Introduction and History of Research PDF

INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY OF RESEARCH PSY 125 What is research? Research is a systematic inquiry aimed at discovering new information, validating existing knowledge, or solving specific problems through rigorous methodologies (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019). Howitt (2016) describes research i...

INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY OF RESEARCH PSY 125 What is research? Research is a systematic inquiry aimed at discovering new information, validating existing knowledge, or solving specific problems through rigorous methodologies (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019). Howitt (2016) describes research in psychology as a structured process aimed at understanding human behavior and mental processes through empirical and qualitative methods. This includes the use of various qualitative research methods, such as interviews, case studies, and thematic analysis, to explore psychological phenomena in depth.  Importance of Research in Psychology Advancement of Knowledge Research is crucial for advancing knowledge within a discipline. It allows for the development of new theories, models, and understanding of phenomena. This contributes to the academic and practical progress of the field. Informed Decision-Making Research provides evidence-based data that supports informed decision-making in both personal and professional contexts. It helps individuals and organizations make choices that are grounded in facts and scientific evidence rather than assumptions.  Importance of Research in Psychology Improvement of Practices Research is essential for improving practices within any field. In psychology, for instance, research can lead to better therapeutic approaches, more effective interventions, and enhanced teaching methods. The findings from research can be applied to improve real-world outcomes, thus making research an essential component of professional practice. Types of research Basic Research § Basic research, also known as fundamental or pure research, aims to expand knowledge by understanding underlying principles, theories, and mechanisms. § This type of research is driven by curiosity and a desire to explore the unknown, without a specific application in mind. § Conducted to expand knowledge without immediate practical application. “Exploring the cognitive processes involved in decision-making.” Types of research Applied Research § Applied research focuses on solving specific, practical problems. It is designed with a particular application in mind and aims to improve human well-being, enhance technology, or address societal challenges. § Applied research often builds on the findings of basic research to create interventions, treatments, policies, or technologies that have a direct impact on everyday life. “Developing a decision-making tool to help individuals with cognitive impairments make better choices.” History of Research in Psychology The Emergence of Psychology as a Science Psychology began as a distinct scientific discipline in the late 19th century. Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, marking the official start of psychology as an experimental and empirical science (Schultz & Schultz, 2016). History of Research in Psychology Major Milestones Behaviorism emerged in the early 20th century, with John Watson and B.F. Skinner as key figures. Watson, in 1913, emphasized that psychology should focus on observable behavior rather than internal thoughts, making it more scientific. Skinner expanded on this with operant conditioning, showing how behavior is shaped by reinforcement and punishment. History of Research in Psychology Major Milestones Cognitive Psychology arose in the mid-20th century, challenging Behaviorism's limitations. Ulric Neisser’s 1967 work marked the start of the cognitive revolution, emphasizing the importance of studying mental processes like perception and memory to fully understand behavior Philosophical foundations of research 1. Rationalism vs. Empiricism 2. Positivism and the Scientific Method 3. Interpretivism and Qualitative Research Philosophical foundations of research Rationalism vs. Empiricism Rationalism - The belief that knowledge is gained through reason and logical analysis (Descartes, 1641). Rationalism emphasizes the role of reason and innate knowledge in understanding the world. It suggests that certain truths can be known through intellectual reasoning without requiring sensory experience. e.g. mathematical truths, like 2+2=4, are considered innate and not dependent on sensory input. Philosophical foundations of research Rationalism vs. Empiricism Empiricism - knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience (Locke, 1690). Empiricism posits that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and that all ideas are derived from what we perceive through our senses. Empirical research dominates behavioral psychology, where observable behavior is studied as a direct outcome of sensory experiences. e.g. Albert Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment, which demonstrated how children learn aggression through observation, an empirical process. Philosophical foundations of research Positivism and the Scientific Method Positivism - A philosophical stance asserting that only empirical, observable, and measurable phenomena are valid for knowledge (Comte, 1830). Positivism is a philosophical stance that asserts that knowledge is best obtained through observable, empirical data and logical reasoning. It emphasizes the importance of using the scientific method to study phenomena and generate objective, measurable knowledge. e.g. Pavlov observed measurable changes in dogs’ salivation in response to stimuli, demonstrating how behavior could be empirically studied and quantified.  Philosophical foundations of research Positivism and the Scientific Method Scientific Method - The scientific method, rooted in positivism, emphasizes observation, experimentation, and validation. The scientific method involves systematic observation, measurement, experimentation, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses. This method is central to psychology as it ensures that research findings are reliable and valid through rigorous* testing and validation. e.g. Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiments, where hypotheses about authority and compliance were systematically tested through controlled experimentation, leading to measurable and replicable results. *Rigor in research refers to the strictness and precision with which a study is conducted to ensure that its findings are credible, reliable, and valid. Philosophical foundations of research Interpretivism and Qualitative Research Interpretivism - Focuses on understanding the subjective meaning of human experiences. It is often linked to qualitative research methods that explore complex social phenomena (Geertz, 1973). It rejects the idea that there is a single, objective reality, instead focusing on the multiple realities that individuals construct through their experiences. Philosophical foundations of research Interpretivism and Qualitative Research Qualitative research is the method most often associated with interpretivism. It involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, and texts, to gain deeper insights into human behavior and cultural practices. This approach allows researchers to explore phenomena in rich detail, capturing the participants' lived experiences. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD The scientific method is a systematic process used in research to explore observations, answer questions, and test hypotheses. It is a cornerstone of psychological research (Kothari, 2004). THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 1. Observation: identifying a phenomena or behavior of interest 2. Hypothesis: formulating a testable prediction based on observations. 3. Experimentation: conducting controlled experiments to test the hypothesis. 4. Analysis: analyzing data to determine if results support the hypothesis 5. Conclusion: drawing conclusions and refining theories based on findings (Myers, 2018). The scientific method is used in various psychological studies, including experimental and correlational research (Gravetter & Forzano, 2018). QUALITATIVE vs. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Qualitative Research Explores phenomena in-depth using non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, and text analysis (Creswell & Poth, 2018). QUALITATIVE vs. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Quantitative Research Involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns, test hypotheses, and make predictions (Bryman, 2016). Emphasizes measurement and statistical analysis, often used in confirmatory research. IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS IN RESEARCH Ethical research ensures the protection of participants, the integrity of data, and the credibility of scientific findings (Resnik, 2020). IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS IN RESEARCH Key Ethical Principles Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed about the research and consent voluntarily (Beauchamp & Childress, 2019). Confidentiality: Researchers must protect participants' privacy and ensure data confidentiality. Beneficence and Nonmaleficence: Researchers should aim to benefit participants and avoid causing harm (American Psychological Association, 2020). HISTORICAL CASES OF UNETHICAL RESEARCH Milgram Experiment (1963) Controversial study on obedience that raised questions about the psychological harm inflicted on participants (Milgram, 1963). HISTORICAL CASES OF UNETHICAL RESEARCH Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) Raised ethical concerns about the treatment of participants and the lack of informed consent (Zimbardo, 2007). The research process 1. Identifying a Research Problem Start by identifying a gap in the literature or a specific issue that needs to be addressed (Creswell, 2014). 2. Literature Review Review existing research to understand the current state of knowledge and refine your research question (Hart, 2018). 3. Formulating Hypotheses Develop testable statements based on the literature review and research questions (Bordens & Abbott, 2021). The research process 4. Designing the Study Choose appropriate methods and plan the research design, including sampling, data collection, and analysis (Punch & Oancea, 2014). 5. Data Collection and Analysis Collect data systematically and analyze it using appropriate statistical or qualitative methods (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014). 6. Reporting Results Present findings in a clear, concise manner, following ethical guidelines and academic standards (APA, 2020). Challenges in psychological research Reliability The consistency of a measure or instrument. A reliable measure produces similar results under consistent conditions (Carmines & Zeller, 1979). Validity The accuracy of a measure or instrument in capturing what it is intended to measure (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955). Challenges in psychological research The Replication Crisis Many psychological studies have failed to replicate, raising concerns about the reliability of research findings. 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