Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology PDF

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology CN 111 – Human Anatomy & Physiology for Nurses Topic Learning Outcome 1 Relates the relevance of learning anatomy and physiology to nursing Definition: Human Anatomy & Physiology Anatomy is basically the study of structure, framing, and the relati...

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology CN 111 – Human Anatomy & Physiology for Nurses Topic Learning Outcome 1 Relates the relevance of learning anatomy and physiology to nursing Definition: Human Anatomy & Physiology Anatomy is basically the study of structure, framing, and the relationship between body parts. Physiology is the branch of medical science that deals with the study of functions of body parts as a whole.  Branches of Anatomy 1. Gross Anatomy also known as regional or topographic anatomy, is the most traditional and common branch of anatomy focuses on the study of anatomical structures with the naked eye, using dissection and direct observation techniques divided into different regions of the body, such as the head, neck, trunk, upper and lower limbs, among others Macroscopic anatomists study the spatial arrangement of organs and tissues, as well as their anatomical relationships within each body region  Branches of Anatomy 2. Microscopic Anatomy also known as histology, focuses on the study of tissues at a microscopic level using microscopes to observe cells and tissue structures, microscopic anatomists analyze the morphology and function of tissues such as epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissues essential for understanding the organization and functioning of organs at the cellular level, as well as for the diagnosis of diseases based on specific tissue changes  Branches of Anatomy 3. Pathological Anatomy focuses on the study of anatomical and cellular alterations caused by diseases Pathology anatomists analyze tissue samples obtained through biopsies, autopsies, or other methods to identify pathological changes associated with diseases such as cancer, infections, or degenerative diseases crucial for the accurate diagnosis of diseases, treatment planning, and investigation of the anatomical basis of medical conditions  Branches of Anatomy 4. Radiological Anatomy focuses on the study of anatomical structures using medical images, such as x-rays, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound Radiologic anatomists interpret these images to visualize organs, tissues, and internal structures without the need for surgical intervention of vital importance in the diagnosis and monitoring of diseases, as well as in the planning of medical and surgical procedures  Branches of Anatomy 5. Comparative Anatomy dedicated to the comparative study of the anatomy of different species, with the aim of identifying similarities and differences in body structure between them allows us to understand the evolution and adaptation of organisms over time, as well as investigate the genetic and functional bases of anatomical variations between species fundamental to evolutionary biology, taxonomy, and life sciences research  Branches of Physiology 1. Applied physiology study of biological systems and its applications is known as applied physiology the application of physiological characteristics information to re-establish core and joint stability not the same as clinical practice  Branches of Physiology 2. Clinical physiology takes a functional approach to understanding a disease’s pathogenesis a diagnostic speciality where patients are referred for specialist examinations of heart, blood vessels, lungs, kidneys, gastrointestinal system, and other organ functions A clinical psychologist studies the cognitive, emotional, biological, psychological, social, and behavioural elements of human performance across the course of a person’s life, regardless of culture or socioeconomic status  Branches of Physiology 3. Exercise physiology study of the physiological effects of physical activity one of the allied health professions that studies acute and chronic reactions to exercise the autonomic control of the cardiovascular system an essential discipline for achieving healthy living circumstances by ensuring that all body components operate properly and that current health issues are processed and improved  Branches of Physiology 4. Nutrition physiology study of how the body obtains nutrients from food, how we get the energy we require, how we use nutrients, and how all of this relates to health and disease concerned with the impact of various foods on the body’s metabolism Both animal agriculture and human medicine recognize the necessity of nutrition during growth, development, and ageing become increasingly clear that a healthy and functional gut is essential for overall health, and that many of today’s major ailments, such as heart failure, stroke, cancer, and diabetes Why an A&P Class is a Must for Nurses 1. Fundamental Knowledge ❖Anatomy and Physiology provide basic knowledge about the human body. ❖It helps in clearing the fundamental concepts as to how our bodies function. Why an A&P Class is a Must for Nurses 2. Theoretical & Practical Knowledge ❖With the help of the classes of anatomy and physiology, one gets to learn not only the theoretical concepts but practical functionalities of the human body too. ❖It is not only a theory-based subject of science but a practical-oriented subject too. Why an A&P Class is a Must for Nurses 3. Conditions of Emergencies ❖ In the absence of supervising doctors, nurses are the ones who are supposed to take care of patients in emergencies. ❖ To cope with such situations, nurses should be familiar with the concepts of anatomy and physiology which can, ultimately, prove to be of great help. Why an A&P Class is a Must for Nurses 4. Tracking of Patient’s Health ❖ Anatomy and Physiology education help in understanding the health status of patients. ❖ It helps in assessing, evaluating, diagnosing, and tracking a patient’s health. ❖ The theories of this subject assist in comprehending the overall condition of the human body. Why an A&P Class is a Must for Nurses 4. Tracking of Patient’s Health ❖Anatomy and Physiology education help in understanding the health status of patients. ❖It helps in assessing, evaluating, diagnosing, and tracking a patient’s health. ❖The theories of this subject assist in comprehending the overall condition of the human body. Why an A&P Class is a Must for Nurses 5. Improves Medical & Clinical Skills ❖Having apt learning about human anatomy helps in improving and polishing the medical and clinical skills & competencies of nurses. ❖Since these, topics are quite integral to medical science, they help you in becoming a well-skilled nurse. Topic Learning Outcome 2 Differentiates the six levels of structural organization Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems  Cellular Level considered when a variety of molecules combine to form the fluid and organelles of a body cell cell is the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism living structures of human anatomy contain cells, and almost all functions of human physiology are performed in cells or are initiated by cells For example, a smooth muscle cell, typically consists of flexible membranes that enclose cytoplasm, a water-based cellular fluid together with a variety of tiny functioning units called organelles.  Tissue Level tissue level can be studied when similar cells form a body tissue A tissue is a group of many similar cells (though sometimes composed of a few related types) that work together to perform a specific function. For example, when many smooth muscle cells come together both structurally and functionally, these cell collectively form a layer of smooth muscle tissue.  Organ organ is an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of two or more tissue types, which forms the organ level of organization each organ performs one or more specific physiological functions the human bladder, which is composed of smooth muscle tissue, transitional epithelial tissue, and several types of connective tissue serves the function of storing urine produced by the kidneys  Organ System Level organ system level is a group of organs that work together to perform major functions or meet physiological needs of the body In this level, both the kidneys and the bladder are organs of the urinary system. The kidneys produce urine, which is moved to the bladder by the ureters. Urine can then leave the bladder, and the body, through the urethra these four organs work together to rid the body of liquid waste ORGAN SYSTEM OF THE HUMAN BODY ORGAN SYSTEM OF THE HUMAN BODY  Topic Learning Outcome 3 Describes the structure and functions of the components of a human cell. C.1 Parts of a Cell C.2. The Plasma Membrane C.3. Transport across the Plasma Membrane C.4. Cell Division PARTS OF A CELL  PARTS OF A CELL: CELL MEMBRANE A thin semipermeable membrane layer of lipids and proteins surrounding the cell. Its primary role is to protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it controls the entry and exit of nutrients and other microscopic entities into the cell. For this reason, cell membranes are known as semi- permeable or selectively permeable membranes.  Glycoprotein: cell-cell recognition, cell adhesion Globular Proteins: transport channels for ions / molecules Cell Membrane Receptor Proteins: receivers, markers, activators Integral Membrane Proteins: molecule transfer Carbohydrate Sugar Chain: cell-to-cell recognition Peripheral Membrane Proteins: molecule transfer Cholesterol: maintaining the structural integrity and regulating the fluidity of cell membranes Phospholipid Bilayer (Hydrophobic Heads & Hydrophobic Tail): a barrier to the passage of molecules and ions into and out of the cell  PARTS OF A CELL: NUCLEUS ❖ Nucleus: membrane-enclosed organelle within a cell that contains the chromosomes suspended in a fluid substance nucleoplasm. Chromosomes/Chromatin: made up of Deoxyribonucleic acid (genetic material) combined with proteins Nuclear envelope: double-layered membrane that encloses the contents of the nucleus Nuclear pores: regulate the passage of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm Nucleolus: synthesizes ribosomes  PARTS OF A CELL:CENTROSOME It is a small organelle found near the nucleus where centrioles are produced A centrosome is a cellular structure involved in the process of cell division. Before cell division, the centrosome duplicates and then, as division begins, the two centrosomes move to opposite ends of the cell.  PARTS OF A CELL: LYSOSOME membrane-enclosed organelles that contain an array of lysozymes capable of breaking down all types of biological polymers— proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids  PARTS OF A CELL:CYTOPLASM A jelly-like material which contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within the cell membrane. Cytoplasm refers to the fluid (cytosol) that fills the cell, which includes the cytosol along with filaments, proteins, ions and macromolecular structures as well as the organelles suspended in the cytosol.  PARTS OF A CELL: GOLGI APPARATUS A flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle which is located near the nucleus and involved in manufacturing, storing, packing and transporting the particles throughout the cell.  PARTS OF A CELL: MITOCHONDRION Mitochondria are membrane- bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions. Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).  PARTS OF A CELL: ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM a large, dynamic structure that serves many roles in the cell including calcium storage, protein synthesis and lipid metabolism  Transport Across a Cell Membrane Passive transport mechanisms use no energy (ATP) Active transport requires ATP to get done.  PASSIVE TRANSPORT: DIFFUSION Simple Diffusion - molecules move down their gradients through the Example: membrane Facilitated Diffusion GLUT4 important - helped along channels in diabetes are glycoproteins that allow molecules to pass through the membrane  PASSIVE TRANSPORT: OSMOSIS a type of diffusion specifically for water molecules moving across a semi-permeable membrane.  PASSIVE TRANSPORT: OSMOSIS Suppose cell is placed in a solution of sugar or salt in water. A. If the medium is hypotonic relative to the cell cytoplasm, the cell will gain water through osmosis. B. If the medium is isotonic, there will be no net movement of water across the cell membrane. C. If the medium is hypertonic relative to the cell cytoplasm, the cell will lose water by osmosis.  PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT primary active transport directly uses ATP for energy Example: ATP pump is the proton/potassium exchanger (H+/K+ ATPase) found in the stomach  SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT Secondary active transport moves multiple molecules across the membrane, powering the uphill movement of one molecule(s) (A) with the downhill movement of the other(s) (B). TYPES: SYMPORTERS: both molecules moved in the same direction Example: SGLT2 is a glucose transporter that allows glucose (Molecule A) into our cells (against its gradient) by bringing in a sodium molecule (Molecule B) as well. ANTIPORTERS: allow molecules to go in opposite directions Example: Sodium/calcium exchanger used to restore cardiomyocyte (heart cell) calcium concentrations after an action potential  ACTIVE TRANSPORT: EXOCYTOSIS form of bulk transport during which large numbers of molecules are transported out of the cell important for the transport of neurotransmitters ACTIVE TRANSPORT: ENDOCYTOSIS (Phagocytosis) cells engulf viruses, bacteria, or other particles are too large to use small channels to transport through the plasma membrane and pull them in  CELL DIVISION MITOSIS – gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is maintained  IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS Development and growth: The number of cells within an organism increases by mitosis. Cell replacement: In some parts of the body, e.g. skin and digestive tract, cells are constantly sloughed off and replaced by new ones.  MEIOSIS a type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that reduces the number of chromosomes in gametes (the sex cells, or egg and sperm) MEIOSIS Oogenesis & Spermatogenesis