EDUC 70 Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching Past Paper PDF 2021-2022 Cavite State University

THE TEACHER’S ARCHIVE 2021-2022 CvSU-INDANG/ EDUCATION CIRCLE Cavite State University-Indang Education Circle 2021-2022...

THE TEACHER’S ARCHIVE 2021-2022 CvSU-INDANG/ EDUCATION CIRCLE Cavite State University-Indang Education Circle 2021-2022 THE TEACHER’S ARCHIVE Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching EDUC 70 1 THE TEACHER’S ARCHIVE 2021-2022 CvSU-INDANG/ EDUCATION CIRCLE BSE MATH 3-1 Alfonso, Tracy Anne Claire, D. BSE MATH 3-2 Manua, Rizy, L. BECED 3-1 Panganiban, Kina Grace T. Patawaran, Dasha Arela, S. BSE SS 3-1 de Castro, Leo Angelo, M. Perucho, Lord Mc Will, R. Project Heads: PYAR CHING KIMBERLY NICOLE TAN Vice Chairman-External Auditor 1 THE TEACHER’S ARCHIVE 2021-2022 CvSU-INDANG/ EDUCATION CIRCLE CvSU Vision Republic of the Philippines CvSU Mission The premier university CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY Cavite State University shall provide in historic Cavite recognized for excellence Don Severino de las Alas Campus excellent, equitable and relevant educational opportunities in the arts, science and in the development of Indang, Cavite technology through quality instruction and globally competitive and relevant research and development activities. morally upright individuals. It shall produce professional, skilled and morally upright individuals for global competitiveness. Acknowledgement of Responsibility DISCLAIMER This document is strictly confidential. Any review, retransmission, dissemination or other use of, without the prior written consent of Education Circle of Cavite State University-Indang is prohibited. Informed Consent I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time, without cost. I understand that I will be given a copy of this consent form. I voluntarily agree to take part in this academic matter. Participant’s signature: ___ALVIN V. OBNIALA, LPT, MAEd ____________________ Date: March 1, 2022 Prepared by: PYAR CHING KIMBERLY NICOLE TAN Vice Chairman-External Auditor Conformed by: ANNE JADE NICOLE MANICAD MAE ZAVILL CRISTORIA ANGELO DE VILLA Chairman Vice Chairman-Internal Secretary JAMES WARREN CRUSPE LAARNI JANE PAREJA DANA MARGARETTE JUGANAS Treasurer Public Relations Officer Business Manager-Internal ELLA MARIE PAMPLINA ROVI MAE PEREY ABEGAIL VALENZONA MELANIO Business Manager-External Sergeant at Arms Second Year Representative VAL PATRICK DELA REA YUAN ANGELO Third Year Representative First Year Representative Approved by: JAKE RAYMUND F. FABREGAR, DEM JOVAN B. ALITAGTAG, DEM, LPT Adviser, Education Circle Adviser, Education Circle 1 THE TEACHER’S ARCHIVE 2021-2022 CvSU-INDANG/ EDUCATION CIRCLE 2 THE TEACHER’S ARCHIVE 2021-2022 CvSU-INDANG/ EDUCATION CIRCLE 3 THE TEACHER’S ARCHIVE 2021-2022 CvSU-INDANG/ EDUCATION CIRCLE FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING Table of Contents I. Introduction Module 1: Metacognition …………………………………………………………………… 2 Module 2: Learner-Centered Pedagogical Principle………………………………..…… 2 A. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors………………………………..…… 3 B. Motivational and Affective Factors………………………….………..…… 3 C. Developmental and Social Factors…………………………………..…… 3 D. Individual Differences Factors………………………………………..…… 3 II. Focus on the Learner Module 3: Review of the Theories Related to the Learners Development………..…… 3 Student Diversity Module 4: Individual Differences…………………………………………………..…..…… 6 Modul5 5: Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences…………………....…… 6 Module 6: Learners with Exceptionalities ……………………………………..……..…… 8 III. Focus on Learning Behaviorist Perspective…………………………………………………………......…… 9 Module 7: Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner…………………..……… 9 Module 8: Neo-Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura………………………………...……10 Cognitive Perspective Module 9: Gestalt Psychology………………………………………………………....…… 12 Module 10: Information Processing…………………………………………………...…… 12 Module 11: Gagne’s Conditions of Learning…………………………………….…..…… 13 Module 12: Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning Learning/Subsumption Theory………………………………………………………..…… 14 Module 13: Bruner’s Constructivist Theory…………………………………………..…… 14 Cognitive Processes Module 14: Constructivism: Knowledge Construction/Concept Learning………….…… 15 Module 15: Transfer of Learning ………………………………………………..……..…… 16 Module 16: The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives…………..…… 17 Module 17: Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model…………..… 17 Module 18: Problem Solving and Creativity…………………………………………..…… 18 IV. Focus on Classroom Processes Motivation Module 19: Meaning and Types of Motivation………………………………………..…… 18 Module 20: Theories on Factors Affecting Motivation……………………………….…… 18 Module 21: Students Diversity in Motivation …………………………………….…..…… 19 Motivation in the Classroom………………………………………………………...…… 20 Module 22: Human Environmental Factors Affecting Motivation…………………..…… 20 Module 23: The Classroom Climate and Social-Emotional Learning…………………… 21 Module 24: the Physical Learning Environment……………………………………..…… 21 Module 25: Assessment Strategies that can Increase Motivation and Outcome-based Teaching – Learning………………………………………………………….………..…… 22 1 THE TEACHER’S ARCHIVE 2021-2022 CvSU-INDANG/ EDUCATION CIRCLE EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING METACOGNITION MONITORING  One’s awareness of comprehension and task  Meta is a Greek word, which means “beyond” or “on performance top of”  Cognition is a Latin word, “cognoscere” - EVALUATING “cognito” which means “get to know”  Appraising the final product of a task  Metacognition – thinking about thinking / learning  The efficiency of which the task was performed how to learn  E.g., re-evaluating strategies that were used GENERAL COMPONENTS OF METACOGNITION TQLR  for young learners  Knowledge about cognition  T (tune-in) – paying attention  Regulation of cognition  Q (question) – giving idea to the topic through questioning METAMEMORY  L (listen) – getting engage / effort to listen  R (remember) – uses ways to remember what was learned  Important form of Metacognition  Knowing about memory and mnemonic strategies PQ4R  A.k.a. “Socratic awareness” – self-reflective  Used in a study of unit or chapter judgements  Usually for adult learners  P (preview) – scanning the whole topic  Q (question) – giving idea to the topic through JOHN H. FLAVELL questioning  R (read) – reading and finding out meanings to  Defined: knowledge about cognition and control of unfamiliar words cognition  R (recite) – answering the questions  R (review) – topics that are needed to be re-read COMPONENTS for better understanding  R (reflect) – thinking / applying concepts METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE  A.k.a. metacognitive awareness NOVICE AND EXPERT LEARNERS  What individuals know about themselves and others NOVICE LEARNERS as cognitive processors  A person with poor learning strategies which results PERSON VARIABLES (WHAT) to shallow learning  A.k.a. content/declarative knowledge  Person who just started learning  How one views himself  E.g., definitions and concepts EXPERT LEARNERS TASK VARIABLES (HOW)  Person who applies metacognitive strategies in  A.k.a. procedural knowledge learning which constantly monitors their learning to  Includes nature of tasks as well as type of consequently adjust their strategies to make learning processing more effective  E.g., how to do something /perform task LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGY VARIABLES (WHEN and WHY) PRINCIPLES (LCP)  A.k.a. conditional knowledge  Involves awareness of the strategy you are using to  Focused on each student’s interests, abilities, and learn a topic learning styles, placing the teacher as a facilitator  Includes meta-attention (focus) and meta-memory (memory and mnemonic strategies) IMPORTANCE IN APPLYING LCP METACOGNITIVE REGULATION  LCPs provides teacher educators opportunities to  A.k.a. regulation of cognition model effective learner – centered practices and promote student motivation and learning PLANNING  Appropriate selection of strategies LEARNER CENTERED-TEACHING  An approach that places the learner at the center of the learning process.  Correct allocation of resources that affect task performance 2  EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING THE LEARNER DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS CENTERED LEARNING  Helps the students develop skills that will equipped them for their professional careers. DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING  END GOAL : To develop students to be an  As individuals develop, there are different autonomous and independent learners opportunities and constraints of learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS and across physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into account NATURE OF LEARNING PROCESS SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING  The learning of a complex subject matter is most  Learning is influenced by social interactions, effective when it is intentional process of constructing interpersonal relations and communication with others meaning from information and experience INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS GOALS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS  The successful learner, over time and with support INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge  Learners have different strategies, approaches and CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE capabilities for learning that you’re a function of prior experience and heredity.  The successful learner can link new information with LEARNING AND DIVERSITY existing knowledge in meaningful ways STRATEGIC THINKING  Learning is most effective when differences in learners linguistic cultural and social backgrounds are  The successful learner can create and use a taken into account repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to STUDENTS AND ASSESSMENT achieve complex learning goals. THINKING ABOUT THINKING  Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning  Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring progress – including the diagnostic process and mental operations facilitate creative and critical outcome assessment – are integral parts of the thinking learning process CONTEXT OF LEARNING REVIEW OF THEORIES RELATED TO THE LEARNERS’ DEVELOPMENT  Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and instructional SIGMUND FREUD’S COMPONENTS OF practices PERSONALITY MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS “The man is like an iceberg; it floats with one-seventh of its bulk above water. “ MOTIVATIONAL AND EMOTIONAL INFLUENCES ON ID LEARNING  Pleasure principle  Concerned with instant gratification  What and how much is learned is influenced by the EGO learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is  Reality/analytic principle influenced by the individuals’ emotional states, beliefs,  Rational, pragmatic part of our personality interests and goals, and habits of thinking  Partly conscious and unconscious  The “self “according to Freud INTRINSIC MOTIVATION TO LEARN  Job: balance the demands of id and superego  The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and SUPEREGO moral curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn.  Morality /idealistic principle Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal  Concerned with social rules and morals novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, Similar to conscience and moral compass and providing for personal choice and control PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY EFFECTS OF MOTIVATION ON EFFORT  A.k.a. Psychodynamic Theory  Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires  Argues that human behavior is the result of the extended learner effort and guided practice. Without interactions among the components of the mind id, learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert ego, and superego this effort is unlikely without coercion  Places great emphasis on the role of psychological conflicts in shaping behavior and personality 3  EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING SIGMUND FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VS SHAME AND DOUBT (2 TO 3 DEVELOPMENT YEARS OLD) A. Can I already do things on my own? FIXATION – occurs if needs are not met of satisfied excessively  Social Condition – support, patience  Overcome – develops self-confidence; FIVE STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT sense of security B. Should I depend on others? ORAL STAGE  Social Condition – lack of confidence  Birth to 18 months /support; over protection  Erogenous zone: mouth  Overcome – feels inadequate; becomes o Fixation: overeating, smoking, drinking, nail dependent biting, gossiping and cursing STAGE 3: INITIATIVE VS GUILT (3 TO 5 YEARS OLD) ANAL STAGE  18 months to 3 years old A. Can I be independent?  Erogenous zone: anal  Social Condition – opportunity and o Fixation: obsessive with cleanliness or encouragement hating mess (anal retentiveness), become  Overcome – develops sense of purpose generous (anal expulsive), messy or disorganized B. Am I good? or Am I bad?  Social Condition – lack of opportunity; PHALLIC STAGE negative feelings  4 to 6 years old  Overcome – feels guilty  Erogenous zone: genitals  Attachment: boy to mom (oedipus complex), girl to STAGE 4: INDUSTRY VS INFERIORITY (6 TO 11 YEARS dad (electra complex) OLD) A. Do I have the skills to adjust? LATENCY STAGE  Social Condition – good education / training;  6 to puberty (boys: 12-16, girls: 10-14) good models  Erogenous zone: dormant  Overcome – becomes industrious; develops  Resolving fixation self confidence  GENITAL STAGE B. Am I already competent? Am I worthy or not?  Puberty and older  Social Condition – lack of training /  Erogenous zone: genitals direction / support  Mature sexual orientation develops  Overcome – develops inferiority  Attraction is directed towards others opposite sex STAGE 5 : IDENTITY VS ROLE CONFUSION (12 TO 18 ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF YEARS OLD) DEVELOPMENT A. Who am I? “Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have  Social Condition – clear sex models; good integrity enough not to fear death “ sense of stability; positive feedback  Overcome – develops identity  Recognize the importance of early experiences in childhood / role of social factors to influence B. What are my beliefs? Virtues? Values? Felling? development  Social Condition – confusing purpose;  Stages of development throughout life span vague expectations; unclear feedback  Characterized by Psychosocial Conflict or crisis that  Overcome – identity crisis; role confusion individual needs to overcome to move into next stage STAGE 6: INTIMACY VS ISOLATION (19 TO 40 YEARS OLD) EIGHT PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF A. Should I get into a relationship? DEVELOPMENT  Social Condition – understanding, trust, acceptance STAGE 1: TRUST VS MISTRUST (BIRTH TO 1 YEAR OLD)  Overcome – loneliness, depression A. Will I get support for what I need? B. Or should I stay single?  Social Condition – provision of basic needs,  Social Condition – loneliness; exclusion support  Overcome – is able to love and commit  Overcome – becomes hopeful or optimistic STAGE 7: GENERATIVITY VS STAGNATION (40 TO 60 B. Can I trust the world? YEARS OLD)  Social Condition – deprivation, lack of support, inconsistency A. What is my contribution in this world?  Overcome – becomes fearful  Social Condition – productivity; purposefulness 4  EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING  Overcome – feels productive FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (12 YEARS OLD AND UP) B. Will I produce something valuable or relevant?  Able to analyze problems, and consider different ways  Social Condition – lack of opportunity / of solving it enrichment  Can deal with abstract or hypothetical situations and  Overcome – feeling unproductive / stagnant generate ideas through logical thinking STAGE 8: EGO INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR (65 AND UP LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL YEARS OLD) DEVELOPMENT A. Have I lived a full life? “Right action tends to be defined in terms of general  Social Condition – sense of closure; clear individual rights and standards that have been critically attainment of direction examined and agreed upon by the whole society “  Overcome – feels complete; has sense of achievement  Recognized the role of cognitive ability to distinguish right from wrong and behave accordingly B. Am I content with what I have achieved in life?  Social Condition – lack of completeness; dissatisfaction LEVELS AND STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT  Overcome – feels dissatisfied with life in despair LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL (recognition of authority who gives rewards and punishments) JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE STAGES OF  Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation DEVELOPMENT o Orientation: deciding what is right or wrong is based on what action is punished. The “The principal goal of education in the schools should be child obeys to avoid punishment creating men and women who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have  Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange done. “ o Orientation: deciding what is right or wrong COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT is based on what is rewarded. o “What is in it for me?”  Considers the active role of an individual as a factor in human development  Explains how a child understand the world: how he LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL thinks, reasons out, remembers and solve problems  Stage 3: Social approval (“Good Boy – Good Girl FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Orientation) o Orientation: deciding what is right or wrong SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (BIRTH TO 2 YEARS OLD) is based on what others approve or disapprove.  Knowledge is based on the senses  Child responds to people and things through reflex  Stage 4: Law and order (“Authority Orientation”) movements o Orientation: deciding what is right or wrong o Object permanence – an object continues is based on the rules that should be followed to exist even if it is no longer seen o “How can I maintain law and order? “ PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2 TO 7 YEARS OLD) LEVEL 3: POST CONVENTIONAL  The child’s way of thinking is toward himself and thinks that other people are thinks and feels just like  Stage 5: Social contract orientation him o Orientation: deciding what is right or wrong  Begins to use symbols to represent what he knows is based on laws, however, one recognizes (symbolic thought) that they can change  Perception is limited and understanding is based on o Acts are based on what will be good for the concrete objects majority  Tends to attribute human characteristics to intimate  Stage 6: Universal Ethical principles objects o Orientation: deciding what is right or wrong  Has difficulty understanding that some things can be is based on universal principles reversed and has a hard time understanding cause o People at this stage have developed their and effect relationship own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (8 TO 11 YEARS OLD) everyone  Child begins to be more logical, able to perform LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY simple operations (e.g., living and non – living things) and can understand reversibility (e.g., “The teacher must orient his work not on yesterdays on commutative property of addition) the development of the child but on tomorrow’s”  More other-centered THEORY OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 5  EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING  Argues that community and language play a central  Socio-economic status part in learning  Thinking/Learning style  The child’s socialization (to a MKO – More  Exceptionalities Knowledge Other) influences their cognitive development HOW STUDENT DIVERSITY ENRICHES THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT? ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT  Student’s self-awareness is enhanced by diversity  Student diversity contributes to cognitive development  Prepares learners for their role as responsible member of society  Can promote harmony TIPS ON STUDENTS’ DIVERSITY  Encourage learners to share  Integrate learning experience/activities  Identify patterns of unity  Communicate high expectations  Use varied instructional methods  Vary the example used  Adapt to student’s diversity FIGURE 1: ZDP and Scaffolding Model  Diversify methods of assessing student  Form a diverse group of students  Scaffolding: temporary support that MKO’s (e.g., parents or teachers) give to a child to do a task LEARNING/THINKING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES LEARNING THINKING STYLES URIE BRONFENBRENNER BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY  Refer to preferred way of an individual process of information.  Describes typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem solving of a person. FIVE ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM  Your style usually described as a personality dimension which influences your attitudes, values and  Microsystem social interactions. o Immediate environment  Having a particular learning/thinking style simply  Closest to the person w/c they have denotes a tendency to behave in a certain manner. direct contact  Mesosystem PERSPECTIVES ABOUT LEARNING-THINKING o Relationships between microsystems STYLES  Interaction between the different parts of a person’s microsystem 1. SENSORY PREFERENCES  Exosystem -Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of o Link between two settings sensory input and maintain a dominance in one of the following  A setting that does not actively types: involve participant but still affects them 2. VISUAL LEARNERS -They must see their teacher’s actions and facial expressions  Macrosystem to fully understand the content of a lesson. o Larger cultural and social context  Cultural environment in w/c the  They may think in pictures and learn best from the person lives and all other systems visual aids. affect them  Prefer to take detailed notes to absorb every information’s.  Chronosystem o The role of time to a person RI CHARDE BREAKS DOWN THIS INTO:  Time or events that relates to person’s development  VISUAL-ICONIC INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES -Prefer this form of input to be more interesting in visual imagery such as films, graphic displays or pictures to solidify  Unique characteristics of an individual that have an learnings. impact on how they learn -They usually have good “PICTURE MEMORY” a.k.a. iconic FACTORS AFFECTING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES imagery and attend to pictorial details. 6  EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING  VISUAL-SYMBOLIC -They feel comfortable with abstract symbolism such as mathematical formula ire the written words. -Prefer to read books than a map, prefer to read about things rather than hearing about them. -Good abstract thinkers who do not require practical means for learning. 3. AUDITORY LEARNERS Learn through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through listening to others. -They interpret underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and etc. CATEGORIES OF AUDITORY LEARNERS  LISTENERS MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE -They are the one who most likely to do well in school. THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE ACCORDING TO HOWARD GARDNER IN FRAMES OF MIND (1983). -They remember things said to them and make the information their own.  He defines intelligence as “an ability or set of abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or fashion a  TALKERS product that is valued in one or more cultures”. -They are the ones who prefer to talk and discuss. 9 DISTINCT FORMS OF INTELLIGENCE -They are not trying to be disruptive and may not even realize 1. VISUAL/SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE (PICTURE that they need to talk. SMART) 4. TACTILE/KINESTHETIC LEARNERS -ability to see things in one’s mind in planning to create a -Benefit much from hands-on approach, actively exploring the product or solve a problem. Learning visually and organizing physical world around them. ideas spatially. -They much not benefit from discussions or written materials, 2. VERBAL/LINGUISTIC (WORD SMART) and become distracted by their need for active exploration. -learning through spoken and written words. Always valued in - “LEARNING BY DOING” preferring the use of psychomotor traditional classroom and in traditional assessment of skills to say, abstract thinking skills. intelligence and achievement. 5. GLOBAL-ANALYTIC CONTINUUM 3. MATHEMATICAL/LOGICAL (NUMBER SMART/LOGIC SMART)  ANALYTIC  learning through reasoning and problem solving. -Tend to linear, step-by-step process of learning. They are Highly valued in tradional classroom where students “tree seers” who tends to see finite elements of patterns rather are asked to adopt logically sequenced delivery of than the whole. instructions.  GLOBAL 4. BODILY/KINESTHETIC (BODY SMART) -They lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see the -learning through interaction with one’s environment. Domain whole pattern rather than particle elements. They are “forest of overly active learners and promotes understanding through seers” who gave attention only to the overall structure and concrete experience. sometimes ignore details. 5. MUSICAL (MUSIC SMART) ROGER SPERRY’S MODEL -learning through patterns, rhythms and music. Includes auditory learning but also identification of patterns through all the senses. 6. INTRAPERSONAL (SELF SMART) -learning through feelings, values and attitudes. Students place value on what they learn and take ownership for their learning. 7. INTERPERSONAL (PEOPLE SMART) -learning through interactions with others. Promotes collaboration and working cooperatively with others. 7  EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING 8. NATURALIST (NATURE SMART) 7. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning (writing summaries, creating opinion -learning through classification, categories, and hierarchies. surveys, etc.). Not simply the study of nature; it can be used in all areas of study. 8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising ("The example you've provided is an excellent one to point to the 9. EXISTENSIAL (SPIRIT SMART) concept of."). -learning by seeing the “big picture”. This seeks connections to LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES real world understanding and application of new learnings. TEACHING STRATEGIES GUIDED BY THINKING/LEARNING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE. 1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling factual information to drawing implications and making value judgments. 2. Provide a general overview of material to be learned, i.e., structured overviews, advance organizers, etc., so that students' past experiences will be DISABILITY associated with the new ideas.  measurable impairment or limitation that interferes 3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and with a person’s ability. It may refer to a physical, then integrate using both the right-and sensory or mental condition. (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). Replace the word handicap. left-brain hemispheres. HANDICAP 4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing or reading experience.  a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. 5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction, etc. CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONALITIES 6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving SPECIFIC COGNITIVE OR ACADEMIC DIFFICULTIES information. (Write directions on the 1. LEARNING DISABILITIES board and give them orally.) -involves difficulties in specific cognitive process. Like dyslexia 7. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring (reading), dyscalculia (number operations), and dysgraphia closure to learning (writing summaries, (writing). creating opinion surveys, etc.). 2. ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD) 8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising ("The example you've provided is an excellent  difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention.  recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior. one to point to the concept of."). 3. SPEECH AND COMMUNICATION DISORDER 1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling factual information to drawing -difficulties in spoken language like voice disorders, inability to implications and making value judgments. produce the sounds correctly, stuttering. 2. Provide a general overview of material to be SOCIAL/EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL learned, i.e., structured overviews, advance organizers, etc., DIFFICULTIES so that students' past experiences will be associated with the new ideas. 1. AUTISM 3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and  it is a condition manifested by different levels of then integrate using both the right-and left-brain hemispheres. impaired social interaction and communication, 4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing or reading repetitive behaviors and limited interests. experience. 2. MENTAL RETARDATION 5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction, etc.  it refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior. 6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information. (Write directions on the board and give them 3. EMOTIONAL/CONDUCT DISORDER orally.)  this involves the presence of emotional states. 8  EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS 1. PHYSICAL AND HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS  this involves physical or medical conditions including one or more of these: 1. Limited energy and strength 2. Reduced mental alertness 3. Little muscle control 2. SEVERE AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES  this refers to the presence of two or more different types of disability, at times at a profound level. BEHAVIORISM 1. IVAN PAVLOV  a Russian psychologist, is well known for his work in SENSORY IMPAIRMENTS classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell. 1. VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS IVAN PAVLOV’S FINDINGS -involves malfunction of the eyes.  STIMULUS GENERALIZATION – once the dog has 2. HEARING IMPAIRMENTS learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.  involves malfunction of the ears.  EXTINCTION – if you stop pairing the bell with the GIFTEDNESS food, salivation eventually cease in response to the bell.  it involves a significantly high level of cognitive  SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY – extinguished development. response can be “recovered” after an elapse time but it will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented PEOPLE-FIRST LANGUAGE with food.  DISCRIMINATION – the dog could learn to  putting the person first, not the disability. discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of EXAMPLE: food and which would not. 1. Person with disability not disabled person.  HIGHER-ORDER CONDITIONING – once the dog 2. Person with AIDS” rather than “AIDS Victim” has been conditioned to associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may OTHER SUGGESTIONS FOR REFERRING TO THOSE WITH be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. DISABILITIES INCLUDES: 1) AVOIDING GENERIC LABELS 2. EDWARD L. THORNDIKE  people with mental retardation are preferable to  connectionism theory gave us the original S-R mentally retarded. framework of behavioral psychology.  the main principle of connectionism was that learning 2) EMPHASIZING ABILITIES, NOT LIMITATIONS could be adequately explained without consideration any observable internal states.  uses a wheelchair is preferable to confined to a  Learning has taken place when a strong wheelchair. connectionism or bond between stimulus and 3) AVOIDING EUPHEMISM response is formed.  physically-challenged EDWARD L. THORNDIKE’S THREE PRIMARY LAW 4) AVOIDING IMPLYING ILLNESS OR SUFFERING 1. LAW OF EFFECT – connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened when the  had folio preferable to is a polio victim and multiple consequences is positive (reward) and the connection sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple between the stimulus and the response is weakened sclerosis. when the consequence is negative. 2. LAW OF EXERCISE – the more S-R (stimulus BEHAVIORISM: PAVLOR, THORNDIKE, WATSON, response) bond is practicing the stronger it will SKINNER become. 3. LAW OF READINESS – the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them. 9  EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING PRINCIPLES DERIVED FROM THORNDIKE’S 10. FIXED INTERVAL SCHEDULE – target response is CONNECTIONISM reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement.  Learning requires both practice and rewards (law of 11. VARIABLE INTER SCHEDULE – similar to fixed effect/exercise) interval schedule but the amount of the time that must  A series of S-R connectionism can be chained pass between reinforcement varies. together if they belong to the same action sequence 12. FIXED RATIO SCHEDULE – fixed number of correct (law of readiness). responses must occur before reinforcement may  Transfer of learning occurs because of previously recur. encountered situations. 13. VARIABLE RATIO SCHEDULE – number of correct  Intelligence is a function of the number of connections repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement learned. varies. IMPLICATION OF OPERANT CONDITIONING 3. JOHN WATSON  Practice should take the form of questions  first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s (stimulus) – answer (response) frames which expose ideas. He considered that humans are born with a few the student to the subject in gradual steps. reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage.  Require that the learner makes a response for every  all other behavior is learned through stimulus- frame and received immediate feedback. response associations through conditioning.  Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the EXPERIMENT ON ALBERT response is always correct and hence, a positive reinforcement.  His work did clearly show the role of conditioning in  Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired the development of emotional responses to certain with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, stimuli. This may help us understand the fears, prizes and good grades. phobias, and prejudices that people develop. PRINCIPLES DERIVED FROM SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING 4. BURRHUS FREDERICK SKINNER  Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur;  believed in the S-R pattern of conditioned behavior. intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective.  Wrote Walden Two (1948) and Science and Human  Information should be presented in small amounts so Behavior (1953). that responses can be reinforced (shaping).  Studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in  Reinforcement’s will generalize across similar stimuli operating on the environment. (stimulus generalization) producing secondary conditioning. B.F. SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING  based upon the notion that learning is a result of NEO BEHAVIORISM: TOLMAN AND BANDURA change on overt behavior. Change in behavior are the results of individual’s response to event (stimuli) that occur in the environment. 1. REINFORCEMENT – is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. 2. REINFORCER – anything that strengthen the desired responses. 3. POSITIVE REINFORCER – any stimulus that is given or add to increase the response. 4. NEGATIVE REINFORCER - any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment, it is a reward. 5. PUNISHMENT – consequence intended to result in a reduced response. 6. EXTINCTION OR NON-REINFORCEMENT – responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be Figure xxx: Neo Behaviorism Tolman & Bandura repeated. 7. SHAPING BEHAVIOR – successive approximation of EDWARD C. TOLMAN’S PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM the behavior is rewarded. 8. BEHAVIOR CHAINING – comes about when a series  a.k.a “sign learning theory” of steps are needed to be learned.  Learning is a cognitive process. It is acquired through 9. REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES – once the desired meaningful behavior. behavioral responses are accomplished,  “The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected reinforcement does not have to be 100%. by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control 10  EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING room into a tentative cognitive like map of the GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL LEARNING environment.” THEORY  a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful stimuli (the significant) through a 1. People can learn by observing the behavior of the series of pairings; there was no need for others and the outcomes of those behaviors. reinforcement in order to establish learning. 2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. 3. Cognition plays a role in learning. EDWARD C. TOLMAN’S KEY CONCEPTS 4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning theories and  Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. cognitive learning theories.  Individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, HOW ENVIRONMENT REINFORCES AND PUNISHES and they strive towards goals. MODELING Cognitive Maps  people are often to reinforced for modelling the famous experiment on rats concluded that organisms or behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the individual to be exact learned the location and will select the environment also reinforces modeling. shortest or easiest path to achieve goal. This is in several possible ways: Ex: going to school every day. 1. The observer is reinforced by the model. Latent Learning 2. The observer reinforced by a third person. 3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing  Learning that remains or stays with the individual until consequences. needed. 4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the  Learning that is outwardly manifested at once. observer’s behavior vicariously. Ex: A 2 yrs. old handling remote for the first time. CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL LEARNING PERSPECTIVE OF REINFORCEMENT AND The concept of intervening variable PUNISHMENT  Variables that are not readily seen but serves as 1. Contemporary theory proposes that both determinants of behavior. reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects  Learning is mediated or influenced by expectations, on learning. perceptions, needs and other internal or 2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to environmental variables. which an individual exhibits a behavior that has been Ex: Experiment on rates – HUNGER learned. 3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive Reinforcement not essential for learning process that promote learning.  Reinforcement is not essential for learning although it COGNITIVE FACTORS IN SOCIAL LEARNING provides an incentive for performance. 1. Learning without performance (through observation Ex: Rats acquired knowledge of the way through maze in the and actual limitation) absence of reinforcement. 2. Cognitive processing during learning (attention) 3. Expectations (consequences) LEARNING THEORY – ALBERT BANDURA 4. Reciprocal causation (person, behavior and environment)  also called observational learning. 5. Modelling (live models and symbolic models)  theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others. BEHAVIOR THAT CAN BE LEARNED THROUGH  we learn not only how to perform a behavior but also MODELING what will happen to us in a specific if we do perform it.  Many behaviors can be learned at least party, through TYPES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING EFFECTS modeling.  Aggression can be learned through models. 1. INHIBITION – to learn not to do something that we  Moral thinking and moral behavior are influence by already know how to do because a model being observation and modeling. observed refrains from behaving in that way or does something different from what is intended to be done.  Moral judgement regarding right and wrong which can, 2. DISINHIBITION – to learn to exhibit a behavior that is in part, develop through modeling. usually disapproved of by most people because a FOUR ELEMENTS OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING model does the same without being punished. 3. FACILITATION – to be prompted to do something that 1. ATTENTION is to ordinarily done because of insufficient motivation.  mental focus or concentration 4. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING – to learn a new behavior pattern by watching and limitation the  willingness of the child to observe and mimic the performance of someone else. behavior of the model. 2. RETENTION  to encode the behavior in the memory 11  EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING  ability to store information  Also called “discovery learning 3. MOTOR REPRODUCTION  Suggested that learning could occur when the  to actually perform the behavior observed individual perceives the relationship of the elements 4. MOTIVATION/REINFORCEMENT before them and reorganizes these elements and  force that drives to act. comes to a greater understanding or insight. THREE FORMS OF REINFORCEMENT Life space 1. DIRECT REINFORCEMENT  A theory by Kurt Lewin  “An individual has inner and outer forces that affect -occurs when an individual watches a model perform, imitates his perception and learning” that behavior and is reinforced or punished by some individual.  Inner Forces: own motivation, attitudes, feelings.  Outer Forces: attitude and behavior of teachers and 2. VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT classmates. -the observer anticipates receiving a reward for behaving in a INFORMATION PROCESSING given way because someone else has been so rewarded. INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY 3. SELF-REINFORCEMENT  Is based on the idea that humans actively process the - the individuals strive to meet personal standards and does information they receive from their senses, like a not depend on or care about the reaction of others. computer does. Learning is what is happening when EFFECTS OF MODELING BEHAVIOR our brains receive information, record it, mold it and store it. 1. Modeling teaches new behaviors Types of Knowledge 2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.  General vs. Specific. This involves whether the 3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden knowledge is useful in many tasks or in only one. behaviors.  Declarative. This refers to factual knowledge. It 4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. relates to the nature of how things are; it may be in the form of a word or an image. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY  Procedural. This includes knowledge on how to do GESTALT THEORY things.  Episodic. This includes memories of life events.  Initial cognitive response to behaviorism  Conditional. This is about “knowing when and why” to  The term gestalt means “form” or “configuration” apply declarative or procedural strategies. Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka 3 Primary Stages in IPT  Psychologists who study perception and concluded  Encoding. Information is sensed, perceived, and that perceivers/learners are active, not passive attended to.  Suggested that learners collect information while  Storage. The information is stored for either a brief or actively processing and restructuring data to extended period of time, depending upon the understand it, which is called the perceptual process. processes following encoding.  Retrieval. The information is brought back at the Gestalt Principles appropriate time and reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.  Law of Proximity. Elements closer together are perceived as a coherent object—we perceive them as Sensory Register belonging together.  Law of Similarity. Elements that look similar will be  The first step in the IP model holds all sensory perceived as part of the same form—we link similar information for a very brief time. elements together.  Capacity. Our mind receives a great amount of  Law of Closure. We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the information but it's more than what our minds can figures we perceive. hold/perceive.  Law of Good Continuation. We tend to continue  Duration. The sensory register only holds the contours when elements of a figure establish an information for a brief time—1 to 3 seconds. implied direction—we draw a good continuous line. Role of Attention  Law of Good Prägnanz. Sometimes referred to as the “law of good figure” or the “law of simplicity”. When  To bring information into consciousness we are presented with a set of ambiguous or complex  Before information is perceived, it is objects, our brain will make them appear as simple as “precategorical”—it is still uninterpreted patterns of possible. stimuli. Once it is perceived, the information is  Law of Figure/Ground. We tend to pay attention and categorized, judged, and interpreted. Failure to do so, perceive things in the foreground first. there would be no means to recognize that the Insight Learning Theory stimulus was ever encountered. Short-Term Memory  First developed by Wolfgang Kohler 12  EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING  STM or “Working memory”  Where new information is temporarily placed while it is mentally processed  Capacity: 5-9 “chunks” of information.  Duration: 18 seconds or less  To reduce loss of information, using repetition to keep the information active in the STM helps. This is called maintenance rehearsal. Long-Term Memory  LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds information until needed again.  Capacity: unlimited Figure xxx: Interpersonal Psychotherapy Model  Duration: indefinite Executive Control Processes ROBERT M. GAGNE’S CONDITIONS OF LEARNING  Involve the executive processor: metacognitive skills.  Guide the flow of information through the system Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Forgetting  Theory by Robert Gagné  Different internal and external conditions are needed 2 main ways forgetting likely occurs: for each type of learning  Decay - Information is not attended to and eventually Gagne’s Principles “fades” away. Prevalent in STM or Working Memory.  Interference - New or old information “blocks” access 1. Different instruction is required for different learning to the information in question. outcomes. There are different types of levels of learning; each type calls for different types of instruction. Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information: 2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be  Rehearsal. Repeating information verbatim, mentally arranged in a sequence of instruction. They can be organized or aloud. according to complexity. The primary significance of the  Meaningful Learning. Making connections between hierarchies to identify prerequisites that should be completed new information and prior knowledge. facilitate learning at each level.  Organization. Making connections among various 3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that pieces of information. More organized=easier to recall. constitute the conditions of learning.  Elaboration. Adding additional ideas to the new information based on what you already know. THE FOUR CORE LEARNING STYLES  Visual Imagery. Forming a “picture” of the information.  Generation. Things we “produce'' are easier to The four core learning styles include visual, auditory, reading remember than the things we “hear”. and writing, and kinesthetic. Here’s an overview of all four  Context. Remembering the situation helps recovery leaning style types. information. Visual - Visual learners are better able to retain information  Personalization. Making the information relevant to when it’s presented to them in a graphic depiction, such as you. arrows, charts, diagrams, symbols, and more. Similar to how Other Memory Methods designers use visual hierarchy to emphasize specific design elements, visual learners thrive with clear pictures of  Serial Position Effect. (Recency and primacy). You information hierarchy. will remember the beginning and end of a ‘list’ more readily. Auditory - Sometimes referred to as “aural” learners, auditory  Part Learning. Break up the ‘list’ or “chunk” learners prefer listening to information that is presented to information to increase memorization. them vocally. These learners work well in group settings where  Distributed Practice. Break up learning sessions vocal collaboration is present and may enjoy reading aloud to rather than cramming all information at once (Massed themselves, too. Practice). Reading & Writing - Focusing on the written word, reading and  Mnemonic Aids. Memory techniques that learners writing learners succeed with written information on employed to help retain and retrieve information worksheets, presentations, and other text-heavy resources. effectively (i.e. using knuckles to remember which These learners are note-takers and perform strongly when they months have 31 and 30 days). can reference written text.  IPT Model Kinesthetic - Taking a physically active role, kinesthetic learners are hands-on and thrive when engaging all of their senses during course work. These learners tend to work well in 13  EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING scientific studies due to the hands-on lab component of the example of a concept previously learned. Suppose course. you have acquired a basic concept such as "tree". You know that a tree has a trunk, branches, green 9 INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS leaves, and may have some kind of fruit, and that, when fully grown, is likely to be at least 12 feet tall. Event of instruction Lesson Now you learn about a kind of tree that you have example/Conditions of never seen before, let's say a lemon tree that Learning conforms to your previous understanding of “tree”. Your new knowledge of lemon trees is attached to Gain attention (attention) Show variety of computer your concept of “tree”, without substantially altering generated triangles that concept in any way. Identify object (expectancy) Post question what is an  Correlative subsumption. Suppose you encounter a equilateral triangle new kind of tree that has red leaves, rather than green. In order to accommodate this new information, Recall prior learning Review definitions of you have to alter or extend your concept of tree to (retrieval) triangles include the possibility of red leaves. You have learned about this new kind of tree through the process of Present stimulus (selective Give definition of equilateral correlative subsumption. In a sense, you might say perception) triangle that this is more "valuable" learning than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the higher- Guide learning (semantic Show example of how to level concept. encoding) create an equilateral triangle  Superordinate learning. Imagine that you were well acquainted with maples, oaks, apple trees, etc., but Elicit performance Ask students to create five you did not know, until you were taught, that these (responding) different examples were all examples of deciduous trees. In this case, Provide feedback Check all examples of you already knew a lot of examples of the concept, (reinforcement) correct or incorrect but you did not know the concept itself until it was taught to you. This is superordinate learning. Assess performance Provide scores and  Combinatorial learning. This learning is different; it (retrieval) remediation describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another idea that is neither higher or lower in the Enhance retention/transfer Show pictures of object in hierarchy, but at the same level (in a different, but (generalization) students to identify related, "branch"). You could think of this as learning equilaterals by analogy. For example, to teach someone about pollination in plants, you might relate it to previously acquired knowledge of how fish eggs are fertilized. AUSUBEL’S MEANINGFUL VERBAL Advance Organizers LEARNING/SUBSUMPTION THEORY  Expository - describes new content. Meaningful Verbal Learning Theory  Narrative - presents the new information in the form of a story to students.  By David Ausubel  Skimming - is done by looking over the new material  Improved the traditional manner of learning where the to gain a basic overview. teachers are believed to solely provide information  Graphic Organizer - visuals to set up or outline the while students remain passive receivers of new information; examples are pictograph, descriptive information. patterns, concept patterns, and concept maps.  He proposed the use of advance organizers for learning Progressive differentiation Focus of Ausubel’s Theory  The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in  Most important factor influencing learning is the terms of detail and specificity. quantity, clarity and organization of the learner’s  The purpose is to increase the stability and clarity of present knowledge. This comprises their cognitive anchoring ideas. structure.  Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new  Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be material with previously presented information learned is related to ideas that they already possess. through comparisons and cross referencing of new The way to strengthen their cognitive structure is by and old ideas. using advanced organizers that allows students to already have a bird's eye view of the topic to be JEROME SEYMOUR BRUNER’S learned before going to the details.  Subsumption: A process by which new material is CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure. Jerome Seymour Bruner is an American psychologist and educator who developed theories on perception, learning, Processes of Meaningful Learning memory, and other aspects of cognition in young children.  Derivative subsumption. This describes the situation Bruner’s Main Concepts in which newly learned information is an instance or 14  EDUC 70 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING Representation of Knowledge and written words. It allows us to communicate with  Enactive representation - a person learns about the others and plays an world through actions on objects (action-based). important role in thought.  Iconic representation - a person learns by using models and pictures (image based). Learning requires cognitive processes  Symbolic representation - usage of symbols to involved in taking in new encode knowledge (language-based). things, synthesizing  Spiral Curriculum is a type of curriculum design in information, and integrating which key concepts are presented repeatedly it with prior knowledge. throughout the curriculum, but with deepening layers of complexity, or in different applications. Teachers Memory an important cognitive must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same process that allows people content in different ways depending on the student's to encode, store, and developmental levels. retrieve information. It is a critical component in the Discovery Learning refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself. learning process and allows This concept implies that learners construct knowledge for people to retain knowledge themselves by discovering rather than being taught. about the world and their personal histories. 4 Major Aspects of Theory of Instruction Perception a cognitive process that  Predisposition to learn - readiness for learning allows people  Structure of Knowledge - presenting a body of knowledge in a structured manner so that it can be