HEALTH-EDUCATION-1.pdf

o THORNDIKE one major behaviourist theorist, HEALTH EDUCATION put forward that THEORIES OF LEARNING - A resp...

o THORNDIKE one major behaviourist theorist, HEALTH EDUCATION put forward that THEORIES OF LEARNING - A response to a stimulus is reinforced when followed by a positive rewarding effect - A response to a stimulus becomes stronger by exercise and repetition.  Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental This view of learning is akin to the "drill-and- experiences and influences for acquiring, practice" programmes. enriching or modifying one's knowledge, skills, o SKINNER, another influential behaviourist, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views. proposed his variant of behaviourism called  Learning theories develop hypotheses that "operant conditioning". describe how this process takes place. - In his view, rewarding the right parts of the  The scientific study of learning started in more complex behaviour reinforces it, and earnest at the dawn of the 20th century. encourages its recurrence. - Therefore, reinforcers control the THE MAJOR CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF occurrence of the desired partial LEARNING INCLUDE behaviours.  Behaviourist theories - Learning is understood as the step-by-step  Cognitive psychology or successive approximation of the  Contructivism intended partial behaviours through the use of reward and punishment.  Social Constructivism - The best known application of Skinner's  Experimental learning theory is "programmed instruction"  Multiple Intelligence and whereby the right sequence of the partial  Situated learning theory and community behaviours to be learned is specified by practice elaborated task analysis. BEHAVIORISM COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY  The behaviourist perspectives of learning  Cognitive psychology was initiated in the late originated in the early 1900s, and became 1950s, and contributed to the move away from dominant in early 20th century. behaviourism. People are no longer viewed as  Behaviourists are interested in measurable collections of responses to external stimuli, as changes in behaviour. understood by behaviourists, but information  The behaviourist perspectives of learning processors. originated in the early 1900s, and became  Cognitive psychology paid attention to complex dominant in early 20th century. mental phenomena, ignored by behaviourists,  Behaviourists are interested in measurable and was influenced by the emergence of the changes in behaviour. computer as an information processing device,  The basic idea of behaviourism is that learning which became analogous to the human mind. consists of a change in behaviour due to the  In cognitive psychology, learning is understood acquisition, reinforcement and application of as the acquisition of knowledge: associations between stimuli from the - The learner is an information processor environment and observable responses of the who absorbs information, undertakes individual. cognitive operations on it, and stocks it in  An example of behaviorism is when teachers memory. reward their class or certain students with a  Therefore, its preferred methods of instruction party or special treat at the end of the week for are lecturing and reading textbooks; and, at its good behavior throughout the week. most extreme, the learner is a passive recipient  The same concept is used with punishments. of knowledge by the teacher.  Cognitive psychology refers to the study of the editors who value originality and uniqueness mind and how we think. rather than the best way to fulfil an assignment.  If one were to major in cognitive psychology  Example: Students keep journals in a writing that person would study attention span, class where they record how they felt about the memory, and reasoning, along with other class projects, the visual and verbal reactions of actions of the brain that are considered a others to the project, and how they felt their complex mental process. own writing had changed. Periodically the  Cognitive psychology examples making a teacher reads these journals and holds a judgement about something based on conference with the student where the two information you received that your brain assess processes. - What new knowledge the student has  Cognitive psychology examples in education, created, teachers must be fully aware of a child's - How the student learns best, and cognitive development at different ages. A 6 - The learning environment and the year-old does not quite have the ability to apply teacher's role in it. certain math functions to the real-world yet but  Example: An elementary teacher believes her a 9-year old might. students are ready to study gravity. She creates an environment of discovery with CONTRUCTIVISM objects of varying kinds. Students explore the differences in weight among similarly sized  Constructivism emerged in the 1970s and blocks of Styrofoam, wood, and lead. Some 1980s, giving rise to the idea that learners are students hold the notion that heavier objects not passive recipients of information, but that fall faster than light ones. The teacher provides they actively construct their knowledge in materials (stories, posters, and videos) about interaction with the environment and through Galileo, Newton, etc. She leads a discussion on the reorganization of their mental structures. theories about falling. The students then  Learners are therefore viewed as sense-makers, replicate Galileo's experiment by dropping not simply recording given information but objects of different weights and measuring interpreting it. how fast they fall. They see that objects of  This view of learning led to the shift from the different weights actually usually fall at the "knowledge-acquisition" to "knowledge- same speed, although surface area and construction" metaphor. aerodynamic properties can affect the rate of  The growing evidence in support of the fall. constructive nature of learning was also in line with and backed by the earlier work of SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY influential theorists such as Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner.  A well-known social learning theory has been  While there are different versions of developed by Albert Bandura, who works constructivism, what is found in common is the within both cognitive and behavioural learner-centred approach whereby the teacher frameworks that embrace attention, memory becomes a cognitive guide of learner's learning and motivation. and not a knowledge transmitter.  Albert Bandura - His theory of learning  Example: A middle-school language arts teacher suggests that people learn within a social sets aside time each week for a writing lab. The context, and that learning is facilitated through emphasis is on content and getting ideas down concepts such as modeling, observational rather than memorizing grammatical rules, learning and imitation. though one of the teacher's concerns is the  Bandura put forward "reciprocal ability of his students to express themselves determininsm" that holds the view that a well through written language. The teacher person's behavior, environment and personal provides opportunities for students to examine qualities all reciprocally influence each others. the finished and earlier drafts of various authors. He allows students to select and create projects within the general requirement of building a portfolio. Students serve as peer.   Bandura - He argues that children learn from  The recognition of multiple intelligences, for observing others as well as from "model" Gardner, is a means to achieving educational behaviour, which are processes involving goals rather than an educational goal in and of attention, retention, reproduction and itself. motivation.  The importance of positive role modeling on LINGUISTIC learning is well documented.  To think in words and to use language to  Example in the early 1960s, Albert Bandura express and understand complex meanings conducted an experiment called the Bobo doll  Sensitivity to the meaning of words as well as experiment. In the experiment, he had children the order of words, their sounds, rhythms, and observe a video of an adult aggressively inflections playing with toys, including a Bobo doll. A Bobo  To reflect on the use of language in everyday life doll is basically a large blow-up doll that looks like a clown. The adult hit the Bobo doll,  Linguistic Sensitivity: Skill in the use of words for knocked it down and even jumped on it while expressive and practical purposes yelling words like 'pow!' and 'kick him!' The  Reading: Skill in reading children were then allowed to play with a  Writing: Ability and interest in writing projects variety of toys, including the Bobo doll, and such as poems, stories, books, or letters results indicated that more than half of the  Speaking: Skill in oral communication for children modeled the adult and engaged in the persuasion, memorization, and description same aggressive behaviors with the Bobo doll. LOGICAL MATHEMATICAL This modeling was called Bandura's social learning theory.  To think of cause and effect and to understand relationships among actions, MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES objects, or ideas I  Challenging the assumption in many of the  To be able to calculate, quantify, consider learning theories that learning is a universal propositions, and perform complex human process that all individuals experience mathematical or logical operations according to the same principles, Howard  Inductive and deductive reasoning skills, as Gardner elaborated his theory of 'multiple well as critical and creative problem-solving intelligences' in 1983.  Problem Solving: Skill in organization,  Howard Gardner's theory also challenges the problem solving, and logical reasoning; understanding of intelligence as dominated by curiosity and investigation a single general ability.  Calculations: Ability to work with numbers for  Gardner argues that every person's level of mathematical operations such as addition intelligence actually consists of many distinct and division "intelligences". MUSICAL  These intelligences include: - Logical mathematical  To think in sounds, rhythms, melodies, and - Linguistic rhymes - Spatial  To be sensitive to pitch, rhythm, timbre, and - Musical tone - Bodily kinaesthetic  To be able to recognize, create, and - Interpersonal and reproduce music by using an instrument or - Intrapersonal the voice  Gardner although his work is speculative, his  To listen actively theory is appreciated by teachers in broadening  Musical Ability: Awareness of and sensitivity their conceptual framework beyond the to music, rhythms, tunes, and melody traditional confines of skilling, curriculum and  Instrument: Skill and experience in playing a testing. musical instrument   Vocal: A good voice for singing in tune and o Getting Along with Others: Able to maintain along with other people good relationships with other people, especially  Appreciation: Actively enjoys listening to friends and siblings music o Leadership: To take a leadership role among people through problem solving and influence BODILY KINESTHETIC INTRAPERSONAL  To think in movements and to use the body in skilled and complicated ways for expressive as  To think about and understand one's self well as goal directed activities  To be aware of one's strengths and weaknesses  Sense of timing and coordination and to plan effectively to achieve personal goals  Physical Skill: Ability to move the whole body  Includes reflecting on and monitoring one's for physical activities such as balancing, thoughts and feelings and regulating them coordination, and sports I effectively  Dancing, Acting: To use the body in expressive, o Knowing Myself: Awareness of one's own ideas, rhythmic, and imitative ways abilities; personal decision-making skills  Working with Hands: To use the hands with o Goal Awareness: Awareness of goals and self- dexterity and skill for detailed activities and correction and monitoring in light of a goal small work o Managing Feelings: Ability to regulate one's feelings, moods and emotional responses SPATIAL o Managing Behavior: Ability to regulate one's mental activities and behavior  To think in pictures and to perceive the visual world accurately SITUATED LEARNING THEORY AND  To be able to think in three dimensions and COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE to transform one's perceptions and recreate aspects of one's visual experience via  "Situated learning theory" and "community of imagination I practice" draw many of the ideas of the  To work with objects learning theories considered above.  Imagery: Use of mental imagery for  They are developed by Jean Lave and Etienne observation, artistic, creative, and other Wenger. visual activities  Situated learning theory recognizes that there  Artistic Design: To create artistic designs, is no learning which is not situated, and drawings, paintings, or other crafts emphasizes the relational and negotiated  Construction: To be able to make, build, or character of knowledge and learning as well as assemble things the engaged nature of learning activity for the individuals involved. INTERPERSONAL  "Situated learning theory" and "community of practice" - According to the theory, it is within  To think about and understand another communities that learning occurs most person effectively.  To have empathy and recognize distinctions  "Situated learning theory" and "community of among people and to appreciate their practice" - Interactions taking place within a perspectives with a sensitivity to their community of practice - e.g. cooperation, motives, moods, and intentions problem solving, building trust, understanding  Includes interacting effectively with one or and relations - have the potential to foster more people among family, friends, or community social capital that enhances the working relationships community members' wellbeing. o Understanding People: Sensitivity to and  Thomas Sergiovanni reinforces the idea that understanding of other people's moods, learning is most effective when it takes place in feelings, and point of view communities.   He argues that academic and social outcomes  and life and career skills (flexibility and will improve only when classrooms become adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social learning communities, and teaching becomes and cross-cultural skills, productivity and learner-centered. accountability, leadership and responsibility).  Communities of practice are of course not  One main learning method that supports the confined to schools but cover other settings learning of such skills and knowledge is group such as workplace and organizations. learning or thematic projects, which involves an  Example field trips where students actively inquiry-based collaborative work that addresses participate in an unfamiliar environment real-world issues and questions.  Cooperative education and internship  Examples in a science course students might be experiences in which students are immersed required to learn research methods that can and physically active in an actual work also be applied in other disciplines; articulate environment technical scientific concepts in verbal, written,  Example music and sports (physical education) and graphic forms; present lab results to a panel practice which replicate actual setting of these of working scientists; or use sophisticated events, e.g., orchestras, studios, training technologies, software programs, and facilities multimedia applications as an extension of an  Laboratories and child-care centers used as assigned project. classrooms in which students are involved in activities which replicate actual work settings ST 21 CENTURY LEARNING OR SKILLS A GOOD AND MIDDLE CLASS FAMILY  Exploration of 21st century learning or skills has emerged from the concern about transforming the goals and daily practice of learning to meet the new demands of the 21st century, which is characterized as knowledge- and technologically driven.  The current discussion about 21st century skills leads classrooms and other learning environments to encourage the development of core subject knowledge as well as new media literacies, critical and systems thinking, interpersonal and self-directional skills.  For example, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) defines the following as key: - core subjects (e.g. English, math, geography, history, civics) and 21st century themes (global awareness, civic literacy, health literacy, environmental literacy, financial, business and entrepreneurial literacy); - For example, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) defines the following as key:  learning and innovation skills (creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem solving, communication and collaboration); information, media and technology skills (e.g. ICT literacy, media literacy);