Thorndike's Theories of Learning

The major concepts and theories of learning include: Behaviourism, Cognitive Psychology, Constructivism, Multiple Intelligence, and Situated Learning Theory and Community of Practice.

The behaviourist perspective of learning originated in the early 1900s and became dominant in the early 20th century.
Behaviourists are interested in measurable changes in behaviour.
The basic idea of behaviourism is that learning consists of a change in behaviour due to the acquisition, reinforcement, and application of associations between stimuli from the environment and observable responses of the individual.
An example of behaviourism is when teachers reward their class or certain students with a party or special treat at the end of the week for good behaviour throughout the week.

Cognitive psychology was initiated in the late 1950s and contributed to the move away from behaviourism.
People are viewed as information processors, not collections of responses to external stimuli.
Cognitive psychology paid attention to complex mental phenomena, ignored by behaviourists, and was influenced by the emergence of the computer as an information processing device.
Learning is understood as the acquisition of knowledge, and the learner is an information processor who absorbs information, undertakes cognitive operations on it, and stocks it in memory.
Example: Students keep journals in a writing class where they record how they felt about the class projects, the visual and verbal reactions of others to the project, and how they felt their own writing had changed.

Constructivism emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, giving rise to the idea that learners are not passive recipients of information but actively construct their knowledge in interaction with the environment and through the reorganization of their mental structures.
Learners are viewed as sense-makers, not simply recording given information but interpreting it.
The teacher becomes a cognitive guide of learner's learning, and not a knowledge transmitter.
Example: A middle-school language arts teacher sets aside time each week for a writing lab, where the emphasis is on content and getting ideas down rather than memorizing grammatical rules.

Albert Bandura's theory of learning suggests that people learn within a social context, and that learning is facilitated through concepts such as modeling, observational learning, and imitation.
The importance of positive role modeling on learning is well documented.
Example: Albert Bandura conducted an experiment called the Bobo doll experiment, which showed that children learn from observing others as well as from "model" behaviour.

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences challenges the assumption that learning is a universal human process that all individuals experience according to the same principles.
Gardner argues that every person's level of intelligence actually consists of many distinct "intelligences".
The intelligences include: Logical Mathematical, Linguistic, Spatial, Musical, Bodily Kinaesthetic, Interpersonal, and Intrapersonal.

To think in words and to use language to express and understand complex meanings.
Sensitivity to the meaning of words as well as the order of words, their sounds, rhythms, and inflections.
Example: A student's ability to express themselves well through written language.

To think of cause and effect and to understand relationships among actions, objects, or ideas.
To be able to calculate, quantify, consider propositions, and perform complex mathematical or logical operations.
Example: A student's ability to solve mathematical problems.

To think in pictures and to perceive the visual world accurately.
To be able to think in three dimensions and to transform one's perceptions and recreate aspects of one's visual experience via imagination.
Example: A student's ability to create artistic designs or drawings.

To think in sounds, rhythms, melodies, and rhymes.
To be sensitive to pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone.
Example: A student's ability to recognize, create, and reproduce music by using an instrument or the voice.

To think in movements and to use the body in skilled and complicated ways for expressive as well as goal-directed activities.
To have a sense of timing and coordination.
Example: A student's ability to move the whole body for physical activities such as balancing, coordination, and sports.

To think about and understand one's self.
To be aware of one's strengths and weaknesses and to plan effectively to achieve personal goals.
Example: A student's ability to reflect on and monitor their thoughts and feelings and regulate them effectively.

Situated learning theory recognizes that there is no learning which is not situated, and emphasizes the relational and negotiated character of knowledge and learning as well as the engaged nature of learning activity for the individuals involved.
Learning occurs most effectively within communities of practice.
Example: A group of students working together on a project, where they learn from each other and the environment.### Understanding People and Community
Empathy is essential to recognize distinctions among people and appreciate their perspectives, motives, moods, and intentions.
Interactions within a community of practice, such as cooperation, problem-solving, and building trust, foster community social capital, enhancing wellbeing.

Learning is most effective when it takes place in communities, as argued by Thomas Sergiovanni.
Communities of practice are not limited to schools but also occur in workplaces and organizations.
Examples of communities of practice include field trips, cooperative education, internships, music and sports practice, and laboratories.

The 21st century requires transforming learning goals and practices to meet new demands.
Key skills include core subject knowledge, new media literacies, critical and systems thinking, interpersonal and self-directional skills.
The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) defines key skills as:
- Core subjects and 21st century themes (e.g., global awareness, civic literacy)
- Learning and innovation skills (e.g., creativity, critical thinking, communication)
- Information, media, and technology skills (e.g., ICT literacy, media literacy)