Educational Psychology PDF

INTRODUCTION Still another result of focusing the concept of learning on classrooms is that it raises issues of usefulness or transfer, Educational psychology is a branch of...

INTRODUCTION Still another result of focusing the concept of learning on classrooms is that it raises issues of usefulness or transfer, Educational psychology is a branch of psychology that which is the ability to use knowledge or skill in situations focuses on understanding how people learn and develop within beyond the ones in which they are acquired. Learning to read educational settings. It applies psychological principles and and learning to solve arithmetic problems, for example, are research to enhance teaching methods, improve educational major goals of the elementary school curriculum because those outcomes, and address the diverse needs of learners. This field skills are meant to be used not only inside the classroom, but is essential for educators, administrators, curriculum designers, outside as well. We teachers intend, that is, for reading and and anyone involved in the process of education. arithmetic skills to “transfer”, even though we also do our best to make the skills enjoyable while they are still being learned. In FOUR NEW TRENDS IN EDUCATION: the world inhabited by teachers, even more than in other worlds, increased diversity: there are more differences among making learning fun is certainly a good thing to do, but making students than there used to be. Diversity has made teaching learning useful as well as fun is even better. Combining more fulfilling as a career, but also made more challenging enjoyment and usefulness, in fact, is a “gold standard” of in certain respects. teaching: we generally seek it for students, even though we may not succeed at providing it all of the time increased instructional technology: classrooms, schools, and students use computers more often today than MAJOR THEORIES AND MODELS OF LEARNING in the past for research, writing, communicating, and For starters, therefore, consider two perspectives about keeping records. Technology has created new ways for learning, called behaviorism (learning as changes in overt students to learn (for example, this textbook would not be behavior) and constructivism, (learning as changes in thinking). possible without Internet technology!). It has also altered The second category can be further divided into psychological how teachers can teach most effectively, and even raised constructivism (changes in thinking resulting from issues about what constitutes “true” teaching and learning individual experiences), and social constructivism, greater accountability in education: both the public and (changes in thinking due to assistance from others). educators themselves pay more attention than in the past Behaviorism: changes in what students do to how to assess (or provide evidence for) learning and good quality teaching. The attention has increased the Behaviorism is a perspective on learning that focuses on importance of education to the public (a good thing) and changes in individuals’ observable behaviors— changes in what improved education for some students. But it has also people say or do. At some point we all use this perspective, created new constraints on what teachers teach and what whether we call it “behaviorism” or something else. students learn. behaviorism is most useful for identifying relationships between increased professionalism of teachers: Now more than specific actions by a student and the immediate precursors and ever, teachers are able to assess the quality of their own consequences of the actions. It is less useful for understanding work as well as that of colleagues, and to take steps to changes in students’ thinking; for this purpose we need theories improve it when necessary. Professionalism improves that are more cognitive (or thinking-oriented) or social, like the teaching, but by creating higher standards of practice it also ones described later in this chapter. creates greater worries about whether particular teachers and schools are “good enough” OPERANT CONDITIONING: NEW BEHAVIORS BECAUSE OF NEW CONSEQUENCES THE LEARNING PROCESS Conditioning is a method of learning that uses rewards and Learning is generally defined as relatively permanent changes punishment to modify behavior. in behavior, skills, knowledge, or attitudes resulting from identifiable psychological or social experiences. Operant conditioning focuses on how the consequences of a behavior affect the behavior over time. It begins with the A key feature is permanence: changes do not count as learning idea that certain consequences tend to make certain behaviors if they are temporary—like Michael's beliefs about “amount” happen more frequently. If I compliment a student for a good described above. You do not learn a phone number if you forget comment made during discussion, there is more of a chance that it the minute after you dial the number; you do not “learn” to like I will hear further comments from the student in the future (and vegetables if you only eat them when forced. The change has to hopefully they too will be good ones!). If a student tells a joke to last. Notice, though, that learning can be physical, social, or classmates and they laugh at it, then the student is likely to tell emotional as well as cognitive. more jokes in the future and so on. For teachers, learning usually refers to things that happen in Operant vs. Reinforcement: schools or classrooms, even though every teacher can of course describe examples of learning that happen outside of these Operant: Refers to a behavior that is voluntarily performed places. by an individual, often influenced by the consequences of that behavior. For example, if a student raises their hand in The distinction between teaching and learning creates a class (the operant behavior) and receives praise from the secondary issue for teachers, that of educational readiness. teacher, they are more likely to repeat the behavior. Traditionally the concept referred to students’ preparedness to cope with or profit from the activities and expectations of school. Reinforcement: Refers to the process of encouraging or strengthening a behavior by providing a consequence that  makes it more likely the behavior will be repeated. In the effects of reinforcement of the target behavior and example above, the praise given by the teacher serves as extinction of similar generalized behaviors reinforcement because it increases the likelihood that the student will raise their hand again in the future. Constructivism: changes in how students think Intrinsic Motivation: Comes from within the individual. It's Behaviorist models of learning may be helpful in the drive to do something because it is personally rewarding understanding and influencing what students do, but or enjoyable. For example, a student studies hard because teachers usually also want to know what students are they find the subject interesting and enjoy learning. thinking, and how to enrich what students are thinking. For this goal of teaching, some of the best help comes from At the same time, though, note that each student probably constructivism, which is a perspective on learning focused was also extrinsically motivated, meaning that another on how students actively create (or “construct”) knowledge part of the reinforcement came from consequences or out of experiences. experiences not inherently part of the activity or behavior itself. Constructivism is a learning theory that suggests people learn best by actively building (or "constructing") their own Extrinsic Motivation: Comes from external sources. It's understanding and knowledge through experiences and the drive to do something in order to earn a reward or avoid interactions. Instead of just absorbing information, learners a punishment. For example, a student studies hard to get connect new information to what they already know, making good grades or to avoid being scolded by their parents. learning more meaningful and personalized. KEY CONCEPTS ABOUT OPERANT CONDITIONING: In short, constructivism is about learning by doing and thinking, rather than just memorizing facts. Operant conditioning is made more complicated, but also more realistic, by several additional ideas. They can be confusing Another recent example of psychological constructivism is because the ideas have names that sound rather ordinary, but the cognitive theory of Jean Piaget (Piaget, 2001; Gruber & that have special meanings with the framework of operant Voneche, 1995). Piaget described learning as interplay theory. Among the most important concepts to understand are between two mental activities that he called assimilation the following: extinction generalization discrimination and accommodation. Assimilation is the interpretation of schedules of reinforcement cues new information in terms of pre-existing concepts, information or ideas. Extinction Assimilation (Piaget's Cognitive Theory): refers to the disappearance of an operant behavior because of lack of reinforcement. A student who stops receiving gold Assimilation is when you take new information or stars or compliments for prolific reading of library books, for experiences and fit them into what you already know or example, may extinguish (i.e. decrease or stop) book- understand. It’s like adding new pieces to a puzzle you’re reading behavior. A student who used to be reinforced for already familiar with. acting like a clown in class may stop clowning once classmates stop paying attention to the antics. For example, if a student who knows about cats learns about a new type of animal that is similar to a cat, they might Generalization think of it as a type of cat at first, using their existing knowledge to understand the new information. refers to the incidental conditioning of behaviors similar to an original operant. If a student gets gold stars for reading In simple terms, assimilation is about understanding library books, then we may find her reading more of other something new by relating it to what you already know. material as well—newspapers, comics, etc.–even if the activity is not reinforced directly. The “spread” of the new Assimilation operates jointly with accommodation, which is the behavior to similar behaviors is called generalization. revision or modification of pre-existing concepts in terms of new Generalization is a lot like the concept of transfer discussed information or experience. early in this chapter, in that it is about extending prior For example, if a student who knows about cats encounters learning to new situations or contexts. From the perspective an animal that looks similar but has significant differences of operant conditioning, though, what is being extended (or (like a fox), they might need to adjust their understanding to “transferred” or generalized) is a behavior, not knowledge see that not all furry, four-legged animals are cats. or skill In simple terms, accommodation is about changing what Discrimination you know to make room for new, different information. means learning not to generalize. In operant conditioning, For Piaget, assimilation and accommodation work together what is not overgeneralized (i.e. what is discriminated) is to enrich a child’s thinking and to create what Piaget called the operant behavior. If I am a student who is being cognitive equilibrium, which is a balance between complimented (reinforced) for contributing to discussions, I reliance on prior information and openness to new must also learn to discriminate when to make verbal information. At any given time, cognitive equilibrium contributions from when not to make them—such as when consists of an ever-growing repertoire of mental classmates or the teacher are busy with other tasks. representations for objects and experiences. Piaget called Discrimination learning usually results from the combined each mental representation a schema (all of them together—the plural—were called schemata). A schema  was not merely a concept, but an elaborated mixture of students do; it offers less help in understanding how they vocabulary, actions, and experience related to the concept. think. Cognitive equilibrium is a state of mental balance where a The other major psychological perspective— person’s existing knowledge (schemas) works well with new constructivism—describes how individuals build or information. It’s a balance between using what you already “construct” knowledge by engaging actively with their know (assimilation) and being open to learning new things experiences. Psychological constructivism emphasizes the (accommodation). learners’ individual responses to experience—their tendency both to assimilate it and to accommodate to it. Schemas: These are mental representations or frameworks that help you organize and interpret STUDENT DEVELOPMENT information. They are like mental categories or "files" where you store what you know about different things. Development refers to long-term personal changes that have multiple sources and multiple effects. In simple terms, cognitive equilibrium is when your mind smoothly balances old and new knowledge, using schemas Student development is a key area in educational psychology to make sense of the world. that focuses on understanding how students grow and evolve cognitively, socially, emotionally, and physically throughout their LEARNING ACCORDING TO PIAGET: ASSIMILATION + educational journey. ACCOMMODATION → EQUILIBRIUM → SCHEMATA The faster and simpler is the change, the more likely we are How development occurs to call the change “learning” instead of development. In psychological constructivism, as explained earlier, Why development matters development is thought to happen because of the interplay between assimilation and accommodation—between when Development matters in the context of education for a child or youth can already understand or conceive of, and several critical reasons, as it directly influences how the change required of that understanding by new students learn, grow, and succeed in both academic experiences. Acting together, assimilation and and personal aspects of life. Here’s a detailed accommodation continually create new states of cognitive explanation: equilibrium. A teacher can therefore stimulate development Tailored Instruction: by provoking cognitive dissonance deliberately: by confronting a student with sights, actions, or ideas that do Individual Learning Needs: Students develop at not fit with the student's existing experiences and ideas. different rates and have unique cognitive, emotional, and social needs. Understanding these developmental In psychological constructivism, development happens when a differences allows educators to tailor instruction, person’s existing understanding (assimilation) is challenged by ensuring that each student receives the appropriate new experiences that don’t quite fit (accommodation). This level of challenge and support. process helps create new, more balanced ways of thinking, known as cognitive equilibrium Age-Appropriate Content: Developmental psychology helps educators select and design content Cognitive Dissonance: This is when something doesn’t that is age-appropriate. For example, young children match with what you already know, causing a feeling of learn best through play and hands-on activities, while confusion or discomfort. Teachers can use this to older students may benefit more from abstract encourage learning by introducing new ideas or reasoning and problem-solving tasks. experiences that challenge students' current understanding, prompting them to rethink and grow. Effective Classroom Management: In simple terms, development occurs when your mind is pushed Behavioral Expectations: Knowing the typical to adapt and grow by balancing old knowledge with new behaviors associated with different developmental experiences, often driven by moments of confusion or challenge stages helps teachers set realistic expectations and (cognitive dissonance). manage classroom behavior effectively. For instance, younger children may struggle with impulse control, so Chapter summary strategies that build self-regulation are crucial. Although the term learning has many possible meanings, Conflict Resolution: Understanding social the term as used by teachers emphasizes its relationship to development stages helps teachers address conflicts curriculum, to teaching, and to the issues of sequencing, in a way that is appropriate for the students' readiness, and transfer. Viewed in this light, the two major developmental level, promoting a positive and safe psychological perspectives of learning—behaviorist and learning environment. constructivist—have important ideas to offer educators. Within the behaviorist perspective one of the most relevant 3. Social-Emotional Development: theories is operant conditioning, which describes how the consequences and cues for a behavior can cause the Building Relationships: Social development is key to behavior to become more frequent. Operant conditioning is students forming healthy relationships with peers and especially relevant for understanding much of what adults. Educators who understand this can foster a  supportive classroom culture that encourages Puberty and Sexual Maturity: collaboration, empathy, and effective communication. The timing of puberty is linked to physical growth patterns. Emotional Well-being: Emotional development is critical Early or delayed puberty can impact emotional and for students’ overall well-being. By understanding the psychological development, self-esteem, and peer emotional needs at different stages of development, relationships educators can provide the support students need to manage stress, build resilience, and develop a positive self- Motor Skills Development: concept. Physical development influences motor skills. Appropriate Trends in height and weight growth in height and weight supports the development of coordination, balance, and strength. Growth Patterns: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: THE THEORY OF JEAN Height: Children generally experience rapid growth during PIAGET their early years, which slows down after the first few years of life. Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers to long-term changes in these A significant growth spurt occurs during adolescence, processes. One of the most widely known perspectives about usually between ages 10-14 for girls and 12-16 for boys, cognitive development is the cognitive stage theory of a Swiss leading to increased height psychologist named Jean Piaget. Weight: Weight gain is steady during childhood but Basically this is the “staircase” model of development mentioned accelerates during puberty, especially in adolescents. at the beginning of this chapter. Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development, and called them (1) The timing and rate of weight gain vary among individuals, sensorimotor intelligence, (2) preoperational thinking, (3) influenced by genetics, diet, and physical activity. concrete operational thinking, and (4) formal operational thinking. Each stage is correlated with an age period of Factors Influencing Growth: childhood, but only approximately Genetics: The most significant determinant of height and The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to Age 2 weight, with familial patterns often seen. In Piaget’s theory, the sensorimotor stage is first, and is Nutrition: Adequate nutrition is crucial for proper growth. defined as the period when infants “think” by means of their Malnutrition can stunt growth, while overnutrition can lead senses and motor actions. As every new parent will attest, to obesity. infants continually touch, manipulate, look, listen to, and even Physical Activity: Active children tend to have healthier bite and chew objects. According to Piaget, these actions allow weight profiles and muscle development. them to learn about the world and are crucial to their early cognitive development. Hormones: Growth hormones, along with thyroid and sex hormones, play vital roles in regulating growth during school object permanence, a belief that objects exist whether or not years. they are actually present. It is a major achievement of sensorimotor development, and marks a qualitative Sleep: Adequate sleep is essential for growth hormone transformation in how older infants (24 months) think about secretion, impacting physical development. experience compared to younger infants (6 months) Importance in Physical Development: The Preoperational Stage: Age 2 to 7 Overall Health: In the preoperational stage, children use their new ability to represent objects in a wide variety of activities, but they Tracking height and weight is essential for monitoring do not yet do it in ways that are organized or fully logical. overall health and development. One of the most obvious examples of this kind of cognition Deviations from expected growth patterns can indicate is dramatic play, the improvised make-believe of preschool health issues like hormonal imbalances, malnutrition, or children. If you have ever had responsibility for children of chronic illnesses. this age, you have likely witnessed such play. Bone Development: Metacognition refers to the awareness and Growth in height is associated with bone development, understanding of one's own thought processes. It crucial for achieving peak bone mass, which reduces the involves thinking about how you think, learning about risk of osteoporosis later in life. how you learn, and understanding how you understand. It is often described as "thinking about Cognitive and Emotional Development: thinking." Physical development is closely linked to cognitive and The Concrete Operational Stage: Age 7 to 11 emotional development. For instance, children who experience delayed growth may also face challenges in cognitive function children mentally “operate” on concrete objects and events. and social interactions. They are not yet able, however, to operate (or think) systematically about representations of objects or events. ABRAHAM MASLOW: A HIERARCHY OF MOTIVES AND Manipulating representations is a more abstract skill that NEEDS develops later, during adolescence. Abraham Maslow's theory frames personal needs or Decenter refers to the cognitive ability to shift focus from one's motives as a hierarchy, meaning that basic or “lower-level” own perspective to consider multiple viewpoints or to needs have to be satisfied before higher-level needs understand a situation from another's perspective. children become important or motivating begin to develop the ability to decenter. They start to understand that others might have different thoughts, feelings, and In its original version, Maslow’s theory distinguishes two perspectives. types of needs, called deficit needs and being needs (or sometimes deficiency needs and growth needs). The Formal Operational Stage: Age 11 and Beyond Deficit needs are prior to being needs, not in the sense of the period when the individual can “operate” on “forms” or happening earlier in life, but in that deficit needs must be representations. satisfied before being needs can be addressed hypothetical reasoning, meaning that they must manipulate As pointed out, deficit needs can reappear at any age, ideas that vary in several ways at once, and do so entirely in depending on circumstances. If that happens, they must be their minds. satisfied again before a person’s attention can shift back to “higher” needs. Social development: relationships, personal motives, and morality Social development refers to the long-term changes in relationships and interactions involving self, peers, and family. The social developments that are the most obviously relevant to classroom life fall into three main areas: (1) changes in self-concept and in relationships among students and teachers, (2) changes in basic needs or Deficit needs: getting the basic necessities of life personal motives, and (3) changes in sense of rights and responsibilities. Deficit needs are the basic requirements of physical and emotional well-being. First are physiological needs— ERIK ERIKSON: EIGHT PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISES OF food, sleep, clothing, and the like. Without these, nothing DEVELOPMENT else matters, and especially nothing very “elevated” or self- Erikson thought of stages as a series of psych fulfilling. ological or social (or psychosocial) crises—turning points in a safety and security needs become important. The person looks person’s relationships and feelings about himself or herself for stability and protection, and welcomes a bit of structure and limits if they provide these conditions. After physiological and safety needs are met, love and belonging needs emerge. The person turns attention to making friends, being a friend, and cultivating positive personal relationships in general. He or she may be provided for materially and find the classroom and family life safe enough, but still miss a key ingredient in life— love. If such a student (or anyone else) eventually does find love and belonging, however, then his or her motivation shifts again, this time to esteem needs. Being needs: becoming the best that you can be Personal isolation is a particular risk for students with Being needs are desires to become fulfilled as a person, disabilities, as well as for students whose cultural or racial or to be the best person that you can possibly be. They backgrounds differ from classmates’ or the teacher’s. include cognitive needs (a desire for knowledge and Generativity—feeling helpful to others and to the young—is understanding), aesthetic needs (an appreciation of needed not only by many adults, but also by many children and beauty and order), and most importantly, self-actualization youth; when given the opportunity as part of their school needs (a desire for fulfillment of one’s potential). program, they frequently welcome a chance to be of authentic Self-actualizing individuals, he argued, value deep personal service to others as part of their school programs relationships with others, but also value solitude; they have a Integrity—taking responsibility for your personal past, “warts sense of humor, but do not use it against others; they accept and all”, is often a felt need for anyone, young or old, who has themselves as well as others; they are spontaneous, humble, lived long enough to have a past on which to look. creative, and ethical. Maslow felt that true self-actualization is rare. It is especially At first, in Stage 3, the child’s reference group are immediate unusual among young people, who have not yet lived long peers, so Stage 3 is sometimes called the ethics of peer enough to satisfy earlier, deficit-based needs opinion. Moral development: forming a sense of rights and Resolving the complexities lead to Stage 4, the ethics of law responsibilities and order, in which the young person increasingly frames moral beliefs in terms of what the majority of society believes Morality is a system of beliefs about what is right and good compared to what is wrong or bad. Postconventional Justice: Social Contract and Universal Principles Moral development refers to changes in moral beliefs as a person grows older and gains maturity. Moral beliefs are As a person becomes able to think abstractly (or “formally”, in related to, but not identical with, moral behavior: it is Piaget’s sense), ethical beliefs shift from acceptance of what the possible to know the right thing to do, but not actually do it. community does believe to the process by which community beliefs are formed. The new focus constitutes Stage 5, the A morality of justice is about human rights—or more ethics of social contract specifically, about respect for fairness, impartiality, equality, and individuals’ independence. The realization that ethical means can sometimes serve unethical ends leads some individuals toward Stage 6, the A morality of care, on the other hand, is about human ethics of self-chosen, universal principles. At this final stage, responsibilities—more specifically, about caring for others, the morally good action is based on personally held principles showing consideration for individuals’ needs, and that apply both to the person’s immediate life as well as to the interdependence among individuals. Students and teachers larger community and society. need both forms of morality GILLIGAN’S MORALITY OF CARE KOHLBERG’S MORALITY OF JUSTICE system of beliefs about human responsibilities, care, and consideration for others Positions of moral development according to Gilligan Position 1: Caring As Survival Preconventional Justice: Obedience and Mutual Advantage The most basic kind of caring is a survival orientation, in which The preconventional level of moral development coincides a person is concerned primarily with his or her own welfare. approximately with the preschool period of life and with Piaget’s preoperational period of thinking. At this age the Position 2: Conventional Caring child is still relatively self-centered and insensitive to the A more subtle moral position is caring for others, in which a moral effects of actions on others. The result is a somewhat person is concerned about others’ happiness and welfare, and short-sighted orientation to morality. Initially (Kohlberg’s about reconciling or integrating others’ needs where they conflict Stage 1), the child adopts an ethics of obedience and with each other punishment—a sort of “morality of keeping out of trouble”. Position 3: Integrated Caring Eventually the child learns not only to respond to positive consequences, but also learns how to produce them by the coordination of personal needs and values with those of exchanging favors with others. The new ability creates others Stage 2, an ethics of market exchange. At this stage the morally “good” action is one that favors not only the child, Character development: Integrating ethical understanding, but another person directly involved. A “bad” action is one care, and action that lacks this reciprocity. Encouragement is part of teachers' jobs, and doing it well Conventional Justice: Conformity To Peers and Society requires understanding not only what students know about ethics, but also how they feel about it and what ethical actions As children move into the school years, their lives expand they are actually prepared to take. to include a larger number and range of peers and (eventually) of the community as a whole. The change leads to conventional morality, which are beliefs based on what this larger array of people agree on—hence Kohlberg’s use of the term “conventional”.