Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology as a Science PDF

 Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology as Science Learning Objectives: By the end of this lesson, students will be able to: 1. Identify and describe different sources of knowledge and how they contribute to understanding human behavior. 2. Understand the nature of scientific expl...

 Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology as Science Learning Objectives: By the end of this lesson, students will be able to: 1. Identify and describe different sources of knowledge and how they contribute to understanding human behavior. 2. Understand the nature of scientific explanations and how they differ from other types of explanations. 3. Explain why psychology is considered a science and how the scientific method is applied in psychological research. Topic 1: Sources of Knowledge and the Nature of Scientific Explanation “How do we know what we know?” how do we justify our belief? How can we be certain about the truth of something? Sources of Knowledge in Psychology Authority - Knowledge gained from experts or authority figures. Intuition - Knowledge based on gut feelings or instincts. Rationalism - Knowledge derived from reasoning and logical thinking. Empiricism - Knowledge gained through observation and experience. Scientific Method - Combines empirical observation with systematic testing. Pros and cons of authority as source of knowledge Efficiency - Quick and easy Risk of Bias or Error - Authorities access to knowledge from can be wrong, biased, or outdated, experts, especially in areas where leading to misinformation. time or resources are limited. Overreliance - Blindly accepting Trusted Expertise - Often based information without questioning on years of study and can limit critical thinking and independent analysis. experience, which can be valuable in specialized fields. Variability - Not all authorities are equally credible or trustworthy. Pros and cons of intuition as source of knowledge Speed - Provides quick, Subjectivity - Highly influenced by instinctive responses without the personal biases, emotions, and need for deep analysis or experiences, making it unreliable in many cases. reasoning. Lack of Evidence - Intuition is not Experience-Based - Often systematically tested or validated, derived from accumulated so it may lead to incorrect experience, making it useful in conclusions. situations that require rapid Inconsistency - Different people’s decision-making. intuitions can lead to vastly different conclusions. Pros and cons of rationalism as source of knowledge Logical Structure - Promotes Detachment from Reality - Reasoning clear, logical thinking and alone may lead to conclusions that don’t align with empirical evidence or consistent conclusions based on real-world observations. principles. Dependence on Assumptions - The Internal Consistency - accuracy of conclusions depends on the correctness of the initial premises, Rationalism is built on coherent which may not always be accurate. reasoning, making it reliable Limited Scope - Not all phenomena when premises are sound. can be fully understood through logic alone, especially those involving human emotions or behaviors. Pros and cons of empiricism as source of knowledge Grounded in Observation - Relies Limited Scope - Observations can be on tangible evidence, making it a biased or incomplete, leading to more objective and verifiable inaccurate or incomplete knowledge. source of knowledge. Time-Consuming - Gathering Real-World Relevance - Empirical empirical evidence requires systematic knowledge is based on direct observation, experimentation, and experience and experimentation, analysis, which can be resource- which often leads to practical intensive. applications. Adaptability -New observations Interpretation Challenges - Data can can lead to updated conclusions be misinterpreted or selectively used, and knowledge. leading to flawed conclusions. Pros and cons of scientific method as source of knowledge Objectivity - Minimizes bias by Complexity - The scientific method relying on controlled, systematic can be difficult to apply in areas where observation and experimentation. control over variables is limited, such as in social or psychological studies. Replicability - Allows findings to be consistently tested and verified Ethical and Practical Limits - Certain by others, ensuring reliability. experiments cannot be conducted due to ethical concerns, limiting the scope Predictive Power - Generates of scientific inquiry. theories that can predict future Overemphasis on Quantifiable Data - behavior or phenomena, making it Sometimes overlooks the subjective, a powerful tool for advancing qualitative aspects of human knowledge. experience that are harder to measure.  Discussion: When is it appropriate to trust intuition over scientific evidence? How do different sources of knowledge affect our beliefs? When might one source be more reliable than others? The nature of scientific explanation Definition of Science For content “Science is an accumulation of integrated knowledge”, while a process definition is that “Science is an activity of discovering important variables in nature, of relating those variables, and of explaining those relationships”. Content and process combined definition is that “science is a systematically organized body of knowledge about the universe, obtained by the scientific method”. Scientific and nonscientific discipline 1. Science empirically applies the scientific method to solvable problems 2. Humanities and arts use nonscientific methods to study solvable problems (typically) 3. Metaphysical disciplines neither employs scientific method nor pose solvable problems. Features of Scientific inquiry Features Description Scientific method Empiricism Evidence were Developing hypothesis obtained through observable measurement Systematically Planned carefully, Make logical consistently predictions documented Repeatability Consistent result if Making additional conducted repeatedly observation Differentiating scientific explanations from pseudoscientific or anecdotal claims Testability and Scientific Explanations: These are based on hypotheses that can be tested and potentially disproven. For Falsifiability example, the theory of gravity can be tested by observing the behavior of objects in free fall. Pseudoscientific Claims: These often lack testability and cannot be disproven. For instance, astrology makes broad predictions that are difficult to test scientifically. Scientific Explanations: Rely on empirical evidence gathered through controlled experiments and observations. The results are reproducible and peer-reviewed. For example, the effectiveness of a new Evidence and drug is tested through clinical trials. Methodology Pseudoscientific Claims: Often rely on anecdotal evidence and personal testimonials, which are not systematically gathered or verified. An example is the claim that certain crystals can heal illnesses without scientific evidence to support it. Peer Review and Scientific Explanations: Undergo rigorous peer review by other experts in the field before being accepted. Consensus This process helps ensure the validity and reliability of the findings. Pseudoscientific Claims: Typically do not undergo peer review and lack scientific consensus. They are often promoted by individuals or groups without formal scientific training. Adaptability and Scientific Explanations: Are open to revision and improvement as new evidence emerges. Science is a Progress dynamic process that evolves over time. Pseudoscientific Claims: Tend to remain static and are resistant to change, even when new evidence contradicts them.  Characteristics of Modern Science Scientific mentality - This involves approaching research with the mindset that behavior and phenomena can be understood through systematic inquiry and observation. Gathering empirical data - refers to information gathered through observation, measurement, and experimentation rather than relying on theory or personal belief. Seeking general principles - Testing predictions stemming from theory has been the cornerstone of psychological science. Science progresses only through progressive better theories. Good Thinking - involves approaching research logically, avoiding bias, and following the rules of critical thinking, like weighing evidence objectively when interpreting results. “Parsimony” – must avoid unnecessary assumptions to support an argument or explanation. Self-correction - Science is self-correcting; over time, errors are recognized and corrected through replication and peer review Publicizing results - Research findings are shared with the scientific community through journals, conferences, and other forums, allowing others to evaluate, critique, and build on the work. Replication - Replication involves conducting a study again to see if the same results can be obtained, which strengthens the reliability of findings. Topic 2: The Science of Psychology Objective: Students will learn why psychology is considered a science and how the scientific method is applied in psychological research. How does psychology use scientific methods to study behavior and mental processes? Psychology as Science Psychology is materialistic (Physicalistic), Objective, and Deterministic. 1. Psychology often adopts a materialistic view, meaning it considers mental processes and behaviors as products of physical processes in the brain and body. 2. Psychology aims to be objective by relying on empirical evidence and scientific methods. This involves using standardized tests, controlled experiments, and statistical analysis to study and understand behavior and mental processes. 3. Determinism in psychology suggests that behavior and mental processes are influenced by prior causes, such as genetics, environment, and past experiences. This view holds that given enough information, one could predict behavior based on these factors.  Psychology becomes a science by applying the scientific method to solve problems which required that it become materialistic, objective, and deterministic. Behavior (The most Experimentation (The complex subject most powerful matter research method) The Objectives of Psychological Science When we define description in psychological science, we are referring to a systematic and unbiased account of the observed characteristics of behaviors. Prediction, the second objective, refers to the capacity for knowing in advance when certain behaviors would be expected to occur—to be able to predict them ahead of time— because we have identified other conditions with which the behaviors are linked or associated. Explanation - we also understand what causes it to occur. Explanation includes knowledge of the conditions that reliably reproduce the occurrence of a behavior. To explain a behavior, we have to use an experimental research design in which we systematically manipulate aspects of the setting with the intention of producing the specific behavior. Control, the fourth objective, refers to the application of what has been learned about behavior. Once a behavior has been explained through experimentation, it may be possible to use that knowledge to effect change or improve behavior. The term psychological science refers to the accumulated body of psychological knowledge (i.e., pertaining to brain, behavior, social, or mental processes) that has been generated through the systematic application of the scientific method. The term psychological science may also refer to the process of conducting psychological research through use of the scientific method.  Psychology experiment – a control procedure in which at least two different treatment conditions are applied to subjects whose behavior are then measured and compared to test a hypothesis about the effect of a treatment on behavior. ✓ Observation ✓ Measurement ✓ Experimentation Cause-and –effect relationship – the relation between a particular behavior and a set of antecedents that always preceded it – whereas other antecedents do not – so that the set is inferred to cause the behavior. Necessary vs. sufficient conditions Identifying antecedent conditions Steps in scientific method Step 1: Observe behavior or other phenomena Step 2: Form a tentative answer or explanation Step 3: Use hypothesis to generate a testable prediction Step 4: Evaluate prediction by observation Step 5: Use the observation to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis Application of scientific method ✓ Stating the problem and formulate a hypothesis ✓ Test the hypothesis ✓ Select a sample of participants ✓ Randomly assign the groups ✓ Randomly assign groups to conditions (treatment) ✓ Define the independent variable ✓ Define the dependent variable ✓ Control relevant extraneous variable ✓ Conduct statistical test so that you can confirm or disconfirm they hypothesis ✓ Generalized and explain the hypothesis, attempt to explain findings by means of a more genera theory.  Key areas in psychology to explore scientific study Psychophysics – defined as the study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience. (sensory and perceptual process) determining sensory thresholds, such as the absolute threshold (the minimum stimulus intensity that can be detected) and the difference threshold (the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli). Signal Detection theory developed within psychophysics, helps in understanding how decisions are made under conditions of uncertainty. It separates the ability to detect a signal from the decision criteria used by the observer. scaling methods to quantify subjective experiences, such as magnitude estimation, where participants assign numerical values to the perceived intensity of stimuli.  Key areas in psychology to explore scientific study Learning is a key process in human behavior. “Any relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential produced by experience” (Gordon, 1989). Learning theories provide a foundation for designing experiments. For instance, an experiment might involve rewarding participants for completing tasks to see how it influences their performance Learning principles can guide the structure of experiments, including the selection of variables, controls, and measurement techniques. Using pre-tests and post-tests to measure learning outcomes in educational interventions. This approach can help determine the effectiveness of different teaching methods or materials  Key areas in psychology to explore scientific study Memory encompasses various aspects of cognitive processes, methodologies, and theoretical frameworks. Using the multi-store model of memory (sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory), researchers can design experiments to test how information is transferred between these stores An experiment could investigate the effects of different types of encoding (e.g., semantic vs. phonetic) on memory retention. Participants might be asked to remember words based on their meaning or sound, and their recall performance can be compared to determine which encoding method is more effective. Using neuroimaging techniques to study the neural correlates of memory processes. This can provide insights into how different brain regions are involved in encoding, storage, and retrieval of memories. Memory research often involves human participants, necessitating careful consideration of ethical issues, which can inform the ethical design of other psychological experiments Think of a topic in your field that you wish to work on: a. State your observations b. Make tentative hypothesis c. Make plans on how you can correctly test these References University Library references BF 76.5 M67 2021 CIRC Morling, B. (2017). Research methods in psychology: evaluating a world of information. WW Norton & Company BR 181 M94 2012 CIRC Myers, A. & Hansen, A. (2012). Experimental Psychology. Cengage Learning BF 79 T54 2020 REF/F Tiglao, K. & Alegre, H. (2020). Experimental psychology: laboratory manual. Anvil Publishing Other references Hall, P. A. (2013). Psychological Science. In Springer eBooks (pp. 1560–1561). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_1175 Gladwell, M. E. (2007). Blink: The power of thinking without thinking. How to think straight about psychology (9th ed.). New York: Little, Brown & Company. Shergill, H.K. (2012) Experimental Psychology. PHI Learning Private Ltd. Get in Touch With Us Send us a message or visit us City of Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines (63) 77-600-0459 [email protected] Follow us for updates facebook.com/MMSUofficial www.mmsu.edu.ph