Visual Perception Past Paper PDF 1960

U3 Topic Paper Article Aim / method Results Significance to research Theories 2. Visual Hudson. 1960 Hudson, W. Cultural differences in Schooled participants Strength: Depth pe...

U3 Topic Paper Article Aim / method Results Significance to research Theories 2. Visual Hudson. 1960 Hudson, W. Cultural differences in Schooled participants Strength: Depth perception percepti 1960 perception had higher rates of 3D Pictorial depth · Can be used to evaluate Binocular and monocular on of 2D/3D images, western perception perception in social influences on visual depth cues vs uneducated African sub-cultural perception cultures. Pictorial depth cues groups in Africa · First of kind to investigate Visual perception cues Levels of education used for images: size, Limit: (culture) and perception depth cues, overlap and shadow · Only two ethnocentric groups (reliability) · Only investigated depth cues on perception Deregowski, JB Deregowski, Investigated if perception Africans = 2D Strength: Perception: relative size, 1972 JB 1972 of pictures rely on learning perceivers superimposition, linear · Cross cultural -> western vs African perspective Pictorial 3D perceivers - built 3D research helps perception and · Man with spear models, took more account for innate vs Pictorial depth culture time on ambiguous learned skills perception · The toothpick images · Investigated cultural modelling square thing Ambiguous figures diversity in 2D perceivers - built flat · 2 pronged trident - perception, ignored in models, drey ambiguous image research at the time ambiguous quickly, · Birdseye elephant preferred one side of Limit: animal over · Biased and perspective ethnocentric -> didn't  account ways which Africans may perceive · Didn't include texture gradient -> important for both cultures All theories have possible links to racism, prejudice, discrimination Deregowski, Deregowski, Remote highland and Able to recognise Strength: Perceptual set - JB, Muldrow, ES & JB, Muldrow, lowland tribes, recognition correctly, however experience and · Internal validity - Muldrow, WF, ES & Muldrow, of familiar objects in lowlands had recognition of pictures experiment with cultural 1972 WF 1972 pictures - different somewhat greater knowledge animals depending where familiarity of animals Pictorial they lived Limit: representation in remote Ethiopian · Participants got stressed - Perception is mostly population unethical based on past familiarity - but skills can be learnt Bugelski, BR & Bugelski, BR & n/a on cheat sheet Alampay DA, Alampay, DA. 1961 1961 The role of frequency in developing perceptual sets 3. Memory Baddeley, AD & Baddeley & Responded to Atkinson Proposed the working Strength: Working model Hitch, 74 Hitch 1974 and Shiffrin multi-store model of 3 stores · Heavily supported by model of mem (proposed Working Memory · Central executive, experimental evidence theres 1 store) visuo-spatial · Can be applied to real life developed alternative sketchpad, tasks memory store model phonological loop Limit: · Central executive capacity + function cannot be clearly measured or explained Grant et al Grant et al. Is memory context Performance was Strength: Context-dependent 1998 dependent? better in matching memory Context- · Ecological validity: conditions dependent Read in silent vs noisy, applicable to real student life memory for · Environmental Assessed in silent vs noisy · Wide age range 17-59 yrs meaningful context appears material: Recognition + recall important in retrieval Limit: information for questions students · Small sample size n=39 4. Learning Pavlov, IP 1897 Pavlov, 1987 Pavlov's dog. Dogs learned to Strength: Behaviorist theory associate bell with The work of the Classical conditio ning · Historical validity: verified · Behaviour = learnt food digestive glands observable evidence support Paired association - food UC S - food theories with bell ringing to elicit response (salivation) UC R - saliva Limit: Neutral S - bell  CS - bell · Conducted on animals, underestimate human CR - saliva behaviour Extinction, · No all behaviour spontaneous recovery, explained by classical generalisation, conditioning discrimination Bandura, A. 1977 Bandura, A Children/adults Found observers must Learning takes place in variety Social learning theory 1977 imitating observed of situations Social learning · Attend to · Build on classical behaviour - theory modelled behaviour Strength: and operant particularly aggression · Retain/remember · Scientifically observed Observational learning evidence explains cognitive form · Reproduce and social aspects of behaviour Modelling and vicarious observation learning conditioning · Motivated to Limit: produce behaviour · Historical validity Watson, JB & Watson, JB & Little Albert and white rat Fear can be Strength: Classical conditioning Rayner, R. 1920 Rayner, R. conditioned Tested whether emotional · Provided understanding of Generalisation 1920 Conditioned responses were innate generalisation and Discrimination emotional (reflexes) or learnt discrimination Generalisation reactions Extinction occurred -> other white Limit: furry things elicited Limbic system - NS - white rat · Unethical: little Albert different degrees of Amygdala wasn't removed before  UCS - loud noise original feared extinction occurred -> cause response phobia Touch rat - hear loud noise - cause fear response · Couldn't assess long-term consequences · Phobia may be cause by conditioned emotional responses Skinner, BF. repeated Discrimination the pigeon · Rewarded with food · Highly controlled Extinction environment - accurate Positive/negative observations Modification of Test whether reinforced punishers - decrease behaviour behaviour = repeated, or if Limit: likelihood of behaviour not reinforced = repeating · Historical validity - 1948 extinguished breh · Does not detail exact (positive=give equipment necessary for today something, experiments negative=take something) U4 Topic Paper Article Aim / method Results Significance to Theory research 1. Social Haney, C, Haney, Banks Stanford prison experiment, 22 Guards harassed People comply with Status and Psychology Banks, C & and Zimbardo male students assigned guard or prisoners, prisoners social roles - Power - Zimbardo, P 1973 prisoner roles at random became submissive. particularly ones compliance 1973 that are stereotyped A study of Put into simulation of prison Prisoners suffered Situational and prisoners and · Status and environment and observed emotional dispositional guards in a power in groups breakdown, attributions simulated traumatised Strength: prison · Changed ethical procedures in prisons at the time Limit: · Ecological validity: participants admitted to acting · Population validity: all male college students Cialdini et al Cialdini et al STEALING WOOD SIGNS Descriptive normative Strength: Social influence 2006 2006 = increased theft - descriptive National park - 2655 visitors · Observed support for a theory Managing Whether normative Injunctive normative = through and injunctive social norms communication impacted stealing reduced theft experimentation norms for persuasive behaviour · Population impact validity: large sample Injunctive(neg) - Please don’t remove wood · Ecological validity: natural to Injunctive(pos) - Please real life setting leave wood in park Descriptive(neg) - Past visitors have stolen, change the state of Limit: the forest. · Hard to establish cause/effect - extraneous variables Milgram, S. Milgram, S Authoritarian, teach and learner - All participants Strength: Authority and 1963 1963 shock experiment obeyed up to 300 obedience · Internal volts Behavioural validity: control of study of variables, Participants told by authority figure Situational and obedience participants to shock another person Concluded: dispositional believed everything attributions · situational was real factors are strong · Provide influencers on human evidence on how behaviours situational factors  · Humans make influence incorrect behaviour dispositional Limit: attributions about behaviour · Unethical - deception - no right to withdraw evident · Population validity: all white males · Ecological validity: done in a lab Asch, SE 1951 Asch, SE 1951 Asch conformity study 75% conformed at Strength: Conformity least once Effects of group One participant, seven · Replicability Normative pressure upon confederates social the influence Line judgement task - obvious Concluded modification Limit: answers Information and distortion Normative social · Unethical - influence of judgements influence: people will deception conform to fit in with groups · Population validity - not Informational representative, 50 influence: believe males  group is better · Historical informed validity - 1950s social norms · Ecological validity - lab setting Gould, L 1983 Gould, L. 1983 n/a on cheat sheet X: A fabulous child's story 2. Interpersonal Darley, JM Darley, JM & Fake seizure on audio Diffusion of Strength: Diffusion of processes & Latane, B. Latane, B, responsibility: responsibility Students in booth with · High 1968 1968 headphones and mic (deceived - · Revealed ecological validity: Bystander recording the whole time) presence of replicated real intervention in bystanders reduces emergency Victim faked going into a seizure emergencies: personal and asked for help Diffusion of responsibility, responsibility lowered speed of Limit: reporting IV - Number of people present · Population changed validity: uneven female/male, all DV - Length of time to report Uni students measured Buss, DM et al Buss et al Cultural differences in mate Largest difference Strength: 1990 1990 selection related to chastity · Population (virginity) International · 9474 participants, 33 validity: large and perferences in countries across 6 continents Few differences in diverse sample selecting mate characteristics mates: A study · Showed of 37 cultures Limit: universally important things in mate · Translation of selection questionnaire Rollie, SS & Rollie and Updated model of relationship 1. Intrapsychic Strength: Relationship Duck, SW 2005 Duck 2005 dissolution dissolution 2. Dyadic · Useful Divorce and · Dissolution = a process, NOT research tool 3. Social dissolution of a single event · Can explain romantic 4. Grave- relationships, key relationships: dressing characteristics and Stage models and their 5. Resurrection possible reasons for relationship limitations breakdowns Limit: · Little benefit for people actually going through the process of dissolution  · Neglects culture, socially biased 3. Attitudes Festinger, L Festinger, L Person induced to do/say $1 rated task more Strength: 1957 1957 something contrary to their beliefs, enjoyable than $20 · Cognitive they may change their beliefs to and control group A Theory of dissonance theory correspond with their actions. cognitive $1 had less pressure relevant dissonance to comply. · The theories Lab, 71 male students, and are very testable a boring experience with Even though it was experimentation 3 groups - controlled, $1, $20. contrary to their opinion, they were Limit: Paid participants had to tell more likely to change someone the experience was · Limitations to their opinion to interesting the theory as well correspond with their behaviour o Cognitive dissonance is an internal process so cannot be observed or measured o Studies supporting the theory have low ecological validity · Ecological and population validity  - lab, large sample size however all male students Tajfel, H. 1970 Experiments in Investigated behaviour and Experiment 1: Proposed social Social identity Intergroup treatment individuals placed in majority allocated identity theory theory = Experiments in Discrimination groups give in-group and out-group greater amounts to categorization, Intergroup · Group members own group members social Discrimination membership, if a identification person increases and social their self-image, 64 males 14-15 years, same Experiment 2: boys comparison they enhance their school rather allocated status in their In-groups and money for the benefit Experiment 1: 2 groups based on group Out-groups of their own group test scores, instructed to allocate (intergroup money to other participants behaviour) Strength: Groups were more Discrimination concerned about · Experimental Experiment 2: 3 groups based on creating as much design: increased aesthetic preference, similar difference as reliability matrix but could allocate money to possible their group or anyone in the study Limit: · discrimination · Population caused by segregation validity: boys and of boys into in or out age groups. · Ecological validity: artificial conditions  · Historical validity: 1970s Ross, LD, Ross, LD, Why people fail to make allowance EXP 1 Strength: Social Amabile, TM & Amabile, TM & for external factors when making psychology Test group: Results · Provides Steinmetz, JL Steinmetz, JL opinions on other people's supported hypothesis support for Attribution 1977 1977 performance fundamental theory Social roles, attribution error social control Control group: No Hypothesised people would make · evidence how and biases in distinct difference good impressions of questioners attributions could social- between pair and bad impressions of be used to explain perception contestants. behaviour EXP 2 · Used experimental EXP 1: Observers impression design, increased of participants reliability and 18 male and 18 female pairs play a matched the EXP 1, validity quiz game amongst themselves questioner seen as Randomly assigned questioner or more knowledgeable Limit: contestant role than contestant · Population Test group: questioner validity - constructed 10 questions for participants all contestant students Control group: questioner read · Sample bias - pre-prepared questions for participants all contestant from undergraduate psychology class  EXP 2: added 1 male and 1 female · Ecological observer (audience) to each of the validity - lab female pairings environment Bargh, JA, Bargh, Chen & 60 participants primed with elderly Participants primed Evidence that Ageism - Chen, M & Burrows, 1996 stereotypes or neutral words with elderly social behaviour priming and Burrows, L whilst completing a test. stereotypes had can be influenced stereotypes 1996 slower walking speed by priming using than neutral stereotypes Automaticity of After test, made to walk and were condition social timed behaviour: Strength: Direct effects of trait construct · Experimental and stereotype design increases activation on reliability and action validity · Research provides many implications for social psychology theories including conformity, empathy, imitation and modelling, behavioral  confirmation of stereotypes Limit: · Population validity - small sample, undergrade students · Ecological validity - artificial environment 4. Cross- McMillian, DW McMillian, DW Article... Aimed to describe Authors concluded by Theory for sense of Community cultural & Chavis, DM & Chavis, DM dynamics that make a ‘sense of saying they hope the community Psych 1986 1986 community’ article assists in strengthened further research in Sense of · Membership Strength: way to strengthen community: A · Influence social fabric with the · Validity: easy definition and development of sense applications to theory · Integration and fulfilment of of community existing groups, needs used existing · Shared emotional groups connections Limit: · Theory untested at publication · Therefore, validity and reliability of assertions not determined · Elements of theory have since been supported by research