Investigate: The Anatomical Revolution PDF

## INVESTIGATE: THE ANATOMICAL REVOLUTION - In the 16th century, Andreas Vesalius published the first modern treatise on the structure of the human body, revolutionizing medicine and establishing modern anatomy. - His masterpiece, entitled De humani corporis fabrica, is based on direct observation...

## INVESTIGATE: THE ANATOMICAL REVOLUTION - In the 16th century, Andreas Vesalius published the first modern treatise on the structure of the human body, revolutionizing medicine and establishing modern anatomy. - His masterpiece, entitled De humani corporis fabrica, is based on direct observation of corpses. For the first time in history, it includes detailed anatomical descriptions as well as illustrations that reproduce, in minute detail, anatomical elements. However, these elements appear in expressive poses, as if life still flowed through them, and they are set in typical Renaissance landscapes. ## MODERN TECHNOLOGY IN ANATOMICAL STUDIES - Anatomy, like other scientific fields, has made significant progress thanks to technological advancements. Some of the most accurate non-invasive techniques that allow us to study the human body are: ### Radiography - A radiograph is a sheet impregnated with silver crystals that darken when they oxidize, i.e., when exposed to light. If we place an object between this sheet and the light source, depending on its characteristics, it will allow the passage of a greater or lesser amount of light. In radiographs, this light is normally obtained from X-rays, a source of electromagnetic radiation. - Abdominal, chest, bone, joint, and skull radiographs are common. ### Scanner or CAT Scan (Computed Axial Tomography) - CAT Scan is also an imaging technique that uses X-rays and a computer. Its main advantage over radiography is the possibility of taking images of different sections of the object being analyzed and thus creating cross-sectional images. - Comparing the information obtained in each section, the computer reconstructs the three-dimensional structure of the body. - In medicine, CAT scan is mainly used to explore cancers, blood clots, and heart hemorrhages. ### Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - MRIs are obtained from a large magnet that creates an electromagnetic field; a scanner that emits and receives radio waves; and a computer that processes the information. The function is based on changes in the position of the protons in the body under study as a result of the electromagnetic field. When it stops emitting these waves, the protons return to their initial position, releasing energy in the form of radio waves, which are captured by the scanner. It has great diagnostic value for certain illnesses. ## DESCRIBE, ANALYZE, AND RELATE 1. Analyze the contributions made by Hippocrates, Leonardo da Vinci, and Vesalius to the development and advancement of anatomy. 2. Describe the main difference between the images obtained by radiography, scanner, and magnetic resonance imaging. ## VALUE AND OPINE 3. Why are the Egyptians considered the best anatomists of antiquity? 4. Do you believe that technological progress has influenced our understanding of human anatomy? ## THE DISCOVERY OF THE HUMAN BODY - The Egyptian civilization flourished around 3000 BC and left behind not only its written history on papyrus but also evidence of early anatomical descriptions. Egyptians needed to understand the various parts of a corpse to carry out embalming practices. ### 1. THE BEST ANATOMISTS OF ANCIENT TIMES - This technique was a complex process to which the bodies of the deceased were subjected as part of a funeral ritual based on the belief that to achieve immortality of the human spirit, bodies should be preserved. - Embalming consisted of removing the bowels from the body, except the kidneys and the heart; filling the corpse with a compound made of herbs and ointments; and, once restored, the body was sprayed with special oils and wrapped in bandages. Finally, the mummies were placed in a sarcophagus with magical amulets. ### 2. THE BIRTH OF ANATOMY - In ancient times, medical knowledge was passed down from master to apprentice. Medical notions were intertwined with religious beliefs and magical rituals. - It was in ancient Greece that anatomy became established as a science. - Hippocrates, known as the father of medicine, was the founder of the science of anatomy. With his critical attitude, he moved away from the ideas that existed in his time regarding the magical healing practices surrounding medicine. He abandoned the religious traditions linked to the cult of Asclepius, god of medicine and health, and dedicated himself to observing the sick. - Hippocratic thought was based on learning about the anatomy of the human being. The Hippocratic Oath, traditionally attributed to him, has become an ethical manifesto in medical practice. ### 3. LEONARDO'S STUDIES - The Renaissance was the golden age of anatomy. During this period, the main subject of art was the human being, so the artist, to portray him correctly, needed to have a perfect understanding of the human body’s structure. - Leonardo da Vinci was the first scientific draftsman in history. His studies on the human body, which he kept hidden, perhaps out of fear of being condemned by the Church, revealed anatomical relationships of bones and muscles, in addition to the arrangement and function of different internal organs. ## 7.2. BODY CAVITIES - The body, despite its external appearance, is not a solid structure but rather consists of spaces or cavities that contain compact and well-organized groups of internal organs. ### MAIN BODY CAVITIES - **Ventral Cavity:** is located in the ventral (front) part of the trunk. It includes: - **Thoracic Cavity:** This space corresponds to the chest cavity. It is located above the diaphragm and includes the right and left pleural cavities, which house the right and left lungs respectively, and a central part called the mediastinum, where the trachea, right and left bronchi, esophagus, and thymus, among other organs, are located. It also contains the pericardial cavity, a small space around the heart. - **Abdominopelvic Cavity:** Located below the diaphragm, it is divided into an upper part, the abdominal cavity, above the pelvis, and a lower part, the pelvic cavity, in the pelvis. The abdominal cavity contains the liver, stomach, pancreas, gallbladder, spleen, kidneys, ureters, small intestine, and large intestine. The pelvic cavity houses the bladder, a portion of the large intestine, and some reproductive organs. - **Dorsal Cavity:** Located in the dorsal (back) region of the organism. It is divided into the cranial cavity, located in the skull, and the vertebral cavity, located in the vertebral column, which contains the spinal cord. ## MAIN CAVITIES OF THE HUMAN BODY A diagram is included in the document that shows the main body cavities in a frontal and a lateral view. ## 6.3. BODY REGIONS - The body is a whole that can be divided into two portions or components: - **Axial Portion:** It runs along the midline or axis of the body. It comprises the head, neck, and torso or trunk. - **Appendicular Portion:** It consists of the upper and lower extremities. Each of these main areas has distinct subdivisions or body regions. For instance, the lower limb is divided into the thigh, leg, and foot, while the upper limb is divided into the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand. A table is included in the document with descriptions of and a diagram of the body regions of the axial and appendicular portions. ## 7. ANATOMICAL SECTIONAL - Anatomical sectional analysis studies the structure of the human body by obtaining sections (physical or virtual) according to conventional planes. This branch of macroscopic anatomy highlights the organization of the spatial relationships that exist between different tissues and organs in each of the body regions. ### 7.1. PLANES OR BODY SECTIONS - To facilitate in-depth study of individual organs or the entire body, it is often useful to imagine it divided into smaller sections. - To do this, we use body planes, which are imaginary surfaces that divide the body into different sections. From the anatomical position, three main perpendicular body planes are distinguished: - **Sagittal Plane:** This is a longitudinal plane that runs from front to back. It divides the body or any of its parts into a right side and a left side. Only one of these planes divides the body into two more or less symmetrical halves. This plane is called the midsagittal plane or sagittal median plane. - **Frontal Plane:** This is a longitudinal plane that runs from one side to the other. It divides the body or any of its parts into an anterior or ventral portion and a posterior or dorsal portion. It is also called the coronal plane. - **Transverse Plane:** This is a horizontal plane that divides the body or any of its parts into a superior or cranial portion and an inferior or caudal portion. It is also called the horizontal plane. A diagram is included in the document that shows the body planes in a sectional view. ## 7.2. BODY CAVITIES - The body, despite its external appearance, is not a solid structure but rather consists of spaces or cavities that contain groups of internal organs. ### MAIN BODY CAVITIES - **Ventral Cavity:** is located in the ventral (front) part of the trunk. It includes: - **Thoracic Cavity:** This space corresponds to the chest cavity. It is located above the diaphragm and includes the right and left pleural cavities, which house the right and left lungs respectively, and a central part called the mediastinum, where the trachea, right and left bronchi, esophagus, and thymus, among other organs, are located. It also contains the pericardial cavity, a small space around the heart. - **Abdominopelvic Cavity:** Located below the diaphragm, it is divided into an upper part, the abdominal cavity, above the pelvis, and a lower part, the pelvic cavity, in the pelvis. The abdominal cavity contains the liver, stomach, pancreas, gallbladder, spleen, kidneys, ureters, small intestine, and large intestine. The pelvic cavity houses the bladder, a portion of the large intestine, and some reproductive organs. - **Dorsal Cavity:** Located in the dorsal (back) region of the organism. It is divided into the cranial cavity, located in the skull, and the vertebral cavity, located in the vertebral column, which contains the spinal cord. A diagram is included in the document that shows the body planes in a sectional view. ## 6. ANATOMICAL TOPOGRAPHY OR SURFACE ANATOMY - Anatomy allows the detailed observation of the human body. Microscopic anatomy examines cells (cytology) and tissues (histology), while macroscopic anatomy studies the parts of the organism visible to the naked eye, though this can be approached in various ways. - Surface anatomy or topography studies the surface of the body. It examines organs based on their location and divides the body into different regions. ### 6.1. ANATOMICAL POSITION - Studies on the human body (how it moves, its posture, or the relationship of one area to another) universally accept that the body as a whole is in a standard position called the anatomical position. - The person stands erect with their legs together and their feet flat on the floor. Their hands are at their sides with their palms facing forward. - When the body is not in this position, the terms supine and prone are used. In the supine position, the body is lying down with the face upward, while in prone position, the body is lying down face downward. - A table is included in the document that describes the supine and prone body positions. ### 6.2. ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONS - When studying the human body, it is necessary to know where an organ is located in relation to other structures. To describe the relative positions of body parts, a set of anatomical directions are used. ### RELATIVE POSITIONS OF BODY PARTS - **Anterior and Posterior:** The term anterior means in front of, or in front of, whereas posterior means behind, or behind. For example, the navel is on the anterior surface of the body, and the shoulder blades are on the posterior surface. - **Superior and Inferior:** Superior means toward the head, higher, or above. Inferior means toward the feet, lower, or below. For example, the lungs occupy a position superior to the diaphragm, and the stomach is immediately inferior to it. - **Proximal and Distal:** The term proximal means toward or closer to the point of reference, while distal means away from or further from the point of reference. For example, the humerus is proximal to the radius, while the phalanges are distal to the carpus. - **Medial and Lateral:** Medial means toward the midline of the body, and lateral means toward or away from the midline. For example, the ulna is on the medial side of the forearm, while the lungs are lateral to the heart. - **Superficial and Deep:** The term superficial means closer to the body surface, and deep means further from the body surface. For example, the skin is superficial to the underlying structures, and the bone of the thigh is deep to the muscles that surround it. A diagram is included in the document that describes the anatomical directions. ## 6.3. BODY REGIONS - The human body can be divided into two main divisions: - **Axial Portion:** It runs along the midline of the body and includes the head, neck, and torso or trunk. - **Appendicular Portion:** It consists the upper and lower extremities. Each of these main areas has distinct subdivision or body regions. For example, the lower limb is divided into the thigh, leg, and foot, while the upper limb is divided into the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand. A table is included in the document that describes the anatomical positions of the body.