Instructional Methods PDF

RESTRICTED CHAPTER 2 INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS FOR TEACHING Rationale 1. Teaching methods are the broader skills used to help students achieve learning outcomes. Teaching methods help students to master the...

RESTRICTED CHAPTER 2 INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS FOR TEACHING Rationale 1. Teaching methods are the broader skills used to help students achieve learning outcomes. Teaching methods help students to master the content of the course and learn how to apply the content in particular contexts. It is a chines proverb that “A thousand teachers, a thousand methods.” Desired Learning Outcomes 2. After the completion of this module our respected teachers will be able to: i. Understand the concept of instructional method and technique. ii. Differentiate between instructional method and technique. iii. Comprehend the importance of instructional method. iv. Select appropriate teaching method according to the need of content, level of the student, availability of time and availability of resources. v. Implement different instructional methods required for teaching science. Introduction 3. A instructional method refers to the set of step-by-step procedures used by the teacher in guiding the learners to achieve learning objectives in an effective manner. Before moving toward instructional methods and skills it is important to understand the instructional framework. So in first section of the module a brief introduction of instructional framework is give because you have learnt its detail discussion in general pedagogy. In the very next part of the module instructional methods for teaching science are discussed in detail. Relevant examples from the curriculum are also quoted to make the module conducive. Moreover room of improvement is always there so suggestions and criticism for the sake of improvement will always be welcomed. Instructional Framework Different authors, educationists and theorists have different views about the hierarchy of the terms used in the instructional framework1. 1 Joyce, Bruce, and Emily Calhoun. "Three sides of teaching: styles, models, and diversity." In International handbook of research on teachers and teaching, pp. 645-652. Springer, Boston, MA, 2009. Page 1 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED Instructional framework Strategy Method Technique Meaning in Urdu Meaning in Master Plan Procedure Skill, Ability, English proficiency Definition A strategy as a A method, is an A technique is a way careful plan for organized, orderly, of carrying out a achieving goals systematic, and particular task, usually over a long well-planned especially in the period of time2. procedure aimed at execution of duty4. facilitating and enhancing students’ learning. 3. Example Direct instruction Traditional lecture Planning, Evaluating, method communication, Listening, Questioning, 2 Merriam Webster Dictionary (2016). Meaning of strategy. Retrieved from Merriam- Webster.com/dictionary/teaching on 23rd June, 2017 3 HASANOVA, NASIBA, BUNYOD ABDUAZIZOV, and RAVSHAN KHUJAKULOV. "The Main Differences Between Teaching Approaches, Methods, Procedures, Techniques, Styles And Strategies." JournalNX 7, no. 02: 371-375. 4 Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2016). Meaning of technique. Retrieved from oxford dictionaries.com/definition/technique on 23rd June, 2017 Page 2 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED Instructional Models Models represent the broadest level of instructional practices and present a philosophical orientation to instruction. Models are used to select and to structure teaching strategies, methods, skills, and student activities for a particular instructional emphasis. Joyce and Weil (1986) identify four models: information processing model, behavioral model, social interaction model, and personal Model. Instructional Strategy Teaching strategies refer to the methods, skills, procedures and processes that a teacher uses during instruction. It is generally recognized that teaching strategies are multidimensional and their effectiveness depends on the context in which they are applied. Strategies determine the methods, a teacher may take to achieve learning objectives. Strategies can be classified as direct, indirect, interactive, experiential, or independent. Instructional Method 4. Instructional method is a systematic way in which a teacher uses to transfer or receive or share information. Geoffrey defines teaching method as the process of imparting knowledge and skills which is used by a teacher in the classroom. It implies the use of principles and theories of instructions; it can include class participation, demonstrations, recitation5. A systematic procedure, technique, or mode of attaining the objectives is called method. Teaching method is a systematic way of teaching something. It implies an orderly logical arrangement of steps. It is more procedural. In other words teaching methods refer to a set of practices and principles used by teachers to make the process of teaching and learning highly effective for their students. Teaching methods, are usually also based on various beliefs regarding the nature of the content which is being taught, and nature of the learner. In other words, as applied to classroom setting, a teaching method is a series of related and progressive acts performed by the teacher and the learners to accomplish the general and specific objectives of the lesson. For the appropriate selection of teaching method a teacher might keep in mind the student’s ability, the duration of the class, the need of the content, the context in which that particular content is being taught, class Size, the learning Objectives, availability of the learning material, autonomy of Students & examination set up. Teaching Technique 5. Technique is a well-defined procedure used to accomplish a specific activity or task. Many skills are used in a single method. It’s a way of carrying out a particular task, especially the execution or performance of an artistic work or a scientific procedure. The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2016) defines a technique as a way of carrying out a particular task, especially in the execution of duty6. 5 Bello J. Y. (1981). Basic Principle of Teaching. John Willey and Sons Ibadan 6 Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2016). Meaning of technique. Retrieved from oxford dictionaries.com/definition/technique on 23rd June, 2017 Page 3 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED 1. Direct Instruction The Direct instruction strategy is highly teacher-directed and is most commonly used. The direct instruction strategy is effective for providing information or developing step-by-step skills. This strategy also works well for introducing other teaching methods, or actively involving students in knowledge construction. Direct instruction is usually deductive. That is, the rule or generalization is presented and then illustrated with examples. While this strategy may be considered among the easier to plan and to use, it is clear that effective direct instruction is often more complex than it would first appear. This strategy includes methods such as: a. Demonstration Method In demonstration mthod teacher does step-by-step process in front of students. It is also described as a display or an exhibition usually done by the teacher while the students watch with keen interest. The demonstration method refers to the type of teaching method in which the teacher is the principal actor while the learners watch with the intention to act later. i. It saves time and facilitates material economy. ii. The method is an attention-inducer and a powerful motivator in lesson delivery. iii. Students receive feedback immediately through their own products. iv. It gives a real-life situation of the course of study as students acquire skills in real-life situations using tools and materials. v. It helps to motivate students when carried out by skilled teachers and it is good in showing the appropriate ways of doing things. vi. It is a powerful means of motivating learners and arresting attention when it is employed at the beginning of the lesson. vii. It saves time. viii. Materials are economized as the demonstration is done for a group of learners and not individual learners. ix. It makes abstract concepts real. x. It aids learners’ observational skills. Teachers not only demonstrate specific learning concepts within the classroom, they can also participate in demonstration classrooms to help improve their own teaching strategies, which may or may not be demonstrative in nature. Although the literature is limited, studies show that the effects of demonstration classroom teachers include a change of perspective in relating to students, more reflection in the teachers’ own classroom strategies, and more personal responsibility for student learning. The demonstration can be carried out to show: i. That water evaporates when heated; ii. How to make a doormat; iii. Application of pulleys in construction sites, quarry sites etc.; iv. Friction in metal fabrication workshop and many more. Page 4 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED In carrying out the demonstration, the following should be noted: i. Purpose of the demonstration must be clear to all students; ii. All students should see every part of the demonstration; iii. Involve the students as much as possible; and iv. Use simple and readily available apparatus and materials for demonstrations. Its only weakness is that it does not allow learners to develop manipulative skills as the demonstration is usually done by the teacher. This method can be combined with field trip method. This is because some of the activities that take place in field trips are first demonstrated to the learners by the teachers or the resource persons in the course of explanation. b. Didactic Method Didactic teaching is a teaching method that focuses on teachers giving lessons to students. Typically, teachers who use didactic teaching create structured lessons that focus on lectures. Teachers can use different teaching methods depending on the needs of their students, their personal preferences and other factors. c. Lecture Method This method is the most commonly used mode by the teachers. Teacher expects the students to quietly sit and listen to the talk about the subject matter. The teacher does all the talking while the students are passive, doing little or no talking. The lecture is seldom used in secondary school classroom teaching-learning situations. Most of what happens in teaching situations with a class size of over 200 students in tertiary institutions is lecturing. This is an organized verbal presentation of a subject matter dominated by the teacher with little or no student involvement. The teacher is responsible for organizing, preparing and presenting the lecture while the students listen. A teacher would have no option than to use the lecture method when the topic is abstract. It saves time and more topics are covered, but it is rote learning and most often students lose the essential parts of the lesson. The learners are passive and the class is boring and at the end does not make room for the acquisition of scientific skills. Some of the advantages of this method are: i. It allows the material to be clarified and presented to a large group in a short period of time. ii. It gives teachers maximum control of the teaching in terms of the amount of interaction, type of substance presented and organization of material. iii. Since note is taking accompanies the lecture, the method promotes learners’ oral and written expression. Page 5 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED iv. It also helps learners to cultivate the habit of listening attentively. However, in spite of the advantages mention above, it also has its own limitations which are: i. It encourages one-way communication. ii. It hardly takes care of individual differences. The teacher can present too much material leading to an unrealistic level of student understanding of the topic and causing information to be quickly forgotten. d. Drill and practice Method of Teaching Drill and practice is a behaviorist-aligned technique in which students are given the same materials repeatedly until mastery is achieved. In each iteration, students are given similar questions to answer or activities to perform, with a certain percentage of correct responses or actions moving the student to the next level of difficulty. The term drill and practice is defined as a method of instruction characterized by systematic repetition of concepts, examples, and practice problems. Drill and practice is a disciplined and repetitious exercise, used as a means of teaching and perfecting a skill or procedure. e. Deductive Method A deductive approach to instruction is a more teacher-centered approach. This means that the teacher gives the students a new concept, explains it, and then has the students practice using the concept. According to Bob Adamson, “The deductive method is often criticized because: i. It teaches grammar in an isolated way; ii. Little attention is paid to meaning; iii. Practice is often mechanical. ” This method can, however, be a viable option in certain situations; for example, when dealing with highly motivated students, teaching a particularly difficult concept, or for preparing students to write exams. f. Explicit teaching Method Explicit teaching involves directing student attention toward specific learning in a highly structured environment. It is teaching that is focused on producing specific learning outcomes. Topics and contents are broken down into small parts and taught individually. It involves explanation, demonstration and practice. Explicit teaching is critically about clarity in:  knowing the learner  responding to the learner  implementing focused lessons  reflection and review Page 6 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED g. Teacher Exposition Teacher exposition is a teacher-centered technique used to present subject matter in an orderly and organized fashion. It is the most frequently used method by teachers. It is normally confused with the lecture method, which is extremely expository. Teacher exposition is not a lecture method. A good teacher exposition differs from a good lecture in that the former makes specific provisions for obtaining knowledge for pupil learning at regular and frequent intervals, while the latter does not. However, teacher exposition is said to be teacher-centered, it is relatively more student-centered than lecture method. Obtaining knowledge of pupils’ learning is accomplished by frequent monitoring of pupils’ performance at relevant cognitive tasks and by observing the non-verbal dimension of the pupils’ communication. Teacher exposition, therefore, constitutes constant active interaction between teacher and pupils. A lecture may not necessarily involve the pupils actively. Since teacher exposition is the presentation of content in an orderly fashion, the key to its success is organization. That is, the breaking down of the content into less complex subtopics and the sequencing of these subtopics in a way that would maximize learning. Its strengths are found in its use such as when: i. The teacher has a copious amount of information he/she want to cover within a relatively short time; ii. The teacher is presenting new material; iii. The teacher is introducing or over-viewing a course, unit or a topic of study; iv. The teacher is presenting a summary or synthesis of materials already covered; v. The teacher is expanding the understanding of a concept; and vi. The teacher is demonstrating relationships between concepts. Its major demerit is that it limits student participation if not properly handled and creatively used by the teacher. The Science and Technology teachers are expected to select any teaching method that is appropriate in teaching a particular topic or a combination of methods were necessary in their instructional deliveries. These teaching methods can be combined in the science class to make the Science and Technology classes a worthwhile exercise. 2. Indirect Instruction Indirect instruction is mainly student-centered, although the two strategies can complement each other. Indirect instruction seeks a high level of student involvement in observing, investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypotheses. It takes advantage of students' interest and curiosity, often encouraging them to generate alternatives or solve problems. It is flexible in that it frees students to explore Page 7 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED diverse possibilities and reduces the fear associated with the possibility of giving incorrect answers. Indirect instruction also fosters creativity and the development of interpersonal skills and abilities. Students often achieve a better understanding of the material and ideas under study and develop the ability to draw on these understandings. In indirect instruction, the role of the teacher shifts from lecturer/director to that of facilitator, supporter, and resource person. The teacher arranges the learning environment, provides opportunities for student involvement, and, when appropriate, provides feedback to students while they conduct the inquiry7. This strategy is most appropriate when:  thinking outcomes are desired;  attitudes, values, or interpersonal outcomes are desired;  process is as important as product;  students need to investigate or discover something in order to benefit from later instruction;  there is more than one appropriate answer;  the focus is personalized understanding and long term retention of concepts or generalizations; Following methods are the examples of indirect strategy: a. Inductive Method Inductive instruction makes use of student “noticing”8. Instead of explaining a given concept and following this explanation with examples, the teacher presents students with many examples showing how the concept is used. The intent is for students to “notice”, by way of the examples, how the concept works. The inductive teaching method or process goes from the specific to the general and may be based on specific experiments or experimental learning. e. g. Ask students to construct a few triangles. Let them measure and sum up the interior angles in each case. The sum will be same (= 180°) in each case. Thus they can conclude that “the sum of the interior angles of a triangle = 180°). This is a case where equality of sum of interior angles of a triangle (=180°) in certain number of triangles leads us to generalize the conclusion. Thus this is an example of inductive method. 7 Westerhof, Klaas J. "On the effectiveness of teaching: Direct versus indirect instruction." School Effectiveness and School Improvement 3, no. 3 (1992): 204-215. 8 Newman, Isadore. "A Conceptualization of Mixed Methods: A Need for Inductive/Deductive Approach to Conducting Research." (2000). Page 8 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED Figure 1: Inductive verses deductive method These methods are used particularly in reasoning i.e. logic and problem solving. Reason means to draw inferences appropriate to the situation. Inferences are classified as either deductive or inductive. b. Inquiry Method In inquiry-based learning teachers offer support and guidance as students work on projects that depend on them taking on a more active and participatory role in their own learning. Different students might participate in different projects, developing their own questions and then conducting research often using online resources and then demonstrate the results of their work through self-made videos, web pages or formal presentations. Inquiry-based learning encourages students to think critically about the information they are presented with, helps students develop problem-solving skills. When they are given the opportunity to explore real-world problems, encourages creativity, improve their communication skills, helps connect learning to the real world, help students understand complex topics and encourages engaged learning. Inquiry based learning may be conducted in following ways: i. Science Experiments ii. Field Trips iii. Classroom Debates iv. Projects v. Group Work Following steps must be followed for conducting an inquiry: i. Start with a Question ii. Allow for Exploration iii. Encourage Discussion iv. Provide Resources v. Summarize What Was Learned There are specific learning processes that people engaged in during inquiry approach, these processes include: i. Creating questions of their own; ii. Obtaining supporting evidence to answer the question(s); iii. Explaining the evidence collected; Page 9 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED iv. Connecting the explanation to the knowledge obtained from the investigative process; v. Creating an argument and justification for the explanation. In the inquiry approach, the students are given the opportunity to carry out the search and discovery of facts about events and scientific and technological ideas. The pupils should be made to observe carefully, identify the problem, explorations, hypothesizing, predicting, describing and conducting experiments, collecting data, organizing and analyzing data, reporting, making generalizations and so on. It develops attitudinal skills such as objectivity, curiosity, open-mindedness, and perseverance. Inquiry entails practicing of attitudinal skill such as honesty, open- mindedness, and perseverance when carrying out science and technology tasks. Inquiry can be open-ended or close-ended. It could also be done in the classroom or outside the classroom. The strengths of this activity are: i. It enables learners to be actively involved as the method emphasizes learning through thinking. ii. It facilitates the discovery of meaningful concepts, minimizes memorization and stresses the importance of experience in solving a problem or arriving at a logical conclusion. iii. It motivates learners by providing them the opportunities to satisfy the need to talk and interact with their peers. Limitation of the inquiry based learning are: i. It is time-consuming. ii. It does not allow for the effective participation of weak and below average students. 3. Interactive Instruction Strategy Interactive instruction means to teach through social interaction. The interactive instruction strategy allows for a range of groupings and interactive methods. These may include total class discussions, small group discussions or projects, or student pairs or triads working on assignments together. It is important for the teacher to outline the topic, the amount of discussion time, the composition and size of the groups, and reporting or sharing skills. Interactive instruction requires the refinement of observation, listening, interpersonal, and intervention skills and abilities by both teacher and students. The success of the interactive instruction strategy and its many methods is heavily dependent upon the expertise of the teacher in structuring and developing the dynamics of the group. a. Discussion Method Discussion simply means talking over topics from various points of view and the teacher’s role is to act as moderator. Discussion in a science classroom should be differentiated from lecturing. This is because discussion implies that every student Page 10 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED has background information that provides him with viewpoints. In the use of this method, there is an exchange of ideas between the teacher and the learner. The discussion method can be used to introduce a lesson thus motivating students’ activities. It develops a positive interpersonal relationship and provides students with a sense of confidence through the frequent exchange of ideas between the teacher and the students. It enables the teacher to get a feedback on topics taught and learners are able to express themselves in relation to the understanding they have on a particular topic. However, it cannot be used often as it does not allow easy coverage of syllabus, and not all topics led themselves to discussion. As the discussion method must necessarily start with a question, the teacher must avoid vague questions and so requires a thorough knowledge of the topics under discussion. b. Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a concept or subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates in learning, thus promoting academic achievement and cross-cultural understanding. However, the quality of achievement and other outcomes depend on the implementation of cooperative learning methods that are characterized by at least two essential elements: positive interdependence and individual accountability. In a group task, each member is individually accountable for part of an outcome that cannot be completed unless the members work together in other words, the group members are positively interdependent. Some co-operative learning methods include:  Group investigations: to emphasize higher order thinking skills and produce a group project;  Jigsaw: used with narrative material where each team member is responsible for learning a specific part of a topic, becoming the “expert” and then sharing their findings with the group.  Guided reading and other integrated cooperative reading strategies. c. Flipped Classrooms The flipped classroom is a “pedagogical approach in which direct instruction moves from the group learning space to the individual learning space, and the resulting group space is transformed into a dynamic, interactive learning environment where the educator guides students as they apply concepts and engage creatively in the subject matter9”. In this approach, face-to-face interaction is mixed with independent study usually via technology. In a common Flipped Classroom scenario, students might watch pre-recorded videos at home, watch an online lecture, review online course material, read physical or digital texts, participate in an online discussion at home and then complete attend the class and complete 9 Francl, Thomas J. "Is flipped learning appropriate?." Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching 7, no. 1 (2014). Page 11 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED their assignments related to that particular topic which they have already gone through at home. This method of learning required in-depth knowledge of objectives, processes, scenarios, and assessment criteria. It requires a detailed curriculum design organized around scaffolding learning toward mastery. The concept behind the flipped classroom is to rethink when students have access to the resources they need most. Videos on the structure atoms atom etc may be seen at home before learning structure of atom in class. 4. Experiential learning Experiential learning is the idea that learning is a product of experience. Experience might be gained from interacting and engaging with the world and people around us. This learning theory comes from David Kolb’s experiential learning cycle, and considers the role of all our experiences in learning, from emotions and cognition to our environment. Experiential learning is a great teaching method because it encourages creativity, helps students learn from mistakes, fosters reflective thinking, and prepares students for future experiences. It can be effective for several subjects, especially during science experiments, sports coaching, and group projects Experiential learning occurs when learners:  participate in an activity;  critically look back on the activity to clarify learnings and feelings;  draw useful insights from such analysis; and,  put learnings to work in new situations. (Pfeiffer & Jones, 1979) Experiential learning can be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all of which are necessary:  experiencing (an activity occurs);  sharing or publishing (reactions and observations are shared);  analyzing or processing (patterns and dynamics are determined);  inferring or generalizing (principles are derived); and,  applying (plans are made to use [earnings in new situations). The emphasis in experiential learning is on the process of learning and not on the product. A teacher can use experiential learning as an instructional strategy both in and outside the classroom. For example, in the classroom students can build and stock an aquarium or engage in a simulation. Outside the classroom they can, for example, observe courtroom procedures in a study of the legal system. a. Game-Based Students love games, and considerable progress has been made in the field of game-based learning, which requires students to be problem solvers as they work Page 12 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED on quests to accomplish a specific goal. For students, this approach blends targeted learning objectives with the fun of earning points or badges, much like they would in a video game. For teachers, planning this type of activity requires additional time and effort, so many rely on software like Class craft or 3D Game Lab to help students maximize the educational value they receive from within the gamified learning environment. b. Laboratory Method The laboratory method refers to the activities such as observation of processes, products or events carried out by a group of students or individual students. Laboratory method can be used to practice skills or acquire skills such as interpreting and operating experiments. Experiments could be carried out to verify hypotheses, confirm the known and discover the unknown. It aids the development of manipulating skills, enhances realistic learning, it aids better retention, it develops competence in learners in learners by developing confidence, and helps develop students’ scientific attitudes, interests, and skills. The method aids the learners to use their mental processes such as observing, inferring, measuring, and data analysis. The advantages of this method may not fully be realized because of the lack of the facilities and equipment necessary for the effective use of this method. c. Process-Based Teaching Method Process-based learning is a method that uses identified issues within a scenario to increase knowledge and understanding. Process-based method lays emphasis on helping the students to develop process skills through practice or hands-on activities. These activities can take place inside the school classroom or outside. The teacher is to encourage the students to learn how to observe objects or events more closely as they use their senses to gather information about the objects or events. The teacher should make sure the information which the students obtain is qualitative by describing what they have actually observed. An example of process-based learning is illustrated in the case of grouping (classification) and observation. For example, identifying similarities and differences of objects. Some of the examples are: i. Identify common weeds in the environment, ii. Identify diseases infesting crop materials in their environment, iii. Identify types of building and differentiate between each of the buildings in their environment. d. Project method The project method is one of the standard teaching methods. It is a sub-form of action-centered and student-directed learning and an initiative in which children engage in practical problem-solving for a certain period of time. It is also revealed Page 13 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED that projects focus on applying not imparting specific knowledge or skills, and more rigorously than lecture, demonstration, or recitation, they aim at the enhancement of intrinsic motivation, independent thinking, self-esteem, and social responsibility. scholars also opine that proponents of the project method attempt to allow the student to solve problems with as little teacher direction as possible. The teacher is seen more as a facilitator than a delivery of knowledge and information. Project method is a method used by science teachers to individualize instruction. It is used to teach a central theme, idea or problem to be tackled. The theme could be given to individual student or group of students. The students are encouraged to investigate, collect specimens or materials, analyze and construct things at their own. The teacher act as a guide in facilitating the student’s learning. At the end of the investigation, the reports on the project are collected and discussed with the whole class. Examples of projects include: i. Investigating the different methods of conserving and improving soil fertility, ii. Making simple weighing balance, iii. Making simple models of machines. To carry out a project, following definite and planned steps might be adopted: i. In the first step, the teacher should create such conditions in which students can make various kinds of scientific inquiries from him. Students can spot out such problems at any place, i.e., laboratory, classroom etc. ii. Once the students become interested in picking up and solving a problem, the teacher should provide them with a number of alternative suggestions out of which they can make a selection of suitable project in accordance with their mental abilities. iii. To make choice of appropriate alternative, proper suggestion and advice should be provided to the students by the teacher. While doing so, it is necessary for the teacher as well as the students keep in mind the available facilities in the school. iv. Proper planning related to the project might be made out. The teachers take certain steps by which students can be made to hold a lively discussion. v. At this stage, the teacher should assign duties and responsibilities among the students and they should be informed about their area of functions. vi. For proper execution of the project, it is necessary that all the students should be provided with equal opportunities. vii. Teachers also provide the students with the authority by which they can sub-divide the responsibility provided to them. Page 14 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED viii. Teachers provide students with proper guidance if any kind of difficulty is being faced. ix. It is the responsibility of both the teachers and students to review the success and failure of the project frequently. They should note down the difficulties which they faced during their work properly. The strength of this activity are: i. Provision of various learning experiences through the sharing of individual and individual group experiences which would definitely be different from person to person or group to group. ii. The emergence of inter-disciplinary studies as a project may contain materials from more than one subject area. iii. Use of child-centered activities which ensures that the child’s natural interests are fully taken care of during the teaching-learning process. The weaknesses of the activity are: i. It needs a lot of time and efforts to accomplish. ii. It is very difficult to plan and execute if the class is large. iii. It is easy to deviate from the objectives of the lesson. Project method is an activity oriented method of teaching. Some of its activities can be best carried out outside the school classroom which makes it appropriate for teaching topics that require outdoor science educational activities. e. Field Trip/ Excursion Method Field trips involve journeys with the pupils to observe and investigate situations outside the classroom. Many such expeditions might go no further than the school building or environment. Within the school itself, the teacher may find illustrative examples for his or her students. In the immediate environs of the school, there may be available for examinations and observation such things as different soils, flowers, a river, etc. Popular field trip sites include zoos, nature centers, public support centers such as fire stations and hospitals, government offices, local businesses, amusement parks, science museums, and factories, not only do field trips provide alternative educational opportunities for children, but they can also benefit the community if they include some type of community service. Field trips also provide students the opportunity to take a break from their normal routine and experience more hands-on learning. Places like zoos and nature centers often have interactive displays that allow children to touch plants or animals. Students who directly participate in a field experience generate a more positive attitude about the subject. The field trip is also defined by many scholars as student experiences outside of the classroom at interactive locations designed for educational purposes. Field trips are most often done in three steps: preparation, activities and follow-up activity. Preparation applies to both the student and the Page 15 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED teacher. Teachers often take the time to learn about the destination and the subject before the trip. Activities that happen during the field trips often include lectures, tours, worksheets, videos, and demonstrations. Follow-up activities are generally discussions that occur in the classroom once the field trip is completed. Field trips may be planned for five purposes: i. To provide firsthand experience, ii. To stimulate interest and motivation in science, iii. To add relevance to learning and interrelationships, iv. To strengthen observation and perception skills, and v. To promote personal (social) development. Field trips involve journeys with the students to observe and investigate situations outside the classroom about science and technology concepts and themes as they occur in actual situations. Many of such expeditions might go no further than the school building or environment. Within the school itself, the teacher may find illustrative examples for his or her students. The students usually have firsthand experience in nature and technological settings. The experiences gained during field trips are long lasting and vivid (retention). Some possible sites for field trip and related science and technology concepts are school farm/garden, playgrounds, mechanics workshop, blacksmith, electronics and electrical workshops and cyber café, streams, pounds and various industries. The teacher should give the students opportunity to select any of scientific and technological interest for the field trip. The teacher should visit the site for the field trip before the date of excursion and make necessary and adequate arrangements. The science and technology concepts to be learned should have relevance to the curriculum and the students should have sufficient time to observe and ask questions. When the pupils return, the teacher should ask them to discuss and make a report of the trip 5. Independent Study Independent study refers to the range of instructional methods which are purposefully provided to foster the development of individual student initiative, self-reliance, and self-improvement. While the independent study may be initiated by student or teacher, the focus must be on planning independent study for students under the guidance or supervision of a classroom teacher. In addition, independent study can include learning in partnership with another individual or as part of a small group. Examples of independent teaching strategy are: a. Research Project A research project is a scientific endeavor to answer a research question. Research projects are guided by a working question that develops and changes. Research allows you to pursue your interests, to learn something new, to hone your problem- solving skills and to challenge yourself in new ways. Page 16 of 17 RESTRICTED  RESTRICTED b. Home work Homework, or a homework assignment, is a set of tasks assigned to students by their teachers to be completed outside the classroom. Homework teaches students how to problem solve. Homework gives student another opportunity to review class material. Homework gives parents a chance to see what is being learned in school. Homework teaches students how to take responsibility for their part in the educational process. c. Computer-assisted instruction Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is a narrower term and most often refers to drill and- practice, tutorial, or simulation activities offered either by themselves or as supplements to traditional, teacher directed instruction. Computer-based education (CBE) and computer-based instruction (CBI) are the broadest terms and can refer to virtually any kind of computer use in educational settings, including drill and practice, tutorials, simulations, instructional management, supplementary exercises, programming, database development, writing using word processors, and other applications. References C. S. Weinstein, M. E. Romano, and A. J. Mignano, Elementary Classroom Management: Francl, Thomas J. "Is flipped learning appropriate?." Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching 7, no. 1 (2014). J. T. Dillon, Questioning and Teaching: A Manual of Practice (New York: Teachers College Press, 1988). Lessons from Research and Practice (5th edn.) (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011). Newman, Isadore. "A Conceptualization of Mixed Methods: A Need for Inductive/Deductive Approach to Conducting Research." (2000). S. D. Brookfield and S. Preskill, Discussion as a Way of Teaching (2nd edn.) (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2005). Page 17 of 17 RESTRICTED