple Tense is used to describe routine activities that happen regularly or repeatedly. These activities can be daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly. For example: - I wake up at 6 am every day. - She goes to the gym three times a week. - They have dinner together every Friday. 2- Universal Truths Present Simple Tense is used to describe universal truths or facts that are always true. These are things that are generally accepted as true and do not change over time. For For example: - The Earth revolves around the Sun. - Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius. - The human body needs oxygen to survive. 3- Habits Present Simple Tense is used to describe habits that are not necessarily routine but occur frequently. These habits may not have a set schedule but are still habitual. For example: - He always forgets his keys. - She never drinks coffee after 3 pm. - They often take walks in the park. 4- Feelings and Emotions Present Simple Tense is also used to describe feelings and emotions that are ongoing or continuous. These are feelings that are not necessarily tied to a specific moment in time but are part of a person’s character or personality. For example: - She loves chocolate. - He hates spiders. - They enjoy traveling.  The Present Continuous (progressive) Forming the present continuous: The form of the present continuous is the present tense of the verb to be + the verb base + ing. The present continuous (also called the present progressive) is a verb tense used to refer to a temporary action that is currently taking place. Affirmative Subject + to be + base + ing She is talking. Negative Subject + to be + not + base + ing She is not (isn't) talking Interrogative to be + subject + base + ing Is she talking? Examples: present continuous: Affirmative Negative Interrogative I am going I am not going Am I going? You are going You aren't going. Are you going? He, she, it is going He, she, it isn't going Is he, she, it going? We are going We aren't going Are we going? You are going You aren't going Are you going? They are going They aren't going Are they going? Lecture Two Vocabulary - DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): The genetic material of all cells and many viruses. The molecule that encodes genetic information. - Pollen: The cells that carry the male DNA of a seed plant. - Biotechnology: A set of biological techniques developed through basic research and now applied to research and product development. - Cultivar: Synonymous with variety; the international equivalent of variety. - Hybrid: Seed or plants produced as the result of controlled cross-pollination as opposed to seed produced as the result of natural pollination. Reading  What is Biology? Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms, encompassing a wide range of fields that explore the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of living things. One fundamental aspect of biology is the understanding of reproduction and genetics, which are critical for the continuation of species. In seed plants, reproduction involves intricate processes where male and female cells unite to create new life. Pollen consists of cells that carry the male DNA, and when it is transferred to the ovule—an outgrowth of the ovary of a seed plant—fertilization occurs. The ovule encloses the embryo, which will eventually develop into a seed. This intricate dance between pollen and ovule is essential for the propagation of plant species.  At the molecular level, DNA serves as the genetic material found in all cells and many viruses, carrying the instructions necessary for life. Genes, the most basic units of heredity, dictate everything from physical traits to biological functions. Together, these genes make up the genome, the complete genetic blueprint of a living organism. Enzymes, vital proteins that speed up the chemical reactions taking place within cells, play a key role in facilitating the biological processes necessary for life. In modern biology, techniques such as the gene gun, invented at Cornell University, allow scientists to introduce genetic material into new organisms. This innovation has transformed fields like agriculture and medicine, enabling the development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and advancing our understanding of genetics. - Answer the following questions: 1. _________________________ is a device that allows for the introduction of genetic material into new organisms. A) Microscope B) Gene gun C) Centrifuge D) PCR machine 2. Pollen consists of _________________. A) Female DNA B) Cells that carry male DNA C) Enzymes D) Nutrients 3. Changes to ____________________ can occur naturally or artificially through substances known as mutagens. A) Genetic material B) Gene gun C) The embryo D) PCR machine 4. The ________________ is an outgrowth of the ovary of a seed plant that encloses an embryo. A) Seed B) Ovule C) Pollen D) Stem 5. The most basic unit of heredity is _________________. A) Genome B) Chromosome C) Gene D) RNA 6. DNA serves as the ________________ found in all cells and many viruses. A) Enzyme B) Genetic material C) Protein D) Hormone 7. Enzymes are ________________ that speed up chemical reactions within cells. A) Carbohydrates B) Nucleic acids C) Vital proteins D) Minerals 19. 8. The complete genetic blueprint of a living organism is known as its ________________. A) Gene B) Genome C) Chromosome D) DNA --------------------------------------------------- Grammar  Present perfect We form the present perfect tense with the verb have and the past participle of the verb. The past participle is the same as the past simple (-ed) for regular verbs. For irregular verbs, it’s the form in the 3rd column.  Common Tense Markers Already / Yet / Ever / Never / Just / Since / For / Before Ex. - I have already prepared breakfast. - Has the post come yet? - I have never lied in my life. - Have you ever been to England? - We haven’t received any mail since we were retired -We haven’t met before - I have lived in Texas for 10 years. - Tom has just come to the office USE OF PRESENT PERFECT TENSE: 1- Present Perfect Tense is used to express an action that happened at an unspecified time in the past and the impact of the event is now continuing. - She has lost her wallet. ( She can’t find it ) - My sister has broken her arm. (Her arm is still broken.) 2- Present Perfect Tense is used to express an action that ended recently. We often use words like “just” or “recently” for the events taking place a very short time before now. - My mother has just cleaned the house. - We have recently eaten dinner.  3- Present Perfect Tense is used to talk about unfinished actions or states or habits that started in the past and continue to the present. In such sentences, it is emphasized that how long the action has continued. Examples: - The student has studied maths for three months. - I have lived in Paris for five years. - My son has been sick since Monday. - He has worked in Berlin since he graduated from the university. - She haven’t been calm since the accident. 4- Present Perfect Tense is used to express repeated actions in an unspecified time between past and now. Examples: - We have watched that movie three times. - I have seen David several times. - She have had six exams so far this semester. Lecture Three Reading  Calories All creatures need to eat something in order to survive. Fortunately, different species of animals have different things that they eat as food. No matter what a creature eats, the food must have enough calories in it to maintain life. Calories, or the energy stored in the food, provide the fuel animals, including humans, need in order to live and move about in the world. Any creature that does not consume enough food, or in other words enough calories, will starve and die. The term calorie has a scientific meaning. Calorie is a measure of an amount of energy just like pound is a measure of weight. A calorie is officially defined as the amount of energy it takes to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius, which is 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit. The term “calorie” and “Calorie” with a capital C have two different meanings to scientists. The term Calorie (with a capital C) means one kilocalorie, the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius. A kilogram is the same as 1,000 grams and a kilocalorie is 1,000 calories. Food calories are always measured as Calories but average people don’t care much about the difference and just use the word calories.  Food is composed of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. Nutritionists know that a gram of protein contains 4 Calories, a gram of fat has 9 Calories, and a gram of carbohydrate has 4 Calories. All foods contain calories. When we eat something it provides energy for our bodies to use when we are active. We even need energy or calories while we are sleeping because, for example, our bodies are still breathing, our heart is pumping, and we continue to digest the food in our stomachs. If a person eats more food and more calories than is used up by activity, the body stores the excess calories in case it might need it later when food might not be available. So a person gains weight due to the extra food and calories. Similarly, if a person consumes fewer calories than are used every day over several weeks and is more active, that person will lose weight. Choose the correct answer: 1. Calorie is a measure of a. Weight b. Distance c. Energy d. Volume 2. The prefix “kilo” means a. 10 b. 100 c.1,000 d. 10,000 3. Animals that do not consume enough calories over a long time b. Can lose weight b. Can starve c. Both a. and b. above d. None of the above 4. One degree Celsius equals c. 1 degree Fahrenheit b. 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit c. 10 degrees Fahrenheit d. 20 degrees Fahrenheit 5. Humans use calories when d. Running b. Studying c. Sleeping d. All of the above Could General ability in the past - I could play the piano when I was younger. Ask for permission (more polite) - Could I use your bathroom please? To request something (more polite) - Could you pass me the salt please? Possibility in the past (could +have + past participle) - What? You could have broken your leg. Suggestion (when asked what to do) - We could go to the movies if you like. Conditional of Can (would be able to) - If we had some oranges I could make you some fresh juice. (= would be able to)  You can only use can and could when you want to make a polite request. e.g. Could you take off your shirt, please? Can you please untie your shoes? positive negative I / he / she / it Present I can drink water. They can’t eat solid food. you / we / they Past He could walk alone. We couldn’t save his life. Yes / No questions Short answers I / he / she / it Present Can you move your left Yes, I can. you / we / they shoulder? No, I can’t. Past Could she raise her right leg? Yes, she could. No, she couldn’t. 1. I ___________ go to the party last night because I was sick. 2. A: ___________ Noel cook Italian food? B: Yes, he ___________. 3. My sister ___________ swim last year, but now she ___________. 4. They ___________ go shopping yesterday because the store was closed. 5. A: ___________ you read when you were four years old? B: Yes, I __________. 6. Ellie ___________ ride a bicycle. She rides it to school every day. 7. I’m very tired, so I ___________ go out to the park to play. 8. A: ___________ you see the moon last night? B: No, I ___________. 9. When ___________ I talk to you about the company report? 10. Most dinosaurs walked on land, but some ___________ fly or even swim. 11. Excuse me, I ___________ hear you right now. The music is too loud. 12. I ___________ drive a truck when I was only sixteen years old. 13. Douglas hit the tree because he ___________ stop his car. 14. How many hot dogs ___________ you eat at one time? 15. I ___________ read without my reading glasses. Where are they? Grammar Question Wh-questions are (when, where, which, why, who, Words what, how) Wh-questions is used to ask about information.  Who Questions Asking about a person ex. Who is your doctor? Where Questions Asking about place ex. Where are you from? When Questions Asking about a time or event or activity ex. When do you wake up every morning? Why Questions Asking for a reason ex. Why do you say that? What Questions Asking about a thing? ex. What is your favorite team? Which Questions Asking about an option or choice ex. Which is the best restaurant in the city? How Questions  1. (A) … do you live? 4. (A) … is your name? (B) I live in Mexico City. (B) My name is Stewart. a) How a) What b) Where b) Who c) Who c) How 2. (A) … does Michael get to work? 5. (A) … did you stay home? (B) He drives to work. (B) I felt sick. cises a) Who a) Where b) Where b) Who c) How c) Why 3. (A) … old are you? 6. (A) … day is it? (B) I’m twenty-three. (B) It’s Monday. a) Why a) When b) What b) What c) How c) Who 7. (A) … is that? 10. (A) … can I start work? (B) It’s a butterfly. (B) You can start now! a) What a) What b) Where b) When c) Who c) Who 8. (A) … is my cell phone? 11. (A) … time is it? (B) I think I saw it on the table. (B) It’s ten o’clock. a) Where a) How b) What b) When c) When c) What 9. (A) … do cows eat? 12. (A) … are you late? (B) They eat grass. (B) My car is broken down. a) How a) Why b) What b) Who c) When c) Where 13. (A) … is your best friend? 15. (A) … are your bags? (B) Sofia is my best friend. (B) They are over there. a) What a) Where b) Who b) Why c) Why c) How 14. (A) … do you usually get up? 16. (A) … are you today? (B) I usually get up at six o’clock. (B) I’m fine, thanks. a) When a) How b) Why b) Who c) Who c) Where