Instructional Materials Understanding the Self PDF

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS UNDERSTANDING THE SELF Compiled by MARISSA B. FERRER LIWANAG L. MALIKSI Subject Professors 1|Page  TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 Defining the Self: Personal and Developmental Perspective on Self a...

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS UNDERSTANDING THE SELF Compiled by MARISSA B. FERRER LIWANAG L. MALIKSI Subject Professors 1|Page  TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 Defining the Self: Personal and Developmental Perspective on Self and Identity 1. Philosophical Perspective of Self 1-9 2. Sociological Perspective of Self 10-14 3. Anthropological Perspective of Self 15-20 4. Psychological Perspective of Self 21-25 CHAPTER 2 Unpacking of Self 1. The Physical and Sexual Self 26-45 2. The Material Self 46-51 3. The Spiritual Self 52-65 4. The Political Self 66-78 5. The Digital Self 79-88 CHAPTER 3 Managing and Caring for the Self 1. Learning to be a Better Learner 89-96 2. Goal Setting 97-101 3. Less Stress, More Care 102-112 2|Page  CHAPTER I DEFINING THE SELF: PERSONAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL PERSEPECTIVES ON SELF AND IDENTITY Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Explain why it is essential to understand the self; 2. Describe and discuss the different notion of the self 3. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented in different philosophical, sociological, anthropological, and psychological schools 4. Examine one’s self against the different views of self that were discussed in class. 3|Page  CHAPTER I DEFINING THE SELF: PERSONAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL PERSEPECTIVES ON SELF AND IDENTITY I. PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF SELF The history of philosophy is replete with men and women who inquired into the fundamental nature of the self. Along with the question of the primary substratum that defines the multiplicity of things in the world, the inquiry on the self has preoccupied the earliest thinkers in the history of philosophy: the Greeks. The Greeks were the ones who seriously questioned myths and moved away from them in attempting to understand reality and respond to perennial questions of curiosity, including the question of the self. The different perspectives and views on the self can be best seen and understood by revisiting its prime movers and identify the most important conjectures made by philosophers from the ancient times to the contemporary period. Socrates and Plato Socrates was more concerned with another subject, the problem of the self. He was the first philosopher who ever engaged in a systematic questioning about the self. To Socrates, and this has become his life-long mission, the true task of the philosopher is to know oneself. 4|Page  For Socrates, every man is composed of body and soul. This means that every human person is dualistic, that is, he is composed of two important aspects of his parenthood. For Socrates, this means all individuals have an imperfect, impermanent aspect to him, and the body, while maintaining that there is also a soul that is perfect and permanent. Plato, Socrates’ student, basically took off from his master and supported the idea that man is a dual nature of body and soul. In addition to what Socrates earlier 5|Page espoused, Plato added that there are three components of the soul: the rational soul, the spirited soul, and the appetitive soul. In his magnum opus, “The Republic” (Plato 2000), Plato emphasizes that justice in the human person can only be attained if the three parts of the soul are working harmoniously with one another. The rational soul forged by reason and intellect has to govern the affairs of the human person, the spirited part which is in charge of emotions should be kept at bay, and the appetitive soul in charge of base desires like eating, drinking, sleeping, and having sex are controlled as well. When this ideal state is attained, the human person’s soul becomes just and virtuous. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas Augustine’s view of the human person reflects the entire spirit of the medieval world when it comes to man. Following the ancient view of Plato and infusing it with the newfound doctrine of Christianity, Augustine agreed that man is of a bifurcated nature. An aspect of man dwells in the world and is imperfect and continuously yearns to be with the Divine and the other is capable of reaching immortality. The body is bound to die on Earth and the soul is to anticipate living eternally in a realm of spiritual bliss in communion with God. This is because the body can only thrive in the imperfect, physical reality that is the world, whereas the soul can also stay after death in an eternal realm with the all-transcendent God. The goal of every human person is to attain this communion and bliss with the Divine by living his life on Earth in virtue. 6|Page  Thomas Aquinas, the most eminent thirteenth century scholar and steward of the medieval philosophy, appended something to this Christian view. Adapting some ideas from Aristotle, Aquinas said that indeed, man is composed of two parts: matter and form. Matter, or hyle in Greek, refers to the “common stuff that makes up everything in the universe.” Man’s body is part of this matter. Form on the other hand, or morphe in Greek refers to the “essence of a substance or thing.” It is what makes it what it is. In the case of the human person, the body of the human person is something that he shares even with animals. The cells in man’s body are more or less akin to the cells of any other living, organic being in the world. However, what makes a human person a human person and not a dog, or a tiger is his soul, his essence. To Aquinas, just as un Aristotle, the soul is what animates the body; it is what makes us humans. Descartes Rene Descartes, Father of Modern Philosophy, conceived of the human person as having a body and a mind. In his famous treatise. The Meditations of First Philosophy, he claims that there is so much that we should doubt. In fact, he says that since much of what we thing and one believe are not infallible, they may turn out to be false. In the end, Descartes thought that the only thing that one cannot doubt is the existence of the self, for even if one doubts oneself, that only proves there is a doubting self, a thing that thinks and therefore, that cannot be doubted. Thus, his famous, cogito ergo sum, “I think therefore, I am.” The fact that one thinks should lead one to conclude without a trace of doubt that he exists. The self then for Descartes is also a combination of two distinct entities, the cogito, the thing that 7|Page thinks, which is the mind, and the extenza or extension of the mind, which is the body. In Descartes’ views, the body is nothing else but a machine that is attached to the mind. The human person has it but it is not what makes man a man. If at all, that is the mind. Descartes says, “But what then, am I? A thinking thing. It has been said. But what is a thinking thing? It is a thing that doubts, understands (conceives), affirms, denies, wills, refuses; that imagines also, and perceives” (Descartes 2008). Hume David Hume, a Scottish philosopher, has a very unique way of looking at man. As an empiricist who believes that one can know what comes from the senses and experiences. Hume argues that the self is nothing like what his predecessors thought of it. The self is not an entity over and beyond the physical body. One can rightly see here the empiricism that runs through his veins. Empiricism is the school of thought that espouses the idea that knowledge can only be possible if it is sensed and experienced. Men can only attain knowledge by experiencing. For example, Jack knows that Jill is another human person not because he has seen her soul. He knows she is just like him because he sees her, hears her, and touches her. What is the self then? Self, according to Hume, is simply “a bundle or collection of different perceptions, which succeed each other with an inconceivable rapidity, and are in a perpetual flux and movement.” (Hume and Steinberg 1992). Men simply want to believe that there is a unified, coherent self, a soul or mind just like what the previous philosophers thought. In reality, what one thinks is a unified self is simply a combination of all experiences with a particular person. 8|Page Kant Thinking of the “self” as a mere combination of impressions was problematic of Immanuel Kant. Kant recognizes the veracity of Hume’s account that everything starts with perception and sensation of impressions. However, Kant thinks that the thinks that men perceive around them are not just randomly infused into the human person without an organizing principle that regulates the relationship of all these impressions. To Kant, there is necessarily a mind that organizes the impressions that men get from the external world. Time and space, for example, are ideas that one cannot find in the world, but is built in our minds. Kant calls these the apparatuses of the mind. Along with the different apparatuses of the mind goes the “self.” Without the self, one cannot organize the different impressions that one gets in relation to his own existence. Kant therefore suggests that it is an actively engaged intelligence in man that synthesizes all knowledge and experience. Thus, the self is not just what gives one his personality. In addition, it is also the seat of knowledge acquisition for all human persons. 9|Page Ryle Gilbert Ryle solves the mind-body dichotomy that has been running for a long time in the history of thought by blatantly denying the concept of an internal, non- physical self. For Ryle, what truly matters is the behavior that a person manifests in his day-to-day life. For Ryle, looking for and trying to understand a self as it really exists is like visiting your friend’s university and looking for the “university.” One can roam around the campus, visit the library and the football field, and meet the administrators and faculty and still end up not finding the “university.” This is because the campus, the people, the systems, and the territory all form the university. Ryle suggests that the “self” is not an entity one can locate and analyze but simply the convenient name that people use to refer to all the behaviors that people make. Merleau-Ponty Merleau-Ponty is a phenomenologist who asserts that the mind-body bifurcation that has been going on for a long time is a futile endeavor and an invalid problem. Unlike Ryle who simply denies the “self,” Merleau-Ponty instead says that the mind and body are so intertwined that they cannot be separated from one another. 10 | P a g e One cannot find any experience that is not an embodied experience. All experience is embodied. One’s body is his opening toward his existence in the world. Because of these bodies, men are in the world. Merleau-Ponty dismisses the Cartesian Dualism that has spelled so much devastation in the history of man. For him, the Cartesian problem is nothing else but plain misunderstanding. The living body, his thoughts, emotions, and experiences are all one. 11 | P a g e II. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE From a classical sociological perspective, the self is a relatively stable set of perceptions of who we are in relation to ourselves, others, and to social systems. The self is socially constructed in the sense that it is shaped through interaction with other people. Social Institutions A social institution is a complex, integrated set of social norms organized around the preservation of a basic societal value. Obviously, the sociologist does not define institutions in the same way, as does the person on the street. Laypersons are likely to use the term "institution" very loosely, for churches, hospitals, jails, and many other things as institutions. According to Sumner and Keller institution is a vital interest or activity that is surrounded by a cluster of mores and folkways. Sumner conceived of the institution not only of the concept, idea or interest but of a institution as well. By structure he meant an apparatus or a group of functionaries. Lester F Ward regarded an institution as the means for the control and utilization of Sociologists agree that institutions arise and persist because of a definite felt need of the members of the society. While there is essential agreement on the general origin of institutions, sociologists have differed about the specific motivating factors. Sumner and Keller maintained that institutions come into existence to satisfy vital interests of man. Ward believed that they arise because of social demand or social necessity. Lewis H Morgan ascribed the basis of every institution to what he called a perpetual want. Primary Institutions Sociologists often reserve the term "institution" to describe normative systems that operate in five basic areas of life, which may be designated as the primary institutions. (1) In determining Kinship; (2) in providing for the legitimate use of power; (3) in regulating the distribution of goods and services; (4) in transmitting knowledge from one generation to the next; and (5) in regulating our relation to the supernatural. In shorthand form, or as concepts, these five basic institutions are called the family, government, economy, education and religion. 12 | P a g e The five primary institutions are found among all human groups. They are not always as highly elaborated or as distinct from one another but in rudimentary form at last, they exist everywhere. Their universality indicates that they are deeply rooted in human nature and that they are essential in the development and maintenance of orders. The secondary institutions derived from Family would be 13 | P a g e The secondary institutions of economics would be The secondary institutions of Religion would be 14 | P a g e The secondary institutions of education would be The secondary institutions of State would be 15 | P a g e  Sociologists operating in terms of the functionalist model society have provided the clearest explanation of the functions served by social institutions. Apparently, there are certain minimum tasks that must be performed in all human groups. Unless these tasks are performed adequately, the group will cease to exist. An analogy may help to make the point. We might hypothesize that cost accounting department is essential to the operation of a large corporation. A company might procure a superior product and distribute it then at the price that is assigned to it; the company will soon go out of business. Perhaps the only way to avoid this is to have a careful accounting of the cost of each step in the production and distribution process. An important feature that we find in the growth of institutions is the extension of the power of the state over the other four primary institutions. The state now exercises more authority by laws and regulations. The state has taken over the traditional functions of the family like making laws regulating marriage, divorce, adoption and inheritance. The authority of state has similarly been extended to economics, to education and to religion. New institutional norms may replace the old norms but the institution goes on. The modern family has replaced the norms of patriarchal family yet the family as an institution continues. Sumner and Keller has classified institutions in nine major categories. He referred to them as pivotal institutional fields and classified them as follows: 16 | P a g e III. ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Anthropology came from the words “Anthropos” which means human and “logos’ which means study. The subdisciplines of anthropology are cultural, archeological, biological and linguistic. Cultural explores the diversity of past and present both through ethnography – based on field-work and ethnology – based on cross-cultural comparison. Archeological interprets human behavior through material remains. Biological (physical) is the scientific study concerned with the biological and behavioral aspects of human beings and other non-human primates. Linguistic is language in its social and cultural context across time and space. Anthropological Perspective of Self Perspective is a particular way of viewing things that depends on one’s experience and personality. Self is the physical organism, possessing psychological functioning and social attributes, Katherine Ewing, 1990. 17 | P a g e 18 | P a g e Self in Culture Culture is a customary behavior and beliefs that are passed on through enculturation, Kottak, 2008. 19 | P a g e  Cultural Psychologist believed that the construal or interpretation of meaning of something has independent and interdependent construct. Independent construct is the characteristic of individualistic culture. Interdependent construct is the collectivist culture in East Asia. 20 | P a g e  Anthropological Perspective of Self 21 | P a g e 22 | P a g e IV. PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF SELF The self, identity and personality are the development of self-understanding particularly in adolescence. Theories about the self-give way for the identification of which characteristics are related to each other. To whom a person is and how or she acts in social is the thinking self. It also reflects the soul of a person or the mind is also called pure ego. The “Me” Self is the empirical self refers to the person’s experience. The sub- categories are material self, social self, and spiritual self. Material Self Is attributed to an individual’s physical attributes and material possessions that contribute to one’s self-image. Social Self refers to who a person is and how he or she acts in social situations. Spiritual Self refers to the most intimate and important part of the self that includes the person’s purpose, core values, conscience and moral behavior. Carl Rogers believed that the closer the ideal to the real self/true self, the more fulfilled and happier the individual becomes. When the ideal self is far from the real/true self, the person becomes unhappy and dissatisfied. 23 | P a g e  Multiple Selves vs. Unified Self, the construction of multiple selves varies across different interpersonal and intrapersonal roles and relationships. Coping with different selves constitutes a formidable task among adolescents. These challenges contribute heavily to the person’s struggle for a unified self. True Self vs. False Self, the function is to hide and protect the true self. The Self as Proactive and Agentic It embodies the endowments, belief systems, self-regulatory capabilities, and distributed structures and functions through which personal influence is exercised, rather than reside as a discrete entity. The core features of agency enable people to play a part in their self-development. Adaptation and self-renewal. Intentionality refers to acts done intentionally. Intentions center on plans of action with the anticipation of possible outcomes. Forethought enables the person to anticipate the likely consequences of prospective actions. Through the exercise of forethought, people are guided in their actions in the anticipation of future events. Self-reactiveness involves making choices and choosing appropriate courses of action as well as motivating and regulating them. Self-reflectiveness gives the person the ability to reflect upon and the adequacy of his or her thoughts and actions. 24 | P a g e  Represents the hidden potentialities of the psyche or total personality. Reside in the personal unconscious (forgotten experience) that is common to all human beings, known as the Collective Unconscious. Persona refers to social roles that individuals present to others. Shadow refers to the repressed thoughts that are socially unacceptable. This is often considered as the dark side of psyche. Anima is the feminine side of the male psyche. Animus is the masculine side of the female psyche. 25 | P a g e  ID, characterized by its need to satisfy basic urges and desires. Pleasure- seeking side of the self. Also considered as impulsive, child-like, demand instant gratification. Ego, refers to the I, operates on the reality principle and controls the id. It can conform with existing social conditions. Super ego refers to the “conscience” and “Moral judge” of one’s conduct. It strives for perfection rather than pleasure. 26 | P a g e Guide Questions: 1. Explain the concept of self-based on the following perspectives: a. Philosophical b. Anthropological c. Sociological d. Psychological 2. Describe the concept according to the following philosophers: a. Plato and Aristotle b. St. Augustine and St Aquinas c. Rene Descartes d. Ryle 3. How primary and secondary social institutions influence the formation of self? 4. Name and describe the different elements of culture and explain how it influence the development of self. 5. Describe the description of self-according to the following psychologists: a. Rogers b. Freud c. Jung d. Bandura 27 | P a g e  CHAPTER 2 Lesson 1: The Physical and Sexual Self Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Discuss the developmental aspect of the reproductive system; 2. Describe the erogenous zones; 3. Explain human sexual behavior; 4. Characterize the diversity of sexual behavior; 5. Describe sexually transmitted diseases; and 6. Differentiate natural and artificial methods of contraception. 28 | P a g e  CHAPTER 2 Lesson 1: The Physical and Sexual Self INTRODUCTION It has been believed that the sex chromosomes of humans define the sex (female or male) and their secondary sexual characteristics. From childhood, we are controlled by our genetic makeup. It influences the way we treat ourselves and others. However, there are individuals who do not accept their innate sexual characteristics and they tend to change their sexual organs through medications and surgery. Aside from our genes, our society or the external environment helps shape our selves. This lesson helps us better understand ourselves through a discussion on the development of our sexual characteristics and behavior. THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The gonads (reproductive glands that produce the gametes; testis or ovary) begin to form until about the eighth week of embryonic development. During the early stages of human development, the embryonic reproductive structures of males and females are alike and are said to be indifferent stage. 29 | P a g e When the primary reproductive structures are formed, development of the accessory structures and external genitalia begins. The formation of male or female structures depends on the presence of testosterone. Usually, once formed, the embryonic testes release testosterone, and the formation of the duct system and external genitalia follows. In the case of female embryos that form ovaries, it will cause the development of the female ducts and external genitalia since testosterone hormone is not produced. 30 | P a g e Any intervention with the normal pattern of sex hormone production in the embryo results in strange abnormalities. For instance, a genetic male develops the female accessory structures and external genitalia if the embryonic testes fail to produce testosterone. On the other hand, if a genetic female is exposed to testosterone (as in the case of a mother with androgen-producing tumor of her adrenal gland), the embryo has ovaries but bay develop male accessory ducts and glands, as well as a male reproductive organ and an empty scrotum. As a result, pseudohermaphrodites are formed who are individuals having accessory reproductive structures that do not “match” their gonads while true hermaphrodites are individuals who possess both ovarian and testicular tissues but this condition is rare in nature. Nowadays, many pseudohermaphrodites undergo sex change operations to have their outer selves (external genitalia) fit with their inner selves (gonads). 31 | P a g e  A critical event for the development of reproductive organs takes place about one month before birth wherein the male testes formed in the abdominal cavity at approximately the same location as the female ovaries, descend to enter the scrotum. If this normal event fails, it may lead to cryptorchidism. This condition usually occurs in young males and causes sterility (which is also a risk factor for cancer of the testes) that is why surgery is usually performed during childhood to solve this problem. Puberty is the period of life, generally between the ages of 10 and 15 years old, when the reproductive organs grow to their adult size and become functional under the influence of rising levels of gonadal hormones (testosterone in males and estrogen in females). After this time, reproductive capability continues until old age in males and menopause in females. 32 | P a g e The changes that occur during puberty is similar in sequence in all individuals but the age which they occur differs among individuals. In males, as they reach the age of 13, puberty is characterized by the increase in the size of the reproductive organs followed by the appearance of hair in the pubic area, axillary, and face. The reproductive organs continue to grow for two years until sexual maturation marked by the presence of mature semen in the testes. In females, the budding of their breasts usually occurring at the age of 11 signals their puberty stage. Menarche is the first menstrual period of females which happens two years after the start of puberty. Hormones play an important role in the regulation of ovulation and fertility of females. Diseases Associated with the Reproductive System Infections are the most common problems associated with the reproductive system in adults. Vaginal infections are more common in young and elderly women and in those whose resistance to diseases is low. Erogenous Zones Erogenous zones refer to parts of the body that are primarily receptive and increase sexual arousal when touched in a sexual manner. Some of the commonly known erogenous zones are the mouth, breasts, genitals, and anus. Erogenous zones may vary from one person to another. 33 | P a g e Some people may enjoy being touched in a certain area more than the other areas. Other common areas of the body that can be aroused easily may include the neck, thighs, abdomen, and feet. Human Sexual Behavior Human sexual behavior is defined as any activity, solitary, between two persons, or in a group, that induces sexual arousal (Gebhard, P.H. 2017). There are two major factors that determine human sexual behavior; the inherited sexual response patterns that have evolved as a means of ensuring reproduction and that become part of each individual’s genetic inheritance, and the degree of restraint or other types of influence exerted on the individual by society in the expression of his sexuality. Types of Behavior The various types of human sexual behavior are usually classified according to the gender and number of participants. There is solitary behavior involving only one individual, and there is sociosexual behavior involving more than one person. 34 | P a g e Sociosexual behavior is generally divided into heterosexual behavior (male with female) and homosexual behavior (male with male or female with female). If three or more individuals are involved, it is, possible to have heterosexual and homosexual activity simultaneously (Gebhard, P.H. 2017). 35 | P a g e Physiology of Human Sexual Responses Sexual response follows a pattern of sequential stages or phases when sexual activity is continued. 1. Excitement Phase – it is caused by increase in pulse and blood pressure; a sudden rise in blood supply to the surface of the body resulting in increased skin temperature, flushing, and swelling of all distensible body parts. 2. Plateau Phase – it is generally of brief duration. If stimulation is continued orgasm usually occurs. 3. Sexual Climax – it is marked by a feeling of abrupt, intense pleasure, a rapid increase in pulse rate and blood pressure, and spasms of the pelvic muscles causing contractions of the female reproductive organ and ejaculation by the male. It is also characterized by involuntary vocalizations. 4. Resolution Phase – it is the last stage that refers to the return to a normal or subnormal physiologic state. Nervous System Factors The entire nervous system plays a significant role during sexual response. The autonomic system is involved in controlling the involuntary in controlling the involuntary responses. In the presence of a stimulus capable enough of initiating a sexual response, the efferent cerebrospinal nerves transmit the sensory messages to the brain. The brain will interpret the sensory message and dictate what will be the immediate and appropriate response of the body. After interpretation and integration of sensory input, the efferent cerebrospinal nerves receive commands from the brain and send them to the muscles; and the spinal cord serves as a great transmission cable. The muscles contract in response to the signal coming from the motor nerve fibers while glands secrete their respective products. Hence, sexual response is dependent on the activity of the nervous system. The hypothalamus and the limbic system are the parts of the brain believed to be responsible for regulating the sexual response, but there is no specialized “sex center” that has been located in the human brain. Animal experiments show that each individual has coded in its brain two sexual response patters, one for mounting (masculine) behavior and one for mounted (feminine) behavior. Sex hormones can intensify the mounting behavior of individuals. Normally, one response pattern is dominant and the other latent can still be initiated when suitable circumstances occur. The degree to which such innate patterning exists in humans is still unknown. Sexual Problems Sexual problems may be classified as physiological, psychological, and social in origin. Any given problem may involve all three categories. Physiological problems are the least among the three categories. Only a small number of people suffer from diseases that are due to abnormal development of the 36 | P a g e genitalia or that part of the neurophysiology controlling sexual response. Some common physiologic conditions that can disturb sexual response include vaginal infections, retroverted uteri, prostatitis, adrenal tumors, diabetes, senile changes of the vagina. And cardiovascular problems. Fortunately, the majority of physiological sexual problems can be resolved through medication or surgery while problems of the nervous system that can affect sexual response are more difficult to treat. Psychological problems comprise by far the largest category. They are usually caused by socially induced inhibitions, maladaptive attitudes, ignorance, and sexual myths held by society. An example of the latter is the belief that good, mature sex must involve rapid erection, prolonged coitus, and simultaneous orgasm. 37 | P a g e Magazines, marriage books, and general sexual folklore often strengthen these demanding ideals, which are not always achieved; therefore, can give rise to feelings of inadequacy and anxiety and guilt. Such resulting negative emotions can definitely affect the behavior of an individual. Sexually Transmitted Diseases Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are the infections transmitted from an infected person to an uninfected person through sexual contact. STDs can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites. Examples include gonorrhea, genital, herpes, human papillomavirus infection. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS, chlamydia, and syphilis (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases of the National Institute of Health of the United States 2017). 1. Chlamydia Rates of chlamydia are highest among adolescent and young adult females, the population targeted for routine chlamydia screening. Among young women attending family planning clinics participating in a sentinel surveillance program who were tested for chlamydia, 9.2% of 15 to 19 years old and 8.0% of 20 to 24 years old were positive. Rates of reported cases among men are generally lower than rates among women. 2. Gonorrhea In 2016, 468,514 gonorrhea cases were reported for a rate of 145.8 cases per 100,000 population, an increase of 18.5% from 2015. During 38 | P a g e  2015 to 2016, the rate of reported gonorrhea increased 22.2% among men and 13.8% among women. 3. Syphilis In 2016, 27,814 Primary and Secondary (P&S) syphilis cases were reported, representing a national rate of 8.7% cases per 100,000 population and a 17.6% increase from 2015 to 2016, the P&S syphilis rate increased among both men and women in every region of the country. 4. Chancroid Chancroid is caused by infection with the bacterium Haemophilus ducreyi. Clinical manifestations include genital ulcers and inguinal lymphadenopathy or buboes. 5. Human Papillomavirus Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted infection in the United States. Over 40 distinct HPV types can infect the genital tract; although most infections are asymptomatic and appear to resolve spontaneously within a few years, the prevalence of genital infection with any HPV type was 42.5% among United States adults aged 18 to 59 years during 2013 to 2014. 6. Herpes Simplex Virus 39 | P a g e  Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is among the most prevalent of sexually transmitted infections. Although most infections are subclinical, clinical manifestations are characterized by recurrent, painful genital and/or anal lesions. Most genital HSV infections in the United States are caused by HSV type 2 (HSV-2), while HSV type 1 (HSV-1) infections are typically orolabial and acquired during childhood. 7. Trichomonas Vaginalis Trichomonas vaginalis is a common sexually transmitted protozoal infection associated with adverse health outcomes such as preterm birth and symptomatic vaginitis. It is not a nationally reportable condition, and trend date are limited to estimates of initial physician office visits for this condition. Natural and Artificial Methods of Contraception Natural Method The natural family planning methods do not involve any chemical or foreign body introduction in the human body. People who are very conscious of their religious beliefs are more inclined to use the natural way of birth control and others follow such natural methods because they are more cost-effective (www.nurseslabs.com 2016). a. Abstinence This natural method involves refraining from sexual intercourse and is the most effective natural birth control method with ideally 0% fail rate. It is considered to be the most effective way to avoid STIs (Sexually Transmitted Infections). 40 | P a g e  b. Calendar Method This method is also called as the rhythm method. It entails withholding from coitus during the days that the woman is fertile. According to the menstrual cycle, the woman is likely to conceive three or four days before and three or four days after ovulation. c. Basal Body Temperature The basal body temperature (BBT) indicates the woman’s temperature at rest. Before the day of ovulation and during ovulation, BBT falls at 0.5F; it increases to a full degree because of progesterone and maintains its level throughout the menstrual cycle. 41 | P a g e  d. Cervical Mucus Method The change in the cervical mucus during ovulation is the basis for this method. During ovulation, the cervical mucus is copious, thin, and watery. It also exhibits the property of spinnbarkeit, wherein it can be stretched up until at least 1 inch and is slippery. e. Symptothermal Method The symptothermal method is basically a combination of the BBT method and the cervical mucus method. The woman records her temperature every morning and also takes note of changes in her cervical mucus. 42 | P a g e  f. Ovulation Detection The ovulation detection method uses an over-the-counter kit that requires the urine sample of the woman. The kit can predict ovulation through the surge of luteinizing hormone (LH) that happens 12 to 24 hours before ovulation. g. Coitus Interruptus Coitus Interruptus is one of the oldest methods that prevents conception. A couple still goes on with coitus, but the man withdraws the moment he ejaculates to emit the spermatozoa outside of the female reproductive organ. Artificial Methods a. Oral Contraceptives Also known as the pill, oral contraceptives contain synthetic estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen suppresses the Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and LH to prevent ovulation. b. Transdermal Patch The transdermal patch contains both estrogen and progesterone. The woman should apply one patch every week for three weeks on the following areas: upper outer arm, upper torso, abdomen, or buttocks. At the fourth week, no patch is applied because the menstrual flow would then occur.\ 43 | P a g e  c. Vaginal Ring The vaginal ring releases a combination of estrogen and progesterone and it surrounds the cervix. This silicon ring is inserted into the female reproductive organ and remains there for three weeks and then removed on the fourth week, as menstrual flow would occur. The woman becomes fertile as soon as the ring is removed. d. Subdermal Implants Subdermal implants are two rod-like implants inserted under the skin of the female during her menses or on the seventh day of her menstruation to make sure that she will not get pregnant. The implants are made with etonogestrel, desogestrel, and progestin and can be helpful three to five years. 44 | P a g e  e. Hormonal Injections A hormonal injection contains medroxyprogesterone, a progesterone, and is usually given once every 12 weeks intramuscularly. The injection causes changes in the endometrium and cervical mucus and can help prevent ovulation. f. Intrauterine Device An Intrauterine device (IUD) is a small, T-shaped object containing progesterone that is inserted into the uterus via the female reproductive organ. It prevents fertilization by creating a local sterile inflammatory condition to prevent implantation of the zygote. The IUD is fitted only by the physician and inserted after the woman’s menstrual flow. The device can be effective for five to seven years. g. Chemical Barriers Chemical barriers such as spermicides, vaginal gels and creams, and glycerin films are used to cause the death of sperms before they can enter the cervix and to lower the pH level of the female reproductive organ so it will not become conductive for the sperm. On the other hand, these chemical barriers cannot prevent sexually transmitted infections. h. Diaphragm It is a circular, rubber disk that fits the cervix and should be placed before coitus. Diaphragm works by inhibiting the entrance of the sperm into the female reproductive organ and it works better when used together with a spermicide. 45 | P a g e  i. Cervical Cap The cervical cap is made of soft rubber and fitted on the rim of the cervix. It is shaped like a thimble with a thin rim and could stay in place for not more than 48 hours. j. Male Condoms The male condom is a latex or synthetic rubber sheath that is placed on the erect male reproductive organ before penetration in the female reproductive organ. k. Female Condoms Female condoms are made up of latex rubber sheaths that are pre- lubricated with spermicide. They are usually bound by two rings. The outer ring is first inserted against the opening of the female reproductive organ and the inner ring covers the cervix. It is used to prevent fertilization of the egg by the sperm cells. h. Surgical Methods During vasectomy, a small incision is made on each side of the scrotum. The vas deferens is then tied, cauterized, cut, or plugged to block the passage of the sperm. The patient is advised to use a backup contraceptive method until two negative sperm count results are recorded because the sperm could remain visible in the vas deferens for six months. In woman, tubal ligation is performed after menstruation and before ovulation. The procedure is done through a small incision under the woman’s umbilicus that targets the fallopian tube for cutting, cauterizing, or blocking to inhibit the passage of both the sperm and the ova. 46 | P a g e Guide Questions. 1. Fill out the table below by listing the common secondary sexual male and female characteristics: Male Secondary Sexual Characteristics Female Secondary Sexual Characteristics 2. Analysis a. When do we usually observe the changes listed above for males and female? b. Were you able to experience the same degree? When? c. If you were not able to experience the above listed changes, what might have caused such difference? d. How does the society shape the sexual behavior of an individual? e. Can we really change our natural or innate sexual organ and sexual response? 47 | P a g e  Lesson 2: Material Self Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Explain the association of self and possessions; 2. Identify the role of consumer culture to self and identity; and 3. Appraise one’s self based on the description of material self. 48 | P a g e  Lesson 2: Material Self We are living in a world of sale and shopping spree. We are given a wide array of products to purchase from a simple set of spoon and fork to owning a restaurant. Almost everywhere, including the digital space, we can find promotions of product purchase. Product advertisements are suggestive of making us feel better or look good. Part of us wants to have that product. What makes us want to have those products are connected with who we are. What we want to have and already possess is related to our self. Material Self The material self, according to James primarily is about our bodies, clothes, immediate family, and home. We are deeply affected by these things because we have put much investment of our self to them. The innermost part of our material self is our body. Intentionally, we are investing in our body. We are directly attached to this commodity that we cannot live without. We strive hard to make sure that this body functions well and good. Any ailment or disorder directly affects us. We do have certain preferential attachment or intimate closeness to certain body parts because of its value to us. There were people who get their certain body parts insured. Celebrities, like Mariah Carey who was reported to have placed a huge amount for the insurance of her vocal cords and legs (Sukman 2016). 49 | P a g e  Next to our body are the clothes we use. Influenced by the “Philosophy of Dress” by Herman Lotze, James believed that clothing is an essential part of the material self. Lotze in his book, Microcosmus, stipulates that “any time we bring an object in the surface of our body, we invest that object into the consciousness of our personal existence taking in its contours to be our own and making it part of the self.” Third in the hierarchy is our immediate family. Our parents and siblings hold another great important part of our self. What they do or become affects us. When an immediate family member dies, part of our self, dies too. 50 | P a g e When their lives are in success, we feel their victories as if we are the one holding the trophy. In their failures, we are put to shame or guilt. When they are in disadvantage, there is an urgent urge to help like a voluntary instinct of saving one’s self from danger. We place huge investment in our immediate family when we see them as the nearest replica of our self. The fourth component of material self is our home. Home is where our heart is. It is the earliest nest of our selfhood. Our experience inside the home were recorded and marked on particular parts and things in our home. There was an old cliché about rooms: “if only walls can speak.” The home thus is an extension of self, because in it, we can directly connect our self. Having investment to self to things, made us attached to those things. The more investment of self-given to the particular thing, the more we identify ourselves to it. We also tended to collect and possess properties. The collections in different degree of investment of self, becomes part of the self. As James (1890) described self: “a man’s self is the sum total of all what he CAN call his.” Possessions then become a part or an extension of the self. 51 | P a g e We Are What We Have Russel Belk (1988) posits that “…we regard our possessions as part of ourselves. We are what we have and what we possess.” The identification of the self to things started in our infancy stage when we make a distinction among self and environment and others who may desire our possessions. As we grow older, putting importance to material possession decreases. However, material possession gains higher value in our lifetime if we use material possession to find happiness, associate these things with significant events, accomplishments, and people in our lives. There are even times, when material possession of a person that is closely identified to the person, gains acknowledgement with high regard even if the person already passed away. Examples of these are the chair in the dining room on which the person is always stead, the chair will be the constant reminder of the person there; a well- loved and kept vehicle of the person, which some of the bereaved family members have a difficulty to sell or let go of because that vehicle is very much identified with the owner who passed away; the favorite pet or book, among others that the owner placed a high values, these favorite things are symbols of the owner. 52 | P a g e Guide Questions. 1. Explain why the following factors considered as material self? a. Family b. Home c. Clothes d. Body 2. Explain the following statement: a. “Possessions then become a part of the extension self.” b. “We are what we have and what we possess” c. “The possessions that we dearly have tell something about who we are, our self-concept, our past, and even our future”. 3. Create a collage of your treasured possessions including your current clothing style. You may use symbols or pictures of your treasured possessions. Put a short note why you treasure each item. 53 | P a g e  Lesson 3: Spiritual Self Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Identify various religious practices and beliefs; 2. Understand the self in relation with religious beliefs; and 3. Explain ways of finding the meaning of life. 54 | P a g e  Lesson 3: Spiritual Self INTRODUCTION Spiritual self is one of the four constituents of the “self” according to William James in his book. The Principles of Psychology in 1890. The spiritual self is the most intimate, inner subjective part of self. It is the most intimate version of the self because of the satisfaction experienced when thinking of one’s ability to argue and discriminate, of one’s moral sensibility and conscience, and of our unconquerable will (James 1890) is purer than all other sentiments of satisfaction. (Green 1997) The ability to use moral sensibility and conscience may be seen through the expressions of religion, its beliefs and practices. In the same manner, cultural rituals and ceremonies are some manifestations what people believe in. Moreover, seeking the meaning of life is a journey that the spiritual self is on. Religion Rebecca Stein (Stein 2011) works on the definition of religion “as a set of cultural beliefs and practices that usually includes some or all of basic characteristics. These characteristics are: 1. A belief in anthropomorphic supernatural being, such as spirit and gods. 2. A focus on the sacred supernatural, where sacred refers to a feeling of reverence and awe. 55 | P a g e  3. The presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on supernatural beings as well as physical beings and objects. 4. The performance of ritual activities that involves the manipulation of sacred object to communicate to supernatural beings and/or to influence or control events. 5. The articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and other means. 6. Provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism of social control within a community; provide explanation for unknown and a sense of control for individuals. An individual, lives in a society where there are many practices of religion. The choice of religious belief lies within the spiritual self. Although the choice maybe influenced by the society and its culture. Ritual Ritual is the performance of ceremonial acts prescribed by a tradition or sacred law (Britannica 2017). Ritual is a specific, observable mode of behavior exhibited by all known societies. It is thus possible to view ritual as a way of defining or describing humans. There are three fundamental characteristics of rituals according to Penner (Britannica 2017). Ritual has the characteristics of: 1. A feeling or emotion of respect, awe, fascination, or dread in relation to the sacred. 2. Dependence upon a belief system that is usually expressed in the language of myth. 3. Is symbolic in relation to its reference. 56 | P a g e  The self can be described as a ritual being who exhibits a striking parallel between their ritual and verbal behavior. Just as language is a system of symbols that is based upon arbitrary rules, ritual may be viewed as a system of symbolic acts that is based upon arbitrary rules. Participation to rituals is expressions of religious beliefs. Some World Religious Beliefs and Practices There are different religions with different beliefs and practices. Some of the major world religions are Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism. Except of some religious beliefs and practices are found in the University of London’s Religion and Belief Guide 2017. Buddhism 57 | P a g e Beliefs: Buddhism believes that life is not a bed of roses. Instead, there are suffering, pain, and frustrations. When people suffer, they want to experience the goodness of life and avoid disappointments. It becomes a habit known as the reactive cycle of wanting and hating, like and dislike, and craving and aversion. This reactive cycle can be broken through the practice of mediation, acquiring more wisdom and deeper understanding, and acceptance of things as they are. Customs and Practices: There are two types of meditation practices: samatha and vipassana. Samatha is practiced as mindfulness of breathing and development of loving kindness (Metta Bhavana). Vipassana practices aim at developing insight into reality. Acquiring wisdom is by studying Buddha’s teaching, the Dharma. Through the reflection of Dharma, Buddhists can achieve a deeper understanding a life. Buddhists believe in non-violence principle. 58 | P a g e Christianity Beliefs: Christians believe in Trinitarian God. One God in three personas: God the Father (Creator), God the Son (Savior), and God the Holy Spirit (Sustainer). Eternal life after death will be achieved through faith in Jesus Christ. Jesus Christ is, God the Son, who came into flesh, to spread the Good News of Salvation. He died on the Cross for the sin of the humanity but resurrected from the death, so that anyone who believes in Him will be saved and have eternal life. The Holy Bible is a selection of books, which is divided into two, the Old Testament and New Testament. Customs and Practices: Sacrament of Baptism and Sacrament of Communion are practiced by Christian churches. The Sacrament of Baptism symbolizes the birth in Christian World, while the Sacrament of Communion is an act of remembrance of Jesus Christ’s sacrificial love. Jesus Christ teaching in unconditional love that is expressed in loving the poor, oppressed, and outcast of the society. 59 | P a g e Hinduism Beliefs: Hinduism covers a wide range of traditional beliefs and religious groups; thus, there is no single founder or leader. Hindus believe that existence is a cycle of birth, death and rebirth, governed by Karma. Karma is a concept where the reincarnated life will depend on how the past life was spent. 60 | P a g e Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependet on how the previous life was lived. Vedas are sacred scriptures of Hindus. Mahabharata and Ramayana are two other important texts of the Hindus. Customs and Practices: Diwali, and Navrati are the most celebrated festivals of the Hindus. Diwali is the Festival of Lights while Navrati is the festival of nine nights, which celebrate the triumph of good over evil. Hindus have set dates to honor particular manifestations of God. Islam Beliefs: Muslims believe in Allah, who is their “one God.” They believe in the unity and universality of God. Muslims also have a strong sense of community or “ummah” and an awareness of their solidarity with all Muslims worldwide. Islam means “willing submission to God.” 61 | P a g e Muslims believe that Mohammed is the last and final prophet sent by God. Mohammed was born in Mecca in 570 CE and received revelations from God through the Angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years. The Holy Book of Islam is called the Quran, which was taught to be recited in Arabic because any translation is seen as inadequate. Customs and Practices: Muslims believe in the five pillars of Islam, which are the foundation of Muslim life: 62 | P a g e  1. Shahadah – statement of faith: “There is no God but the one true God and Mohammed is his messenger.” 2. Salat – the prayer that is practiced five times a day. 3. Zakat – the monetary offering for the benefit of the poor. It comprises the 2.5% of a Muslim’s assets. 4. Hajj – the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslims who can afford are asked to do the pilgrimage at least once in their lifetime. 5. Sawm – the fasting. Muslims do fasting, from food, drink, and sexual act, during the celebration of Ramadan. Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar. The fast is from dawn to sunset. Two of the major festivals in Islam are Eidul-Fitr and Eidul-Adha. Eidul-Fitr is the celebration at the end of Ramadan, while Eidul-Adha is celebrated within the completion of the Pilgrimage, the Hajj. Judaism Beliefs: The Jews believe in the God of Abraham, the same God that liberated the Hebrew slaves from Egypt to Canaan, the Promised Land through the leadership of Moses and later, Joshua. The Jews believe in the coming Messiah, the Savior. The sacred scripture of the Jows is called the Torah or the Law. The Torah is the guide of the Jewish living. The study and interpretation of Torah is part of the Jewish culture. 63 | P a g e Customs and Practices: There are five major festivals observed by the Jews: 1. Rosh Hashanah – the New Year 2. Yorn Kippur – the Day of Atonement 3. Pesach – Passover 4. Shavuot – Pentecost 5. Sukkot – Tabernacles. The Jewish Sabbath begins on Friday evening at sunset and is an important time when families gather for the Shabbat meal. Logotherapy Logotherapy is a psychotherapy introduced by Dr. Viktor Frankl, who is considered the Father of Logotherapy. The main belief of logotherapy is that “man’s primary motivational force is search for meaning.” Logotherapy aids individuals to find personal meaning of life, whatever life situation they may be. In logotherapy, meaning can be discovered by creating a work or doing a deed, experiencing something or encountering someone and the attitude toward unavoidable suffering. According to the Victor Frank; Institute of Logotheraphy (n.d), it uses the philosophy of optimism in the face of tragedy, where people are capable of “turning suffering intohuman achievement and accomplishment; deriving from guilt the opportunity to change oneself for the better; and deriving from life’s transitoriness an incentive to take responsible action.” 64 | P a g e Logotherapy Assumptions All psychotherapies make philosophical assumptions about the human persons that cannot be proved with certainty. Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy (n.d.) states the assumptions of logotherapy, which include the following: 1. The human being is an entity consisting of body, mind, and spirit. This first assumption deals with the body (soma), mind (psyche), and spirit (noos). According to Frankl, the body and mind are what we have and the spirit is what we are. 2. Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable. Assumption two is “ultimate meaning.” This is difficult to grasp but it is something everyone experiences and it represents an order in a world with laws that go beyond human laws. 3. People have a will to meaning. The third assumption is seen as our main motivation for living and acting. When we see meaning, we are ready for any type of suffering. This is considered to be different than our will to achieve power and pleasure. 4. People have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to find meaning. Assumption four is that we are free to activate our will to find meaning, and this can be done under any circumstances. This deals with change of attitudes about unavoidable fate. Frankl was able to test the first four assumptions when he was confined in the concentration camps. 5. Life has a demand quality to which people must respond if decisions are to be meaningful. The fifth assumption, the meaning of the moment, is more practical in daily living than ultimate meaning. Unlike ultimate meaning this meaning can be found and fulfilled. This can be done by following the values of society or by following the voice of our conscience. 65 | P a g e  6. The individual is unique. The sixth assumption deals with one’s sense of meaning. This is enhanced by the realization that we are irreplaceable. In essence, all humans are unique with an entity of body, mind, and spirit. We all go through unique situations and are constantly looking to find meaning. We are free to do these at all times in response to certain demands. 66 | P a g e  Guide Questions. 1. Describe at least 3 religious practices and beliefs of the following: a. Buddhism b. Hinduism c. Christianity d. Islam e. Judaism 2. Describe the different characteristics of: a. Religion b. Rituals 3. Explain the concept of logotherapy. 4. Name and discuss tat least 4 logotherapy assumptions. 5. When was the first time you realized that there is a higher being than yourself? How old were you then? What made you believe that there is a higher being? 67 | P a g e  Lesson 4: The Political Self and being Filipino Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Develop a Filipino identity; 2. Identify different Filipino values and traits; and 3. Reflect on your selfhood in relation to your national identity. 68 | P a g e  Lesson 4: The Political What makes a Filipino a genuine Filipino? Do physical characteristics such as having dark hair, flat nose, and dark complexion make one a Filipino? Or is it a person’s language, birthplace, and ethnicity? If you were to introduce yourself as a Filipino to a person of another nationality and he or she asks, “Who are Filipinos?”, what will you reply? The Philippines as we know it today has only emerged in the 1890s after over three centuries of colonization of the Spaniards. Meanwhile, liberation from the last colonizers, the Japanese, only occurred in 1946. Foreign culture, beliefs, language, and religion have made a huge dent to our own by setting a foundation to the contemporary Filipino identity and culture. To date, colonial mentality remains an issue. Given the wide discrepancy between the liberation period and today’s time, would it be safe to say that Filipinos have truly developed an identity of their own? Or are we still living in the shadow of our colonial friends? Who is a Filipino? Technically, according to the 1987 Philippine Constitution, Filipino citizens are “…those who fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines, those born before January 17, 1973 of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine citizenship upon reaching the age of majority, and those who are naturalized in accordance with law.” 69 | P a g e However, citizenship is not the only marker of being a Filipino. Culture and history have greatly influenced the manger Filipinos learn, live, live, and behave to date. People who were born and grew up in the same culture develop and share common personality traits and values. Generations after generations, common traits and values have been passed on that the Filipinos of today still embody. 70 | P a g e The Filipino Hospitality A Filipino trait that is known everywhere is the Filipino’s brand of hospitality. Filipinos welcome their guests and tourists as if they are their own brothers and sisters; they always make their guests feel at home, offering them something to eat, or even a place to stay. Respect for Elders Filipinos greet their elders by kissing their hand while saying “Mano po!” and constantly using “po” and “opo” in conversations. Forgetting to address older people properly will regard them as rude and impolite. 71 | P a g e There is also a wide array of references to elder people such as ate for older sister; kuya for older brother; Tito and Tita for uncle and aunt, respectively; Lolo and Lola for grandfather and grandmother; and Manong and Aling for older people outside the family. Close Family Ties Filipinos maintain a tight relationship with their families regardless if the children are old enough and already have families of their own. They are also fond of family reunions during birthdays, holidays, or fiestas year-round. Some Filipino families even opt to live in a big house where everyone can stay together. Nursing homes are almost always not an option for family members and choose to take care of their elders themselves. Cheerful Personality Filipinos have a habit of smiling and laughing a lot. They smile when they are happy, or sometimes even when they are sad or angry. Smiling has been a coping strategy for many Filipinos especially during trying times and calamities. For instance, Filipinos smile and wave at the camera while being interviewed even after a fire or flooding incident. They always try to maintain a positive outlook in life which makes them resilient and able to manage almost everything with a simple smile. 72 | P a g e Self-sacrifice The self-sacrificing attitude of Filipinos can be seen as an extension of the Filipino hospitality. Filipinos go out of their way to extend help to their friends, families, and loved ones. They wish comfort and better lives for their loved ones and would even go to the extent of working abroad hundreds of miles away to earn more money and save up for them. 73 | P a g e Bayanihan Bayanihan is the spirit of communal unity and cooperation of Filipinos. It is also about giving without expecting something in return. Filipinos are always ready to share and help their friends and loved ones who are in need. It may not always be on monetary form, but the time and effort they give also count as a form of help for them. This trait is particularly manifested in how Filipinos rally themselves to send aid to those who are severely affected by natural calamities. “Bahala Na” Attitude “Bahala na” is the Filipino version of the famous line “Hakuna mtata.” Meaning no worries. The phrase is said to have originated from “Bathala na,” where Bathala means God, and the phrase meaning leaving everything into God’s hands. 74 | P a g e  It can also be viewed as something similar to the cheerful and positive attitude of Filipinos and allowing situations take care of themselves instead of worrying about them. Colonial Mentality Colonial mentality is regarded as the lack of patriotism and the attitude where Filipinos favor foreign products more than their own. This does not only concern goods, but also the desire to look more foreign than local and keep up with foreign beauty trends. It is attributed to the centuries of colonization Filipinos had experienced under the Spanish, American, and Japanese rule. “Manana” Habit This is the Filipino term for procrastination. It was derived from a longer Filipino phrase called “Mamaya na” meaning dawdling things, which could have been done at an earlier time. It is a poor habit of laziness that results in heavier workloads. 75 | P a g e “Ningas Kugon” “Ningas” is a Filipino term for flame and “kugon” is a Filipino term for Cogon grass that easily burns out after it is put into flames. Ningas kugon refers to the attitude of eagerly starting things but quickly losing eagerness soon after experiencing difficulty, just like how fast the fire of a Cogon grass burns out moments after being ignited. Laziness is a common problem among Filipinos; that is why Filipinos are regarded as “Juan Tamad” or Lazy Juan. Pride Most Filipinos hold on to their pride as if they are more precious than keeping a good relationship with family and loved ones. When two parties are not in good terms, they find it so hard to apologize and wait until the other party asks for an apology first. 76 | P a g e Crab Mentality This is a toxic trait among Filipinos where one resents the achievement of another, instead of feeling happy for that person. Just like crabs in a container, they pull each other down and ruin each other’s reputation rather than bringing them up, resulting to no progress. Filipinos should change this troublesome attitude and focus more on their own inadequacies to improve one’s self. Filipino Time Filipinos have this common attitude of arriving late at commitments, dinner, or parties especially if they are meeting someone close to them. They tend to not observe punctuality altogether. The 7:00PM call time becomes adjusted to 7:30PM, and almost everyone arrives at the same time because everyone is using Filipino time. 77 | P a g e Filipino Markers What then are the hallmarks of our being a Filipino? What makes us truly relish in our being a Filipino? The following are constant reminders of our nationality. 1. Proverbs or Salawikain Filipino proverbs, just like any other proverbs, are sayings that convey lessons and reflections on Filipino practices, beliefs and traditions Damiana Eugenio, regarded as the Mother of Philippine Folklore, classified proverbs into six categories (Eugenio, 2000); a. Proverbs expressing a general attitude toward life and the laws that govern life; b. Ethical proverbs recommending certain virtues and condemning certain vices; c. Proverbs expressing a system of values; d. Proverbs expressing general truths and observations about life and human nature; e. Humorous proverbs; and f. Miscellaneous proverbs. 2. Superstitions Filipinos also subscribe to their own set of superstitions passed down from generation to generation. Some of these may be influenced by beliefs from other cultures, but Filipinos have retold these superstitions according to their own experiences and they sometimes end up even more interesting. 3. Myths and Legends Due to the Philippine’s rich culture and history, numerous myths and legends have sprung about things that are beyond one’s imagination. These stories are aimed to explain the origin of things, at the same time, teach a valuable lesson. Some of these stories stemmed in pre-Christianity period, but have evolved to the stories we know today. 4. Heroes and Icons Heroes serve as a reminder of true patriotism and nationalism as they have sacrificed their lives for the sake of their country’s freedom and progress. Every year, we lend a whole day to celebrate our heroes, usually the last Monday of August, to remember their greatness, bravery, and resilience that has led to the freedom we know today. Famous Filipino icons such as Lea Salonga, Manny Pacquiao, and our very own national hero, Jose Rizal, also server as important Filipino markers as they have made the Filipino name more pronounced worldwide through their own expertise. 78 | P a g e How to Be A Good Filipino Now you know that your traits and values are important indicators of being a Filipino. The problem now is how to truly become one and how you can be useful to the development and progress of our country. The following are a few ways on how to be a good Filipino: 1. Be an active Filipino citizen. A good Filipino citizen is aware of the current events and participates in government programs that aim for the country’s progression and development. 2. Study the Philippine history. The road of the Philippine history is long and bloody, and by learning and fully understanding the events of the Philippine history, you will learn so much as to why it is so important for you to love your country with your life, extend help to your fellow Filipinos in need, and recognize abuse of political power. 3. Support local products When you buy local products, you do not only support local manufacturers and businessman, but you also help strengthen the local economy. 4. Speak the Filipino language The history of the Filipino language was as long and hard as the Philippine history. Jose Rizal highlighted the importance of speaking a national language as a way of displaying the love for one’s country. Speaking Filipino also serves as a unique identifier of being a Filipino. 5. Do no spread fake news and be democratic in engaging with dissent This period in the history of the Philippines has seen how the Internet has spawned tons of possibilities for people, both good and bad. For instance, it is easier for Filipinos working abroad to communicate with tier loved ones left in the Philippines through the Internet. 79 | P a g e Guide Questions. 1. Cut out pictures or illustrations from magazines and newspapers that shoe what being a Filipino is about. 2. Answer the questions below in relation to what you have posted in the previous activity. a. How did the pictures remind you or you’re being a Filipino? b. Are you proud of being a Filipino? Why and why not? c. Imagine that you were of a different nationality. What would change in you aside from your citizenship and origin? d. How extensive are the effects of being Filipino in your selfhood? 80 | P a g e  Lesson 5: Who Am I in the Cyberworld? (Digital Self) Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Define online identity; 2. Compare real identity versus online identity; 3. Describe the influence of Internet on sexuality and gender; and 4. Discuss the proper way of demonstrating values and attitudes online. 81 | P a g e  Lesson 5: The Digital Self INTRODUCTION These days, more people are becoming active in using the Internet for research, pleasure, business, communication, and other purposes. Indeed, the Internet is of great help for everyone. On the other hand, people assume different identities while in the cyberspace. People act differently when they are online and offline. We have our real identity and online identity. The number of people who are becoming more active online continues to increase worldwide. More than half of the population worldwide now uses the Internet. It has only been 25 years since Tim Berners-Lee made the World Wide Web available to the public, but in that time, the Internet has already become an integral part of everyday life for most of the world’s population. The Philippines is among one of the countries with the most active Internet users (We are Social and Hootsuite n.d.). Almost two-thirds of the world’s population now has a mobile phone. More than half of the world’s web traffic now comes from mobile phones. More than half of all mobile connections around the world are now “broadband.” More than one in five of the world’s population shopped online in the past 30 days. 82 | P a g e  Media users in the Philippines grew by 12million or 25% while the number of mobile social users increased by 13million or 32%. Those growth figures are still higher compared to the previous year. More than half the world now uses a smartphone. Selective Self-presentation and Impression Management According to Goffman (1959) and Leary (1995), self-presentation is the “process of controlling how one is perceived by other people” and is the key to relationship inception and development. To construct positive images, individuals selectively provide information about them and carefully cate this information in response to other’s feedback. 83 | P a g e Anything posted online should be considered “public” no matter what our “privacy” settings are. Let us say, a student wrote online about how much he hated another student n school, and started bullying him online. Does it matter if the student said, “Well, this is my personal account”? Even if the student wrote it in a “private” account, it can become public with a quick screen capture and shared with the world. Personal identity is the interpersonal level of self which differentiates the individual as unique from others, while social identity is the level of self whereby the individual is identified by his or her group memberships. As Schwarz (2010) mentioned, we have entered an extraordinary era of self- portraiture Blogs and web pages have been continuously used for greater self- reflection and self-presentation. Facebook and other social media applications are now a key part o self-presentation for one sixth of humanity. As a result, researchers and participants become concerned with actively managing identity and reputation and to warn against the phenomenon of “oversharing”. Because of the conversion of private diaries into public revelations of inner secrets, the lack of privacy in many aspects of social media make the users more vulnerable, leading to compulsively checking newsfeeds and continually adding tweets and postings in order to appear active and interesting. This condition has been called ‘fear of missing out.” People would like to remain updated and they keep on sharing themselves online because it adds a sense of confidence at their end especially if others like and share their posts. One of the reasons for so much sharing and self-disclosure online is the so-called ‘disinhibition effect” (Ridley 2012; Suler 2004). 84 | P a g e  The lack of face-to-face gaze-meeting, together with feelings of anonymity and invisibility, gives people the freedom for self- disclosure but can also “flame” others and may cause conflict sometimes. The resulting disinhibition causes people to believe that they are able to express their ‘true self” better online than they ever could in face-to-face contexts (Taylor 2002). However, it does not mean that there is a fixed “true self”. Blogs and social media are the primary digital for a on which such confessions occur, but they can also be found in photo- and video- sharing sites where blunders and bad moments are also preserved and shared (Strangelove 2011). Why confess to unseen and anonymous others online? In Foucault’s (1978, 1998) view, confessing our secret truths feels freeing, even as it binds us in a guilt-motivated self-governance born of a long history of Christian and pre-Christian philosophies and power structures. Gender and Sexuality Online According to Marwick (2013), while the terms “sex,” ‘gender,” and “sexuality” are often thought of as synonymous, they are actually quite distinct. The differences between the common understandings of these terms and how researchers think about them yield key insights about the social functioning of gender. Sex is the biological state that corresponds to what we might call a “man” or a “woman.” This might seem to be a simple distinction, but the biology of sex is actually very 85 | P a g e complicated. While ‘sex” is often explained as biological, fixed, and immutable, it is actually socially constructed (West and Zimmerman 1987). Gender, then, is the social understanding of how sex should be experienced and how sex manifests in behavior, personality, preferences, capabilities, and so forth. A person with male sex organs is expected to embody a masculine gender. While sex and gender are presumed to be biologically connected, we can understand gender as a socioculturally specific set of norms that are mapped onto a category of “sex” (Kessier and McKenna 1978; Lorber 1994). Gender is a system of classification that values male-gendered things more than female related things. This system plays out on the bodies of men and women, and in constructing hierarchies of everything from colors (e.g., pink vs. blue) to academic departments (e.g., English vs. Math) to electronic gadgets and websites. Given this inequality, the universalized “male” body and experience is often constructed as average or normal, while female-gendered experiences are conceptualized as variations from the norm (Goffman 1977). Sexuality is an individual expression and understanding of desire. While like gender, this is often viewed as binary (homosexual or heterosexual), in reality, sexuality is often experienced as fluid. Performing Gender Online Theorist Judith Butler (1990) conceptualized gender as a performance. She explained that popular understandings of gender and sexuality came to be through discourse and social processes. She argued that gender was performative, in that it 86 | P a g e is produced through millions of individual actions, rather than something that comes naturally to men and women. Performances that adhere to normative understandings of gender and sexuality are allowed, while those that do not are admonished (for example, a boy “throwing like a girl”) (Lorber 1994). In the 1990s, many Internet scholars drew from Butler and other queer theorists to understand online identity. 87 | P a g e  According to the disembodiment hypothesis, Internet users are free to actively choose which gender or sexuality they are going to portray with the possibility of creating alternate identities (Wynn and Katz 1997). The ability of users to self- consciously adapt and play with different gender identities would reveal the choices involved in the production of gender, breaking down binaries and encouraging fluidity in sexuality and gender expression. 88 | P a g e Setting Boundaries to Your Online Self: Smart Sharing The following guidelines will help you share information online in a smart way that will protect yourself and not harm others. Before posting or sharing anything online, consider the following. Is this post/story necessary? Is there a real benefit to this post? Is it funny, warm-hearted, teachable – or am I just making noise online without purpose? Have we (as a family or parent/child) resolved this issue? An issue that is still being worked out at home, or one that Is either vulnerable or highly emotional, should not be made public. Is it appropriate? Does it stay within the boundaries of our family values? Will this seem as funny in 5, 10, or 15 years? Or is this post better suited for sharing with a small group of family member? Or maybe not at all? 89 | P a g e Guide Questions. 1. Explain why on-line identity is considered the sum of all characteristics. 2. Differentiate the following: a. Social identity and personal identity b. Gender, sex and sexuality 3. Explain why on-line is considered selective self-presentation. 4. Explain the following statement: a. Anything posted on-line is considered “public.” b. Facebook and other social media applications are now key part of self- presentations. c. “Fear of missing out.” 5. Compare and contrast the different preferences of male and female in terms of social media applications. 90 | P a g e  CHAPTER III MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF Lesson 1: Learning to Be a Better Learner Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Explain how learning occurs; 2. Enumerate various metacognition and studying techniques; and 3. Identify the metacognitive techniques that you find most appropriate for yourself. 91 | P a g e  CHAPTER III MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF Lesson 1: Learning to Be a Better Learner INTRODUCTION Knowing the “self” is not enough. Since “who you are” is partly made up of your choices, you must also have the ability to choose especially to be better “you.” In the school setting, your knowledge of yourself should at least enable you to become a better student. This lesson will present several techniques that you can adapt depending on your situation and preferences to make you better learner. Learning should not just mean studying for your quizzes and exams in school. Learning could also occur outside the confines of a book or classroom, like when you want to acquire a new move in your favorite sport, or the skills for a certain hobby, among others. Furthermore, the techniques here are not the only techniques available and months or years from now, new ways on how to study better will be discovered or rediscovered. What is important at this moment is that you learn how to learn these things. 92 | P a g e  We are Homo sapiens or the “wise man.” We think in a more complex level than our ancestors and most, if not all, Of the other beings. But being called wise. Not only do we think, but we are also capable to think about thinking. Like how we think of things and why we think in a certain way about things. It is like your brain thinks about itself, then thinks about how it thinks about itself. METACOGNITION This idea fails under the concept of metacognition. Metacognition is commonly defined as “thinking about thinking” (Livingston 1997; Papaleontiou- Louca 2003). It is the awareness of the scope and limitations of your current knowledge and skills (Meichenbaum 1985 in American Institutes for Research 2010). Due to this awareness, Metacognition enables the person to adapt their missing knowledge and skills to approach a learning task, seeking for the optimum result of the learning experience (American Institutes for Research 2010). As seen from the abovementioned definitions, metacognition basically has two aspects; (1) self-appraisal and (2) self-management of cognition (Paris and Winnograd 1990 in Papaleontiou-Louca 2003). Self-appraisal is your personal reflection on your knowledge and capabilities while self-management is the mental process you employ using what you have in planning and adapting to successfully learn or accomplish a certain task (Paris and Winnograd 1990 in Papaleontiou-Louca 2003). Similar concepts, usually called elements or metacognition, are metacognitive knowledge or what you know about how you think, and metacognition regulation or 93 | P a g e how you adjust your thinking processes to help you learn better (American Institutes for Research 2010). Under metacognition knowledge, there are several variables that affect how you know or assess yourself as a thinker. First is the personal variable, which is your evaluation of your strengths and weaknesses in learning. Second is the task variable, which is what you know or what you think about the nature of the task, as well as the strategies the task requires. Lastly, strategy variable refers to what strategies or skills you already have in dealing with certain tasks (American Institutes for Research 2010). 94 | P a g e  By doing the above reflection, you are actually utilizing metacognitive skills. According to Waterloo Student Success Office (n.d.). the following are other skills that can help you in exercising metacognition: 1. Knowing your limits. As mentioned earlier, one cannot really make any significance advancement in using metacognitive skills without having an honest and accurate evaluation of what you know and what you do not know. 2. Modifying your approach. It begins with the recognition that your strategy is not appropriate with the task and/or that you do not comprehend the learning experience successfully. 3. Skimming. This is basically browsing over a mental and keeping and eye on keywords, phrases or sentences. It is also about knowing where to search for such key terms. 4. Rehearsing. This is not just about repeatedly talking. Writing, and/or doing what you have learned. But also trying to make personal interpretation or summary of the learning experience. One of the fun ways to do this is by imagining yourself being interviewed about your task. 5. Self-Test. As the name implies, this is trying your comprehension of your learning experience or the skills you have acquired during learning. While some materials already come with tests like this book, you can still create tests for yourself. Other strategies that you need to develop include asking questions about your methods, self-reflection, finding a mentor or support group if necessary, thinking out loud (though you have to be considerate of others also when doing this), and welcoming errors as learning experiences. 95 | P a g e  Using these strategies, you can at least identify four types of metacognitive learners (Perkins 1992 in Cambridge International Examinations 2015). First, the “tacit” learners are unaware of their metacognitive processes although they know the extent of their knowledge. Second, the “aware” learners know some of their metacognitive strategies but they do not plan on how to use these techniques. Third, “strategic” learners, as the name implies, strategize and plan their course of action toward a learning experience. Lastly, the “reflective” learners reflect on their thinking while they are using the strategies and adapt metacognitive skills depending on their situation. Other tips that you can use in studying are the following (Queensland University of Technology Library n.d.); 1. Make an outline of the things you want to learn, the things you are reading or doing, and/or the things you remember. 2. Break down the task in smaller and more manageable details. 3. Integrate variation in your schedule and learning experience. Change reading material every hour and do not put similar topics together (e.g.,, try studying English then Mathematics instead of English then Filipino together). Also include physical activities in your planning. 4. Try to incubate your ideas. First, write your draft without doing much editing. Let the ideas flow. Then leave your draft at least overnight or around 24 hours some even do not look at it for a week and do something else. 5. Revise, summarize and take down notes, then reread them to help you minimize cramming in the last minute, especially when you have a weakness 96 | P a g e  in memorizing facts and data. The deadline is very close tomorrow, for instance and they just review the day before some evaluation or exercise. 6. Engaged what you have learned. Do something about it. On a reading material for example, highlight keywords and phrases, write your opinions about the matter on a separate notebook, or create a diagram or concept map. 97 | P a g e Guide Questions. 1. Compare and contrast the following metacognitive learners. a. Tacit b. Aware c. Reflective d. Strategic 2. Name and describe the different skills that can help a learner in exercising metacognition. 3. Differentiate the following: a. Self-appraisal and self-management b. Metacognitive knowledge and metacognition regulation 4. Explain the concept of metacognition based on the following concepts: a. Thinking over thinking b. Becoming aware of one’s awareness and higher-order thinking c. Ability to control your thinking processes 5. Name and describe the different tips in studying. 98 | P a g e  Lesson2: GOAL SETTING Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Use Bandura’s self-efficacy theory for self-assessment; 2. Differentiate growth and fixed mindset by Dweck; and 3. Design personal goals adapting Locke’s goal setting theory. 99 | P a g e  Lesson2: Goal Setting Albert E. Bandura’s Self-efficacy Biography The concept of self-efficacy was introduced by Albert Bandura in an article entitled “Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change” published in Psychological Review in 1977. The article also became an instant classic in psychology (Kendra 2017). The Bobo Doll Experiment In the 1950s, Dr. Bandura had a study known as the Bobo Doll Experiment. In this experiment, the sample children were presented with new social models of violent and nonviolent behavior toward an inflatable redounding Bobo doll. The result was: the group of children who saw the violent behavior model became violent to the doll, while the control group who was presented with the nonviolent behavior model was rarely violent to the doll. This experiment has proven right the hypothesis that social modeling is a very effective way of learning. Dr. Bandura introduced the social learning theory that focuses on what people learn from observing and interacting with other people. Bandura’s social cognitive theory states that people are active participants in their environment and are not simply shaped by that environment. 100 | P a g e Summary of Self-efficacy Theory Weibell (2011) summarized Albert Bandura’s self-efficacy theory: “Self-efficacy theory is based on the assumption that psychological procedures serve as a means of creating and strengthening expectations of personal efficacy.” 1. dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverse outcomes, rather than concentrating on how to perform successfully; 2. stacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties; 3. are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks; and 4. fall easy victim to stress and depression. Dr. Bandura described four main sources of influence by which a person’s self-efficacy is developed and maintained. These are: 1. Performance accomplishments or mastery experiences; 2. Vicarious experiences; 3. Verbal or social persuasion; and 4. Physiological (somatic and emotional) states. Dr. Bandura identified that “mastery experiences” or “personal performance accomplishments” are the most effective ways to create a strong sense of efficacy. “Successes build a robust belief in one’s personal efficacy. Failures undermined it, 101 | P a g e especially if failures occur before a sense of efficacy is firmly established.” Vicarious experiences through observance of social models also influence one’s perception of self-efficacy. The most important factor that determines the strength of influence of an observed success or failure on one’s own self-efficacy is the degree of similarity between the observer and the model. Carol S. Dweck’s Fixed and Growth Mindset Theory Biography Carol S. Dweck is the author of Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. She was born on October 17, 1946. She graduated from Bernard College in 1967 and earned her PhD from Yale University in 1972. She taught at Columbia University, Harvard University, and University of Illinois before joining Stanford University in 2004 (Upclosed 2017). Fixed and Growth Mindset Dr. Dweck’s contribution to social psychology relates to implicit theories of intelligence with her book, Mindset: The New Psychology of Success published in 2006. Dr. Dweck described people with two types of mindset. People who believe that success is based on their innate abilities have a “fixed” theory of intelligence, and goes under fixed mindset. On the other hand, people who believe that success is based on hard work, learning, training, and perseverance have growth theory of intelligence, which goes under growth mindset. According to Dr. Dweck, individuals may not necessarily be aware of their own mindset, but their mindset can still be discerned based on their behavior. It is especially evident in their reaction to failure. Fixed-mindset individuals dread failure because it is a negative statement on their basic abilities, while growth-mindset individuals do not mind or fear failure as much because they realize their performance can be improved and learning comes from failure. 102 | P a g e Guide Questions. Answer the following questions. 1. Who are or what would you become: a. In five years b. In ten years c. In twenty years 2. What are your motivations for your envisioned self? a. In five years b. In ten years c. In twenty years 3. Outline your plans on how you will make your envisioned self into reality: a. In five years b. In ten years c. In twenty years 4. How do you feel after doing this exercise? 5. What is your perception in goal setting? 103 | P a g e  LESSON 3: Less Stress, More Care Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Explain the effects of stress to one’s health; 2. Examine cultural dimension of stress and coping; and 3. Design a self-care plan. 104 | P a g e  LESSON 3: Less Stress, More Care Stress and Human Response The American Institute of Stress (AIS) has distinguished different types of stress and the human response to it. Hans Selye defined stress as the body’s nonspecific response to any demand, whether it is caused by or results