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Human Behavior and Social Environment HBSE Theories of Personality July 1, 2024 Proponents SIGMUND FREUD ERIK ERIKSON LAWRENCE KOHLBERG Psychoanalytic Theory Psychosocial Theroy Moral Development Theory Purpose It explains & predicts: ❖ individual human behavior (micro) ❖ the impact of larger social structures (mezzo) ❖ social problems (macro) It guides & informs: ❖ social work practice ❖ social policy & knowledge development THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Psychodynamic Theorists: Behavioral/Learning Theorists: 1. Sigmund Freud - Psychoanalytic theory 1. Ivan Pavlov -Classical Conditioning 2. Carl Jung – Analytic theory 2. John B. Watson – Classical Conditioning Neo-Freudian 3. Burrhus F. Skinner – Operant conditioning 1. Alfred Adler – Individual Psychology 4. Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive theory 2. Karen Horney – Psychoanalytic Social theory Cognitive Theorist: 3. Anna Freud – pioneered the psychoanalytic 1. Jean Piaget-Cognitive development treatment of children. theory 4. Erik Erickson – Psychosocial theory Moral Development Theorist: 5. Erich Fromm-Humanistic Psychoanalysis 1. Lawrence Kohlberg 6. Harry Stack Sullivan-Interpersonal theory Humanistic Perspective: 7. Melanie Klein - Extended Psychoanalystic Theory 1. Abraham Maslow – Organismic theory or Holistic-Dynamic theory 2. Carl Rogers – Person-Centered theory or Phenomenological theory Personality Deﬁnitions: Totality of the individual psychic qualities which includes temperament, traits, one’s mode of reaction and character. A stable and enduring organization of a person’s character, temperament, intellect, physique which determine his/her unique adjustment to his/her environment. What is the purpose of using personality theories for SW? It explains & predicts: individual human behavior (micro) the impact of larger social structures (mezzo) social problems (macro) It guides & informs: social work practice social policy & knowledge development PSYCHODYNAMI C THEORIES Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY The best known personality theorist, he proposes that at birth, individuals are pushed by unconscious and irrational drives toward satisfaction of desires which are largely unconscious and irrational. ❖ Personality is mostly established by the age of ﬁve. ❖ Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to inﬂuence behavior later in life. LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS CONSCIOUS mental elements in awareness at any given point in time. It is the only level of mental life directly available to us. It contains the Ego PRECONSCIOUS Q#12 contains all those elements that are not conscious but can become conscious either quite readily or with some difficulty. contains Superego UNCONSCIOUS contains all those drives, urges, or instincts which are beyond our awareness, but nevertheless inﬂuence our words, feelings, and actions. come out through Freudian slips, dreams and irrational behaviors. It is also where the THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY EGO ID This mediates between id SUPER EGO driven by internal and basic It is the conscience incorporated impulses and superego drives and needs mostly from parents, school and inhibitions. Pleasure principle society. Reality principle Morality principle Biological component of Psychological component of Moral arm of the personality. personality personality. preconscious level unconscious level. conscious level. Psychosexual Stages of Development of Freud 1. Oral Stage (Age: Birth - 1.5 yrs.) The mouth is the center of gratiﬁcation through stimulation of lips and mouth region as in nursing and thumb sucking. Oral Fixation (The “Getting” personality) Oral-Dependent Personality - very dependent, submissive Oral-Aggressive Personality - aggressive and will get what he wants through force. 2. Anal Stage (Age 1.5 – 3 yrs.) The membranes of the anal region (anus) presumably provide the major source of pleasurable stimulation. Toilet training Anal Fixation (the “controlling” personality) Anal-Expulsive Personality - sloppy, disorganized, reckless, careless, and deﬁant Anal-Retentive Personality - obsessively clean and orderly, and intolerant of those who aren't. Psychosexual Stages of Development of Freud 3. Phallic Stage (Age 4 - 5) self-manipulation of genitals is assumed to provide the major source of pleasurable stimulation. Oedipus Complex –boys attraction towards their mother - “castration anxiety" Electra Complex – girls attraction towards their father – “penis envy:” 4. Latency (Age 6 - puberty) sexual motivation presumably recede in importance as the child becomes preoccupied with developing skills and other activities. 5. Genital Stage (From puberty on) Genital Heterosexual (opposite sex) interest arise These people come into this last stage of development with ﬁxations from earlier stages Question 1 The inborn psychological representation of an inner somatic source of exaltation. a. Libido b. Instinct c. Anxiety d. Defense Mechanism Answer a. Libido - psychosexual energy, was described as the driving force behind behavior. b. Instinct - The inborn psychological representation of an inner somatic source of exaltation. 2 categories of Instincts: Eros (Life Instincts) Thanatos (Death Instincts) c. Anxiety - a state of extremely unpleasant emotional discomfort. d. Defense Mechanism –used to protect ego from anxiety. Concepts: BIRTH TRAUMA- human beings experience an extreme form of anxiety when they are separated from their mother at birth. 3 kinds of anxiety: a. Reality anxiety – caused by real, objective sources of danger in the environment. This is the easiest to reduce. E.g., ﬁre and snake b. Neurotic anxiety – fear that the id’s impulses will overwhelm the ego and make the person do something for which he/she will be punished. E.g., rape (becoming animal-like) c. Moral anxiety – fear of doing something contrary to the superego and thus experience guilt. E.g., cheating and stealing Freudian Slips - Freud believed that parapraxes, or so- called Freudian slips, are not chance accidents but reveal a person's true but unconscious intention Dream Analysis - Freud differentiated the manifest content (conscious description) from the latent content (the unconscious meaning). Freuds concepts which are still useful to social workers in understanding client behavior. A. Homeostasis. The organisms tendency to maintain a relatively stable internal environment. B. Psychological determinism Thoughts and actions are caused by ones unsatisﬁed drives or desires. C. Personality structures. Every person possess 3 personality structure: the id, ego and the superego. D. Defense mechanism Q#2 Thoughts and behavior which while not on the level of the individual consciousness, serve to ward off anxiety and guilt. DEFENSE MECHANISMS 1. Fantasy - fantasies or daydreams are temporarily escaped from the frustrations of realities. 2. Nomadism - is a continual wandering from place to place. 3. Regression - means "going back" a frustrated individual may seek unconsciously to return to an earlier, more secure period of life. 4. Repression - is the process of excluding from conscious awareness and undesirable thought, feeling or memory that causes pain, shame or guilt. 5. Reaction formation - a person may unconsciously repress his social unacceptable desires and develop a conscious attitudes and overt behaviour patterns which are the opposite of his real unconscious wishes. DEFENSE MECHANISMS 6. Displacement - a feeling is transferred from its actual object to a substitute. A. Scapegoating - this means blaming another person for ones failures or mistakes or expressing anger against a person or object which was not the original source of frustration. B. Free-ﬂoating anger - this is the chronic reaction pattern in which hostility becomes generalized so that even neutral situations are reacted to the hostility. C. Suicide - this is hostility to one’s self. 7. Projection - Attributing one’s unacceptable motives or characteristics to others. 8. Sublimation - Converting an impulse from socially unacceptable aim to a socially acceptable one. Question 13 13. Sublimation can be deﬁned as: a. an attempt to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable traits by emphasizing a desirable one. b. the indirect expression saying of a need which cannot be satisﬁed directly, through acceptance from an alternative goal which provides a socially acceptable outlet of expression of the sexual urge. c. the expression of frustrated impulses indirectly with no change in the conscious quality of desires. d. a feeling is transferred from its actual object to a substitute. Answer a. an attempt to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable traits by emphasizing a desirable one. – COMPENSATION b. the indirect expression saying of a need which cannot be satisﬁed directly, through acceptance from an alternative goal which provides a socially acceptable outlet of expression of the sexual urge. SUBLIMATION c. the expression of frustrated impulses indirectly with no change in the conscious quality of desires. - SUBSTITUTION d. a feeling is transferred from its actual object to a substitute. - DISPLACEMENT DEFENSE MECHANISMS 9. Substitution - it is the expression of frustrated impulses indirectly with no change in the conscious quality of desires. 10. Compensation - it is an attempt to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable traits by emphasizing a desirable one. 11. Overcompensation - this is an extreme or socially unacceptable attempt to counterbalance actual or imagined inferiority. 12. Rationalization - this is a defense mechanism by which seemingly logical explanations are devised to explain and justify behavior which might result in loss of social approval and self-esteem. DEFENSE MECHANISMS A. Sour grape mechanism - this is illustrated by an old fable about the fox who tried without success to reach a bunch of grapes hanging over his need. When he did not get them he told himself that they were too sour anyway. B. Sweet lemon attitude - this is illustrated by a philosophy which says not in doing what you like but in liking what you do is the secret of happiness. 13. Isolation - this defense mechanism consist of avoidance of conﬂict between two opposed desires or attitudes by keeping them part in logical tight compartment in consciousness. 14. Undoing - in this mechanism, the individual divest himself painful feelings by making use of cleansing rituals after doing something which causes him to feel guilty. Q#5 DEFENSE MECHANISMS 15. Dissociation - a psychological separation or splitting off and intra psychic defense process which operates automatically and unconsciously. 16. Fixation - the arrest of psychosexual development. 17. Resistance - opposition to bringing or repressed data into awareness. 18. Restitution - mechanism of relieving the mind of a lead of guilt by substitutive acts (making up for or separation). 19. Denial - a defense mechanism operating unconsciously, use to resolve emotional conﬂict and anxiety by denying a thought, feeling, wish, need or external reality factor which is consciously intolerable. DEFENSE MECHANISMS 20. Symbolism - an unconscious mental process where by one object or idea comes to stand for another through some part, quality or aspect which the two have in common it operated by association and is based in similarity and abstract representation. 21. Conversation - a mental mechanism operating unconsciously by which intrapsychic conﬂict which would otherwise give rise to convert into a variety of somatic symptoms. 22. Condensation - a psychological process often present in dreams in which two or more concepts are fuse so that a single symbol represents a multiple components. 23. Identiﬁcation - mechanism by which the child takes over the attitudes and behaviour patterns of his parents and other signiﬁcant to him. DEFENSE MECHANISMS 24. Introjection - taking direct characteristic of another person into the self in order to avoid direct conﬂict. 25. Conscious control - refers to the individuals attempt to expose his motives to full consciousness, face all facts in order to be able to guide his behaviour in desirable and constructive channels. 26. Emotional Insulation - Reducing ego involvement by protective withdrawal and passivity. 27. Intellectualization - Using logic rather than emotions to make it less painful. Freud's concept of humanity was deterministic and pessimistic. He emphasized causality over teleology, unconscious determinants over conscious processes, and biology over culture, but he took a middle position on the dimension of uniqueness versus similarities among people. There is no denying just how inﬂuential Sigmund Freud was to the ﬁelds of psychology and psychiatry. His ideas completely changed the way people viewed personality, sexuality, memory, and therapy, and he is perhaps the most well-known psychologist in the popular vernacular a century after he ﬁrst arrived as a notable scholar of the mind. Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) ANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY He felt that Freud placed undue emphasis on sex, and he focused instead on the collective unconscious and inner self-experience. a. The unconscious contains not only sex and aggression. b. The libido is not only a sexual energy but a general type of energy. Distinctive features: Human Behavior- individual and racial history (causality) Aims and aspirations (teleology) The Psyche: Core of the Personality 1. Levels of the Psyche A. Ego – center of the conscious mind; consists of the thoughts, feelings, memories and perceptions (awareness) B. Personal Unconscious - memories that once were conscious but were repressed. - contains complexes Complexes are themes like power, money, father, mother, sex, agression, religion, etc. - accessible to the conscious thus inﬂuence behavior C. Collective Unconscious - storehouse of latent memory traces of human and even prehuman ancestors. - Source of the “Wise unconscious”—intuition - Contains the Archetypes The Archetypes Archetypes are powerful, primordial or archaic images that derive from the collective unconscious. Archetypes have a biological basis but originate through the repeated experiences of humans’ early ancestors. 1. Persona: Mask person adopt in response to demands of social convention and tradition; part society expects one to play in life; public personality. symbols: mask, two-face, trickster 2. Anima – the representation of a woman in a man. symbols: Virgin Mary, Eve, woman, Mona Lisa 3. Animus – the representation of a man in a woman. symbols: man, Christ, Adam When the anima and the animus are combined, it is called a “syzygy.” Syzygy is also known as the divine couple, and represents wholeness, uniﬁcation, and a feeling of completeness. Q#8 The Archetypes 4. Shadow – the repressed animalistic urges within us - contains our socially unacceptable urges symbols: devil, sinister, monster, Hitler 5. Self – the embodiment of unity, harmony and wholeness within the personality. It is the archetype that represents the transcendence of the opposite. symbol: mandala Q#14 6. Wise Old Man – personiﬁcation of wisdom symbols; prophet, hero 7. Hero – powerful person who conquer evil and ﬁght great odds but will always have a weakness symbols: Superman, Achilles 8. God – ﬁnal realization of psychic reality projected onto the external world symbols: sun, dove, light The Wise Unconscious Freud - a place of repressed memories Jung - a source of untapped knowledge Dynamics of the Psyche A. Opposites (Yin-Yang) There are always parts of you that are opposites (Shadow). B. Equivalence What is on the other side is equivalent to what is on the other side (in terms of magnitude). C. Entrophy (tension) The opposites (the conscious and unconscious) will come closer but will never become one. Dynamics of the Psyche D. Synchronicity Events are meaningfully related to us. There are no coincidences. E. Individuation Q#15 This is the goal of the psyche. It is the lone journey--the need to be what we should be. Life Span Development A. Childhood – problem-free age; collective unconscious is already present B. Youth – birth of the psyche; start of the journey towards individuation; extraversion period C. Middle Age – period of reﬂection; start of the introversion period D. Old Age – return to the unconscious; completion of the psyche Personality types: A. Extraversion – outward energy; outgoing; likes company; B. Introversion – inward energy; reﬂective; prefers less company Psychological functions A. Non-rational (how we interpret) 1. Sensing – “to see is to believe” , stimulation of the senses 2. Intuitive – “to believe is to see”, follows intuition/hunch when making decisions B. Rational (how we judge) 1. Thinking – appeal to logic, reason; practical; feels through their mind 2. Feeling – appeal to emotion, think through their hearts Jung believed every person’s purpose in life was to have his or her conscious and unconscious become fully integrated, so that they could become their “true self.” (individuation) Perhaps Jung’s greatest contribution was that he expanded the notion of the unconscious. Jung saw people as extremely complex beings who are a product of both conscious and unconscious personal experiences. However, people are also motivated by inherited remnants that spring from the collective experiences of their early ancestors. BREAK! MYERS-BRIGGS PERSONALITY TYPES LINK: https://www.16personalities.com/personality-types Alfred Adler (1870-1937) INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY Adler totally disagreed with Freudian concepts. He emphasized that we are not slaves of the unconscious and that we are capable of being the person we want to be despite our inferiorities or insecurities. He was also one of the ﬁrst theorists that emphasized the role of the family in the development of the personality. So these are the concepts under Adler: Inferiority Feelings, Compensation, Stiving for Superiority, birth order, creative self, etc. Striving for Superiority The Great Upward Drive (Man’s Master Motive) According to Adler, the goal of each person is to become superior. 3. Directions 1. Stages of developing superiority a. Negative a. To be aggressive b. Positive b. To be powerful (positive) c. Needs effort c. To be Superior d. Occurs in personal and societal 2. Nature of Superiority level a. Fundamental motive b. Universal Style of Life The manner of a person's striving is called style of life, a pattern that is relatively well set by 4 or 5 years of age. Q#16 Life-Style Attitudes 1. Ruling Type – dominating 2. Getting Type – parasitic 3. Avoiding Type – runs away from inferiorities, denial 4. Socially Useful Type – handles problems with maturity (ideal) Three Main Problems in Life 1. Work (school) 2. Relationship with Others (friends, family, etc) 3. Love (to love and be loved) Social Interest - a feeling of oneness with all of humanity. - is "the sole criterion of human values," and the worthiness of all one's actions must be seen by this standard. - Parents have important roles in developing social interest Creative Self This concept states that we are responsible for who we are and how we behave. We are the captains of our own ships. - ability to freely choose a course of action. Fictional Finalism - It is concerned not with the truth but what you believe is true. - are people's expectations of the future - is like a motto or a philosophy in life - this is your own mission statement Birth Order Question 18 18. One of the birth order position which has the reputation of being the most insecure (black sheep). a. First born b. Second born c. Middle child d. Last born Answer a. First born - achievers, organized, powerful b. Second born - challenges the ﬁrst born, competitive c. Middle child - has the reputation of being the most insecure (black sheep). -feels insecure because of the achievements of the ﬁrst two and the attention given to the last born. d. Last born - spoiled, pampered, unsociable Karen Danielsen Horney (1885-1952) PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY Karen Horney's psychoanalytic social theory assumes that social and cultural conditions, especially during childhood, have a powerful effect on later personality. Major concept: Basic anxiety which can be related to two basic needs in childhood- safety + satisfaction Feminine Psychology Horney believed that psychological differences between men and women are not due to anatomy but to culture and social expectations. Horney was convinced - both by her own experiences and those of her subjects – that children who grow up having their basic needs (e.g. safety, food, love) met devel op healthy self-concepts and ways of interacting with others. Conversely, children who grow up feeling unsafe, unloved, and undervalued develop anxiety and consequently adopt maladaptive strategies to cope with this anxiety. Horney believed that the environment of childhood played a key role in personality development. She felt strongly that negative experiences in early childhood could trigger anxiety in adulthood. Q#20 CONCEPTS: BASIC EVIL - deﬁned as parental indifference and may refer to any behavior that does not meet a child’s psychological needs. BASIC HOSTILITY Q#24 - feelings of anger at one’s parents or caregivers and frustration because of one’s dependence on them. Basic hostility develops and presents itself in the following way: The child’s parents exhibit basic evil -> The child wants to avoid the abuse, but cannot leave because she depends on her parents -> The child cannot express her feelings to her parents and instead redirects her feelings of rage and hostility toward others CONCEPTS: BASIC ANXIETY - refers to the maladaptive patterns that develop when children are exposed to basic evil or any environment that does not meet their basic needs. - “an insidiously increasing, all-pervading feeling of being lonely and helpless in a hostile world. The child feels “small, insigniﬁcant, helpless, deserted, endangered, in a world that is out to abuse, cheat, attack, humiliate, betray, and envy. 4 ways we prtoect ourselves in childhood from basic anxiety: - Securing love and affection - Being submissive - Attaining power - Withdrawing NEUROTIC NEEDS The coping techniques that are initiated in childhood and composed of excessive, insatiable and unrealistic demands developed in response to the basic anxiety that dominates the person. Ten Neurotic Needs/Defenses: 1. Affection and approval (gaining affection) 2. A dominant partner (submissive) 3. Power (attaining power) 6. Admiration (attaining power) 4. Exploitation (attaining power) 7. Achievement or ambition (attaining power) 5. Prestige (attaining power) 8. Self-sufficiency (withdrawing) 9. Perfection (withdrawing) 10. Narrow limits to life (withdrawing) NEUROTIC TRENDS - categories of behaviors and attitudes toward oneself and others that express a person’s needs NEUROTIC TRENDS PERSONALITY TYPE NEUROTIC NEEDS MOVING TOWARDS PEOPLE (Compliant personality) 1. Affection and approval "If you love me, you will not hurt me“ - compliant people protect themselves against feelings of helplessness by attaching 2. A dominant partner Q#21 themselves to other people 3. Power MOVING AGAINST PEOPLE (Aggressive personality) 4. Exploitation "If I have power, no one can hurt me" 5. Prestige - aggressive people protect themselves against perceived hostility of others by 6. Admiration exploiting others 7. Achievement or ambition 8. Self-sufficiency MOVING AWAY FROM PEOPLE (Detached personality) 9. Perfection "If I withdraw, nothing can hurt me" - detached people protect themselves against feelings of isolation by appearing 10. Narrow limits to life arrogant and aloof. Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994) EGO PSYCHOLOGY/PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY His theory places emphasis on social inﬂuences. According to him children are active, adaptive explorers. Assumes that human beings are basically rational creatures whose thoughts, feelings and actions are largely controlled by the ego. According to Erikson, the ego is the center of personality and is responsible for a uniﬁed sense of self. It consists of three interrelated facets: the body ego, the ego ideal, and ego identity. Epigenetic Principle The ego develops according to the epigenetic principle; that is, it grows according to a genetically established rate and in a ﬁxed sequence. - development proceeds by stages. Age stage is not passed through and then left behind. The ego develops within a given society and is inﬂuenced by child-rearing practices and other cultural customs. All cultures and nations develop a pseudospecies, or a ﬁctional notion that they are superior to other culture. Stages of Psychosocial Development Each of the eight stages of development Q#22 is marked by a conﬂict between a syntonic (harmonious) element and a dystonic (disruptive) element, which produces a basic strength or ego quality. Also, from adolescence on, each stage is characterized by an identity crisis or turning point, which may produce either adaptive or maladaptive adjustment. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY AGE CONFLICT RESOLUTION/VIRTUE Oral INFANCY Trust vs. Mistrust Hope Maternal care (Birth – 1 year old) Security Walk, talk, motor development Early Childhood Autonomy vs. Toilet training (2-3 years old) Shame and Will Holding on and letting Q#19 Doubt go NO! Copy adults WHY? Language and Play Age Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose imagination develop (4-5 years old) Conscience Signiﬁcant relationship with family PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY AGE CONFLICT RESOLUTION/VIRTUE Life outside the family School and neighborhood School Age Industry vs. formal and informal Competence (6-11 years old) Inferiority education Sense of work completion and job well done New roles Finding our own Adolescence Identity vs. identity Q#40 Fidelity (12-20 years old) Inferiority Sexual identity and sexual attractiveness Friends/peers Love partner Young Adulthood Intimacy vs. Love Marriage (20-24 years old) Isolation Start a family PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY AGE CONFLICT RESOLUTION/VIRTUE Work signiﬁcant Middle Adulthood Generativity vs Care contributions to society (25-65 years old) Stagnation Q#25 Procreativity (family) Mid-life crisis Looking back on the Late Adulthood Integrity vs. Wisdom life lived (65 – death) Despair Acceptance of death Question 49 49. Which of the following does not describe stagnation in stage 7 of the psychosocial development stages? a. People who cannot form real friendships with others b. People who are self-centered c. Young parents who cannot take care of their children d. People who are afraid of death Answer 49.Which of the following does not describe stagnation in stage 7 of the psychosocial development stages? a. People who cannot form real friendships with others b. People who are self-centered c. Young parents who cannot take care of their children d. People who are afraid of death Erickson strongly believed that personality development is sequential and consists of critical periods. He introduced the terms psychosocial development, ego strength, identity crisis, and life cycles. Despite the lack of empirical data to support his studies, Erickson’s theory is considered by many as one of the most useful ever developed. He introduced the method known as psychohistory and used it to analyze the lives of well-known ﬁgures such as Adolf Hitler, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther. Erich Fromm (1900-1980) SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY Erich Fromm's humanistic psychoanalysis looks at people from the perspective of psychology, history, and anthropology. Inﬂuenced by Freud and Horney, Fromm developed a more culturally oriented theory than Freud's and a much broader theory than Horney’s. Fromm’s basic thesis is that modern human beings have been separated from their prehistoric union with nature and also with one another because they lost most of their animalistic instincts and developed the power of reasoning, foresight, and imagination. BASIC CONCEPTS: FREEDOM According to Fromm, freedom means being independent and relying on no one but your own self for any sense of purpose or meaning. This can lead to feelings of isolation, fear, alienation, and insigniﬁcance. Fromm eventually concluded that because freedom is psychologically difficult to have, people will try to avoid it. MECHANISM OF ESCAPE: 1. Authoritarianism - tendency to fuse with another person for a long period of time to acquire strength. a. Masochism - aimed at joining a powerful person without losing individuality; disguised as love or loyalty b. Sadism – to gain power over those who are weak, exploit others, and to see others suffer 2. Destructiveness – to gain strength, the goal is not to fuse with other people but to push them away. 3. Conformity – gives up individuality and becoming whatever other people desire them to be. BASIC CONCEPTS: The choices that people make in how they will avoid their freedom can depend on the type of family they grew up in. According to Fromm, a family that is healthy and productive is one where parents are responsible for providing their children an atmosphere of love when teaching about reasoning. However, unproductive families also exist, and these are families, Fromm reasoned, that promote avoidance behavior: 1. Symbiotic families: In this type of family, the personalities of members do not fully develop because other members of the family “swallow them up.” 2. Withdrawing families: In this type of family, parents expect their children to live up to very high standards and are incredibly demanding of their children. This type of parenting also involves ritualized punishment, usually paired with the children being told that this is done “for their own good.” BASIC CONCEPTS: POSITIVE FREEDOM -can be achieved by a spontaneous and full expression of both their rational and emotional potentialities. Positive freedom represents a successful solution to the human dilemma of being part of the natural world and yet separate from it. ANIMAL NEEDS - The basic physiological needs. HUMAN/EXISTENTIAL NEEDS - needs that must be met if one’s existence is to be meaningful, one’s inner being is to be developed, one’s talents are to be fully exploited, and abnormality is to be avoided. HUMAN / EXISTENTIAL NEEDS: 1. FRAME OF ORIENTATION - is a cognitive map to guide us in making sense of puzzling matters and a goal that gives meaning to our existence. This is a need to have personal philosophy in life. 2. RELATEDNESS - is the necessity of uniting with other living beings, to relate to them; it is an imperative need upon the fulﬁllment of which rests our sanity. 3. ROOTEDNESS - is a deep craving to maintain one’s natural ties and not be Q#26 “separated’. This is the need to a have a sense of belongingness. 4. SENSE OF IDENTITY - is the need to be aware of oneself as a separate entity, and to sense oneself as the subject of one’s own action. 5. UNITY - is a sense of oneness within one’s self and with the “natural and human world outside.” HUMAN / EXISTENTIAL NEEDS: 6. TRANSCENDENCE - is the act of transforming one’s accidental and passive role of “creature” into that of an active and purposeful “creator”. 7. EFFECTIVENESS - is the need to compensate for “being in a strange and overpowering world” by developing a sense of being able to do something that will “make a dent” in life. 8. EXCITATION AND STIMULATION - is the need for the nervous system to be “exercised,” that is, to experience a certain amount of excitation. This is the need to be motivated. SOCIAL CHARACTER -the core of a character structure common to most people of a given culture; shows the degree to which character is formed by social and cultural patterns. Non-Productive Social Character Productive Social Character 1. Receptive (masochistic) 4. Marketing (indifferent) Submissive Relationships are 1. Working (love & reason) transactions, you should get 2. Exploitative (sadistic) something out of it Cares for other people Uses other people for Values relationships personal gain 5. Necrophilous (murderous) Shows care, responsibility, 3. Hoarding (destructive) Aggressive (ready to battle it respect and knowledge Desires possession out) Biophilia – passionate love of life and all that is alive Fromm believed that healthy people rely on some combination of all the social character orientations. Their survival as healthy individuals depends on their ability to receive things from other people, to take things when appropriate, to preserve things, to exchange things, to protect and defend oneself, and to work, love and think productively. Erich Fromm is considered to be one of the most important and inﬂuential psychologists of the twentieth century. He played a key role in humanistic psychology, and viewed humanity as a contradiction. Life, according to Fromm, was a desire to be both a part of nature and separate from nature, and freedom was actually something that people actively try to avoid. Harry Stack Sullivan (1892-1949) INTERPERSONAL THEORY Although Sullivan had a lonely and isolated childhood, he evolved a theory of personality that emphasized the importance of interpersonal relations. He insisted that personality is shaped almost entirely by the relationships we have with other people. Sullivan conceptualized personality as an energy system, with energy existing either as tension (potentiality for action) or as energy transformations (the actions themselves). TWO TYPES OF TENSIONS: 1. Needs Needs can relate either to the general well-being of a person or to speciﬁc zones (zonal needs), such as the mouth or genitals. General needs can be either physiological, such as food or oxygen, or they can be interpersonal, such as tenderness (most basic interpersonal need) and intimacy. 2. Anxiety Anxiety is disjunctive and calls for no consistent actions for its relief. Sullivan called anxiety the chief disruptive force in interpersonal relations. A complete absence of anxiety and other tensions is called euphoria. DYNAMISMS - a standard pattern of behavior and that could relate to tensions or to a particular zones. 1. Intimacy A close personal relationship amongst two individual who are equal in status. 2. Lust This is a self-centered desire that can be fulﬁlled without an intimate interpersonal relationship and is based entirely on sexual gratiﬁcation. 3. Malevolence Q#32 Hatred, evil, and the feeling that you are living among your enemies. 4. Self-system This is a pattern of behaviors that maintain an individual’s security and protect an individual from anxiety. PERSONIFICATIONS Sullivan believed that people acquire certain images of self and others throughout the developmental stages, and he referred to these subjective perceptions as personiﬁcations. ❖ BAD-MOTHER GOOD-MOTHER The bad-mother personiﬁcation grows out of infants' experiences with a nipple that does not satisfy their hunger needs. ❖ ME PERSONIFICATIONS During infancy, children acquire three "me" personiﬁcations: (1) the bad-me, which grows from experiences of punishment and disapproval, (2) the good-me, which results from experiences with reward and approval, and (3) the not-me, which allows a person to dissociate or selectively inattend the experiences related to anxiety. ❖ EIDETIC PERSONIFICATIONS One of Sullivan's most interesting observations was that people often create imaginary traits that they project onto others. Included in these eidetic personiﬁcations are the imaginary playmates that preschool-aged children often have. LEVELS OF COGNITION - ways of perceiving things ❖ Prototaxic Level Q#27 Experiences that are impossible to put into words or to communicate to others. ❖ Parataxic Level Experiences that are prelogical and nearly impossible to accurately communicate to others. ❖ Syntaxic Level Experiences that can be accurately communicated to others. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Sullivan referred to his developmental stages as “epochs,” and believed that people pass through these epochs in a particular order that is dictated not by timing, but by the social environment of the individual. Infancy (birth–one year): The period from birth until the emergence of syntaxic language. During this epoch, the mother ﬁgure gives the child tenderness and the child learns anxiety. Childhood (one–ﬁve years): The mother remains the main interpersonal relationship with the child, but is now distinguished from other people that care for the child. Juvenile (six–eight years): The child begins to need playmates, or peers of the same status. This is the beginning of socialization, and a child should learn how to cooperate, compromise, and compete with other children. Preadolescence (nine–twelve years): This is the most important stage because any mistakes that were made before this epoch can be corrected, but mistakes made during this stage become extremely difficult to correct later on in life. Preadolescence spans the time from the need for a single best friend until puberty. If a child does not learn intimacy in this stage, they face difficulties with sexual partners later on in life. Early Adolescence (thirteen–seventeen years): With puberty comes the lust dynamism and the beginning of early adolescence. Development during this stage is ordinarily marked by a coexistence of intimacy with a single friend of the same gender and sexual interest in many persons of the opposite gender. However, if children have no preexisting capacity for intimacy, they may confuse lust with love and develop sexual relationships that are devoid of true intimacy. Late Adolescence (eighteen–twenty-three years): While this epoch can occur when an individual is as young as sixteen years old, late adolescence sets in once an individual has the ability to experience both intimacy and lust toward one person, and a long-term relationship is the main focus of the individual. This epoch is also characterized by the individual learning how to cope with life in the adult world. Adulthood (twenty-three years and older): During this epoch, the individual establishes his or her career, ﬁnancial security, and family, and his or her pattern for viewing the world is stable. If there is success in the earlier epochs, relationships and socialization become far easier; however, if success does not occur in previous epochs, interpersonal conﬂicts that lead to anxiety will be much more common. Much like Sigmund Freud, Harry Stack Sullivan believed childhood experiences and the role of the mother play a key role in the development of an individual’s personality. From Harry Stack Sullivan’s extensive work in personality came interpersonal psychoanalysis, a form of psychoanalysis that focused on understanding the present psychopathy of an individual by looking at the interactions of his or her past. While Sullivan’s theories have become less popular, his inﬂuence in psychology remains. Melanie Klein (1892-1960) OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY Melanie Klein extended and developed Sigmund Freud’s understanding of the unconscious mind. Klein extended Freud's developmental stages downward to the ﬁrst 4 to 6 months after birth. paranoid-schizoid position depressive position Object relations theory differs from Freudian theory in at least three ways: (1) interpersonal relationships, (2) infant's relationship with the mother rather than the father, and (3) people are motivated primarily for human contact rather than for sexual pleasure. PSYCHIC LIFE OF THE INFANT Klein believed that infants begin life with an inherited predisposition to reduce the anxiety that they experience as a consequence of the clash between the life instinct and the death instinct. Fantasies Klein assumed that very young infants possess an active, unconscious fantasy life. Their most basic fantasies are images of the "good" breast and the "bad" breast. Objects Klein agreed with Freud that drives have an object, but she was more likely to emphasize the child's relationship with these objects (parents' face, hands, breast, penis, etc.), which she saw as having a life of their own within the child's fantasy world. POSITIONS - ways of dealing with both internal and external objects. Paranoid-Schizoid Position The struggles that infants experience with the good breast and the bad breast lead to two separate and opposing feelings: a desire to harbor the breast and a desire to bite or destroy it. To control this situation, infants adopt the paranoid- schizoid position, which is a tendency to see the world as having both destructive and omnipotent qualities. Depressive Position By depressive position, Klein meant the anxiety that infants experience around 6 months of age over losing their mother and yet, at the same time, wanting to destroy her. PSYCHIC DEFENSE MECHANISMS Introjection Klein deﬁned introjection as the fantasy of taking into one's own body the images that one has of an external object. Projection The fantasy that one's own feelings and impulses reside within another person. Splitting Infants tolerate good and bad aspects of themselves and of external objects by splitting, or mentally keeping apart, incompatible images. Projective Identiﬁcation Infants split off unacceptable parts of themselves, project them onto another object, and ﬁnally introject them in an altered form. OEDIPUS COMPLEX Klein believed that the Oedipus complex begins during the ﬁrst few months of life, then reaches its zenith during the genital stage, at about 3 or 4 years of age, or the same time that Freud had suggested it began. Klein also held that much of the Oedipus complex is based on children's fear that their parents will seek revenge against them for their fantasy of emptying the parent's body. For healthy development during the Oedipal years, children should retain positive feelings for each parent. The goal of Kleinian therapy was to reduce depressive anxieties and persecutory fears and to lessen the harshness of internalized objects. To do this, Klein encouraged patients to re- experience early fantasies and pointed out the differences between conscious and unconscious wishes COGNITIVE THEORY Jean Piaget (1896-1980) COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY Cognitive Development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities Rather than concentrating on all learners, Piaget focused on children. Piaget’s theory did not discuss the learning of a speciﬁc behavior or the learning of information, but rather his theory looked at overall development. Instead of the common notion that cognitive development was gradual and the amount of behaviors grew and became more complex, Piaget proposed a series of discrete stages that Piaget believed that children create an understanding of their environment and experience discrepancies between what is already known and what will be discovered. Schemas: - are the basic building blocks, or units, of knowledge. Each schema relates to one part of the world, such as actions, objects, and concepts. For example, if a parent shows their child a picture of a dog, the child will create a schema of what a dog looks like: it has four legs, a tail, and ears. Assimilation: Q#38 Using a schema that already exists and applying it to a new situation. The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schema’s. Accommodation: Involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process. EQUILIBRATION Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (birth to age 2) The child: uses his senses and his increasing motor skills to explore the environment begins to use to use language to imitate and represent the environment egocentric Seriation Object Permanence PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (age 2 – 7) Q#14 Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period. Memory and imagination develops Thinking is often not logical Much ego-centric thinking occurs Children are not able to understand the point of view of others. Learns that symbols represent something else CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (7 – 11 or 12) The child has the ability to do simple math and measurement, with manipulatives He begins to understand cause & effect He can think about real, concrete things in systematic ways, but cannot understand abstract concepts He is no longer egocentric (he can now understand other people’s points of view) (1)Conservation – refers to retention of (2)Reversibility – refers to the completion of the same properties (volume, mass, certain operations in the reverse order and number or other aspects of physical ending up the same. environment) even if they are rearranged differently or reshaped. FORMAL OPERATIONAL PERIOD (11 years old and older) A child is able to think and reason in purely abstract terms (in his head, without having concrete items in front of him) He is able to use logic and abstract thinking He questions previously accepted thoughts, ideas and values The majority of criticism is based on Piaget’s research methods. Not only did Piaget study his own three children, but the other children used in his study were of a higher socioeconomic status, meaning a wide sample of the population was not used, making the results hard to generalize. Some studies also disagree with Piaget’s claim that children automatically move from stage to stage, and many psychologists believe environmental factors also play a key role. MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY Lawrence Kohlberg ( MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY Kohlberg’s theory on the stages of moral development was a modiﬁcation of the work performed by Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist. Kohlberg proposed that moral development was a process that continued throughout a person’s lifespan. In order to isolate and describe these stages, Kohlberg presented a series of difficult moral dilemmas to groups of young children of different ages. He then interviewed them to ﬁnd out the reasoning behind each of their decisions, and to see how moral reasoning changed as children grew older. The Heinz Dilemma The Heinz Dilemma The Heinz Dilemma LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT LEVEL 1: PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY Children’s judgments are based on external criteria. Standards of right or wrong are absolute and laid down by authority. Q#45 Stage 1: Punishment-and-obedience orientation In this stage, children view rules as absolutes. Obeying the rules means avoiding punishment. The child’s judgment on this stage are based on sources of authority who are close by and superior to himself- usually the parents. Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange In this stage, children begin to take individual points of view into consideration and judge actions based on how the needs of the individual are served. The child begins to operate on the principle that you should do things that are rewarded and avoid thing that are punished (NAÏVE HEDONISM). “IF YOU’LL HELP ME, I’LL HELP YOU” principle LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY Children’s judgments are based on the norms and expectations of the group. Stage 3 - "good boy-good girl" orientation This stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices inﬂuence relationships. Children at this stage believe that good behavior is what pleases other people. “I do everything for my mother, I try to please her” Stage 4 – Law and Social Order People at this stage focus on doing their duty, respecting authority, following rules and laws. The emphasis is less on what is pleasing to particular people and more adhering on to A complex of set of regulations. However, the regulations are not questioned. LEVEL 3: POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY The individual deﬁnes right and wrong in terms of broad principles of justice that could conﬂict with written laws or with the dictates of authority ﬁgures. Morally right and legally proper are not always one and the same. Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights In this stage, it becomes understood that people have different beliefs, opinions, and values, and that in order to maintain society, rules of the law should be based on standards that are agreed upon. Stage 6 – Universal ethical Principles Kolhberg’s ﬁnal level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conﬂict with laws and rules. It is important to note that Kohlberg believed that it was only possible to pass through these stages in this order and that not every person achieved all of these stages. While extremely important and inﬂuential, Kohlberg’s model has faced criticism. Regardless, Kohlberg’s work in morality remains incredibly inﬂuential, and the ideas he set forth are commonly applied to the ﬁeld of education and are used to understand the behavior of children. PSYCHOSEXUAL PSYCHOSOCIAL COGNITIVE MORAL AGE STAGES STAGES DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT (FREUD) (ERIKSON) (PIAGET) (KOHLBERG) INFANCY Basic trust vs Oral Stage Q#41 Sensorimotor (Birth – 1 year old) Mistrust EARLY CHILDHOOD Autonomy vs Anal Stage Pre-operational (2-3 years old) Shame and doubt PRECONVENTIONAL PLAY AGE Q#23 (4-5 years old) Phallic Stage Initiative vs Guilt SCHOOL AGE Industry vs Concrete Latency Stage (6-11 years old) Inferiority Operational ADOLESCENCE Identity vs Identity CONVENTIONAL Genital Stage Formal operational (12-20 years old) confusion YOUNG ADULTHOOD POST (21-35 years old) Intimacy vs Isolation CONVENTIONAL MIDDLE ADULTHOOD Generativity vs (36-65 years old) Stagnation LATE ADULTHOOD (65 – death) Integrity vs Despair BEHAVIORAL THEORIES Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Classical conditioning was Ivan Pavlov’s most famous and inﬂuential work, and it laid much of the groundwork of behavioral psychology. In essence, the idea of classical conditioning is simply learning something by association or the “Stimulus-Response Model.” To dig deeper into his ﬁndings, Pavlov set out to create one of the most famous scientiﬁc experiments of all time: Pavlov’s dogs. Classical Conditioning Also known as respondent conditioning refers to a form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of 2 or more different stimuli. Learning is only said to have occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce. A stimulus is any event that elicits a response from an organism. A response is a reaction by an organism to a stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, the stimulus of food initially produced the response of salivation. Eventually the sight or sound of the tech became the stimulus. FOUR BASIC PRINCIPLE: 1. The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus is any act, inﬂuence, or agent that creates a response. An unconditioned stimulus is when the stimulus automatically triggers some type of response. Q#35 2. The Unconditioned Response (UCR): This is a response that is automatically triggered as a result of the unconditioned stimulus. In essence, this is a natural, unconscious reaction to whatever the stimulus might be. Q#36 3. The Conditioned Stimulus (CS): When a neutral stimulus (a stimulus that I s not related to the response) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, thus triggering conditioned response. 4. The Conditioned Response (CR): This is a response that was learned from the once-neutral stimulus. Key Processes in Classical Conditioning: Acquisition - is the overall process during which the organism learns to associate 2 events. Extinction - is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer presented. Extinction is said to have occurred when a CR no longer occurs following presentation of the CS. Spontaneous Recovery - is the reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented, following a rest period after the CR appears to have been extinguished. Stimulus Generalization - which is the tendency for another stimulus to produce a response that is similar to the CR. The greater the similarity between stimuli, the greater the possibility that a generalization will occur. Opposite Stimulus Discrimination Even though he is most well known in popular culture for his famous dogs, the importance of Pavlov’s research goes far beyond the production of saliva. His revelations on conditioning and learned responses have played a major role in understanding behavioral modiﬁcation in humans, and in advancing the treatment of such mental health issues as panic disorders, anxiety disorders, and phobias. John B. Watson (1878-1958) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING John B. Watson took a great interest in Ivan Pavlov’s experiment on dogs and conditioning, and wanted to see if he could take behavioral conditioning one step further by classically conditioning emotional reactions in people. The participant of the experiment was a nearly nine-month-old baby that Watson referred to as “Albert B.,” but who is now commonly referred to as Little Albert. CRITICISMS OF THE EXPERIMENT Though it was a landmark experiment in psychology, Watson’s Little Albert experiment has been criticized for several reasons. The baby’s reactions were not evaluated objectively but were simply the subjective interpretations of Watson and Raynor, and the experiment raises many ethical questions. Today, if someone were to try this experiment, it would be considered unethical by the American Psychological Association because it evokes fear in a person, and that is only ethical if the person agrees to participate in the study knowing in advance that they will be purposely scared as part of the experiment. Regardless, behavioral psychologists were able to derive many important insights from Watson and from the results of the Little Albert experiment that have continued to shape the ﬁeld. Classical Conditioning in Practice Aversion Therapy (1930) Systematic desensitization (1950) - is a form of behaviour therapy that applies CC - by psychiatrist Joseph Wolpe, principles to inhibit or discourage undesirable - is a kind of behaviour therapy that attempts to behaviour by associating it with an aversive replace an anxiety or fear response with a stimulus. relaxation response through a classical - treat alcoholism conditioning procedure. Burrhus Frederick Skinner (1904-1990) OPERANT CONDITIONING B. F. Skinner’s most important work was the concept of operant conditioning. Essentially, operant conditioning is when someone learns a behavior as the result of the rewards and punishments associated with that behavior. Q#42 Basic premise: any organism (including man) tends to repeat what is was doing at the time its behavior was reinforced and that the task is a matter of baiting each step of the way, thus gradually leading the subject to the required performance. “SKINNER BOX” Reinforcement is deﬁned as any behavioral consequence that strengthens behavior. It is also deﬁned as any event that increases the probability that a particular response will increase in frequency. Reinforcement may be positive or negative. 1. Positive Reinforcement – any stimulus that when added to a situation, increases the probability that a given behavior will occur. “If you do the right thing, I will reward you.” 2. Negative Reinforcement - is a process whereby the likelihood of a response increases when it is followed by the termination, reduction or absence of a stimulus. “If you do the right thing, I will not punish you.” 3. Punishment – responses that are followed by the presentation of aversive stimuli decrease in likelihood of being performed in the future. “If you do something wrong, I will punish you.” 4. Extinction – When a behavior is weakened because the result did not lead to a positive condition or a negative condition. Question 48 48. Negative reinforcement __________ responding; punishment _____________ responding. a. Increases; increases b. Decreases; decreases c. Increases; decreases d. Decreases; increases Answer 48. Negative reinforcement INCREASES responding; punishment DECREASES responding. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT 1. Continuous reinforcement 2. Partial reinforcement “Ratio” refers to the amount of reward that will be given. “Interval” refers to the time when the reward will be given. “Fixed” means the amount or time of reward is consistent. “Variable” means the amount or time of reward is random. ❖ Fixed Ratio – performance based reinforcement. The amount of reward that will be receives is dependent on the number of responses. ❖ Fixed-interval - a response is rewarded after an allotted period of time. ❖ Variable-ratio - Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses. ❖ Variable-interval - Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable amount of time. Though behaviorism lost its popularity over time, there is no denying the impact of B. F. Skinner. His operant techniques remain vital to mental health professionals in helping treat clients, and his ideas of reinforcement and punishment are still used in teaching and dog training. Take note that in both Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning, extinction can happen. In behaviorism, everything that can be learned can be unlearned. In Classical Conditioning, extinction happens when the neutral stimulus is no longer followed by the unconditioned stimulus. In Operant Conditioning, extinction happens when the behavior is no longer reinforced nor punished. Question 47 47. In operant conditioning, the reinforcer occurs __________ the response, and in classical conditioning, it occurs ________________. a. After; before b. Before; after c. Before; before d. After; after Answer 47. In operant conditioning, the reinforcer occurs AFTER the response, and in classical conditioning, it occurs BEFORE. Albert Bandura (1925-present) SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY One of the most inﬂuential learning theories in psychology, Albert Bandura’s social learning theory of 1977 states that instead of acquired behavior being strictly a matter of rewards or reinforcements, it can be brought about through observational learning. He states that people grasp how to behave based on the behavior of the people around them. The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling Q#37 the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. There are three main concepts to Bandura’s social learning theory: 1. A person can learn behavior through observation 2. The mental state is an important aspect to learning 3. Learning does not mean that a behavior will necessarily change Human Agency That means, we are agents of our actions and no one else. Human agency has four components. 1. Intentionality 2. Forethought 3. Self-reactiveness 4. Self-reﬂectiveness Component processes underlying observational learning: Q#43 Self-System The self-system gives some consistency to personality by allowing people to observe and symbolize their own behavior and to evaluate it on the basis of anticipated future consequences. The self-system includes both self-efficacy and self-regulation. Self-Efficacy How people behave in a particular situation depends in part on their self- efficacy that is, their beliefs that they can or cannot exercise those behaviors necessary to bring about a desired consequence. It is acquired, enhanced, or decreased by any one or combination of four sources: (1) mastery experiences or performance, (2) social modeling, or observing someone of equal ability succeed or fail at a task; (3) social persuasion, or listening to a trusted person's encouraging words; and (4) physical and emotional states, such as anxiety or fear, which usually lowers self-efficacy. Self-Regulation By using reﬂective thought, humans can manipulate their environments and produce consequences of their actions, giving them some ability to regulate their own behavior. THE BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT Through the Bobo doll experiment, Bandura was able to successfully show that the children learned a social behavior, in this case aggression, by watching the behavior of someone else. With the Bobo doll experiment, Bandura was able to disprove a key notion of behaviorism that stated that all behavior is the result of rewards and reinforcement. HUMANISTIC THEORIES Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY HOLISTIC DYNAMIC THEORY In the 1950s, Maslow became a founding father and leader of humanistic psychology. Instead of focusing on illness or the abnormal, Maslow focused on positive mental health. Abraham Maslow's holistic-dynamic theory holds that people are continually motivated by one or more needs, and that, under the proper circumstances, they can reach a level of psychological health called self-actualization. He is also best known for his hierarchy of needs. Q#10 TYPES OF NEEDS: Deﬁciency Needs (D-needs) These needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in motivating behavior. - physiological, security, social and esteem needs Growth Need (Being needs or B-needs) Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person. Question 6 6. These include the need for things that reﬂect on personal worth, social recognition, and accomplishment. a. Esteem needs b. Security Needs c. Self-actualizing Needs d. Love/belongingness Needs Answer a. Esteem needs - These include the need for things that reﬂect on personal worth, social recognition, and accomplishment. b. Security Needs c. Self-actualizing Needs d. Love/belongingness Needs OTHER NEEDS BUT NOT UNIVERSAL ❑ Transcendence Needs – desire to go beyond the human potential ❑ Aesthetic Needs – desire for beauty and to have an orderly environment Q#44 ❑ Cognitive Needs - desire to know, to solve mysteries, and to understand ❑ Neurotic Needs – need to negatively compensate for needs that were not met and leads to pathology Criteria for Self-Actualization (fulﬁlled the need to grow, to develop, and to increasingly become what they were capable of becoming) 1. Free from psychopathology/mental illness 2. Progressed through the hierarchy of needs 3. Embraced the B-values: truth, goodness, beauty, wholeness or the transcendence of dichotomies, aliveness or spontaneity, uniqueness, perfection, completion, justice and order, simplicity, richness or totality, effortlessness, playfulness and humor; and self-sufficiency or autonomy. The Jonah Complex - fear of being or doing one's best, a condition that all of us have to some extent. Maslow believed that many people allow false humility to stiﬂe their creativity, which causes them to fall short of self-actualization. The hierarchy of needs concept has obvious ramiﬁcations for psychotherapy. Most people who seek psychotherapy probably do so because they have not adequately satisﬁed their love and belongingness needs. This suggests that much of therapy should involve a productive human relationship and that the job of a therapist is to help clients satisfy love and belongingness needs. Criticism has been raised concerning the hierarchy of needs is Maslow’s stance that the lower needs must be satisﬁed before someone has the ability to reach self-actualization. Despite criticisms, there is no denying how important and signiﬁcant Abraham Maslow was to modern psychology. He shifted attention away from abnormal behavior and made psychology focus on the positive aspects of human nature, mental health, and human potential Question 3 3. The proponent of client-centered or person-centered approach. a. Carl Roger b. Carl Jung c. Abraham Maslow d. Sigmund Freud Answer a. Carl Roger – PERSON-CENTERED / CLIENT-CENTERED APPROACH b. Carl Jung – ANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY c. Abraham Maslow – HOLISTIC-DYNAMC THEORY d. Sigmund Freud – PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY Carl Rogers (1902-1987) PERSON-CENTERED THEORY PHENOMENOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Rogers’s theory is quite often known as self-theory. This approach emphasizes conditions of worth, valuing people, and the self-actualizing tendency. Rogers theorized that each person has an inner concept of what she or he ideally would like to be—an ideal self. Also, it is theorized that each of us has an inner concept of what we are really like—a real self. The drive of self-actualization, then, is the striving to merge these two concepts. Rogers proposed a style of counseling: Rogerian, person-centered, client-centered, and Life's Master Motive: The Actualizing Tendency The primary motive in people's lives is to actualize, maintain, or enhance themselves--to become the best self that their inherited natures will allow them to be. Organismic valuing process - monitoring system of individuals to distinguish experiences that promotes or hinders actualization. Roger's Phenomenological Position A phenomenological perspective holds that what is real to an individual is that which exists within that person's frame of reference, or subjective world, including everything in his awareness at any point of time. Here and Now (ahistorical) In order for us to understand why a person behaves in such a way, we do not need to dig into his or her past instead we must understand the person's relationship to the environment as he now exists and perceives it. Person-centered theory rests on two basic assumptions: (1) the formative tendency, which states that all matter, both organic and inorganic, tends to evolve from simpler to more complex forms, and (2) an actualizing tendency, which suggests that all living things, including humans, tend to move toward completion, or fulﬁllment of potentials Needs Maintenance needs include those for food, air, and safety, but they also include our tendency to resist change and to maintain our self-concept as it is. Enhancement needs include needs to grow and to realize one's full human potential. CONGRUENCE If someone’s ideal self is similar to or consistent with their actual experience, then they are experiencing a state of congruence. INCONGRUENCE There is a difference between someone’s ideal self and their actual experience. Q#34 Positive Regard - We instinctively value (love, affection, attention, nurturance, and so on.) Positive self-regard- It is self-esteem, self-worth, a positive self-image. We achieve this positive self-regard by experiencing the positive regard others show us over our years of growing up. The fully-functioning person/The Person of Tomorrow a. Openness to experience - It is the accurate perception of one's experiences in the world, including one's feelings. It also means being able to accept reality, again including one's feelings. b. Existential living - This is living in the here-and-now. c. Organismic trusting - We should trust ourselves; do what feels right, what comes natural. d. Experiential freedom - acknowledges that feeling of freedom, and takes responsibility for his choices. e. Creativity - feel obliged by their nature to contribute to the actualization of others, even life itself. Therapy: non directive ----- client-centered Qualities a therapist must possess: a. Congruence b. Empathy (Q#33) c. Respect The essence of Rogers’s counseling style is to help clients (notice that they are not called patients) with the process of self-discovery. That is, the counselor helps a client to become aware of his or her true inner self, the true personality of feelings and self-concept. Then the client must come to accept his or her true feelings and personality and to embrace the inner self. The client should then be ready to take the necessary steps to fulﬁll his or her inner needs and to bring the world of experience into line with the inner self-concept. TRAIT THEORIES Gordon Allport (1897-1967) PSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUALS In 1936, Harvard psychologist Gordon Allport, who also taught the very ﬁrst personality psychology class in the United States, developed his trait theory of personality. Allport went through the dictionary and searched for every term he felt described a personality trait. With a list of over 4,500 words, Allport organized these traits into three categories: 1. Cardinal traits: Traits that control and deﬁne the entire personality of an individual. As a result, these types of traits are often synonymous with the individual, and are very rare. 2. Central traits: Traits that are common. 3. Secondary traits: Traits that appear under particular conditions and circumstances. Raymond B. Cattell (1905-1998) FACTOR ANALYSIS Working off of Gordon Allport’s theory, psychologist Raymond Cattell took Allport’s list of more than 4,200 personality traits and dwindled it down to 171 traits, by combining those that were similar to one another and removing traits that were uncommon. Cattell then created questionnaires that used these traits and tested a large population sample. Once Cattell had the results from the questionnaires, he identiﬁed any terms that were closely related and used a statistical process known as factor analysis to decrease the number The sixteen personality factors Cattell identiﬁed are: 1. Abstractedness 2. Apprehension 3. Dominance 4. Emotional stability 5. Liveliness 6. Openness to change 7. Perfectionism 8. Privateness 9. Reasoning 10. Rule consciousness 11. Self-reliance 12. Sensitivity 13. Social boldness 14. Tension 15. Vigilance Hans Eysenck (1916-1997) BIOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY Psychologist Hans Eysenck created a personality model in 1947 independent of other trait theories, and he updated the model in the late 1970s. His model was based on the notion that all people shared three universal traits: 1. Introversion versus extraversion 2. Neuroticism versus emotional stability 3. Psychoticism Question 7 7. The fear of strangers or foreigners. a. Androphobia b. Socionophobia c. Xenophobia d. Acrophobia Answer a. Androphobia – fear of men b. Socionophobia –fear of social evaluation c. Xenophobia - fear of strangers or foreigners. d. Acrophobia – fear of heights Question 9 9. He formulated the law of affect – a seemingly simple observation that rewarded responses are strengthened and unrewarded responses weakened. a. Ivan Pavlov b. Harry Stack Sullivan c. E.L. Thorndike d. B.F. Skinner Answer a. Ivan Pavlov – CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – stimuli – response b. Harry Stack Sullivan – INTERPERSONAL THEORY c. E.L. Thorndike - He formulated the law of affect – a seemingly simple observation that rewarded responses are strengthened and unrewarded responses weakened. d. B.F. Skinner – OPERANT CONDITIONING – reward-punishment Question 9 11. When does the baby start to crawl? a. 9 months b. 10 months c. 4 months d. 0-6 months e. 2 months Answer 11. When does the baby start to crawl? a. 9 months b. 10 months c. 4 months d. 0-6 months e. 2 months Question 17 17. Says meaningful words like “mama and papa”. a. 7-12 months b. 10 months c. 0-6 months d. 5-7 months Answer 17. Says meaningful words like “mama and papa”. a. 7-12 months b. 10 months c. 0-6 months d. 5-7 months Question 28 28. The “world around” or non-personal; includes the biological drives, needs, and instincts of the individual. a. Umwelt b. Mitwelt c. Eigenwilt d. All of the above Answer Suzanne Kobasa (1979) Existential Psychology - for existentialists, people dwell not on theindividual’s past but on the present and future,they are never static, they are always becoming or transcending themselves. Modes of existence: a. Umwelt - The “world around” or non-personal; includes the biological drives, needs, and instincts of the individual. b. Mitwe lt – “with the world”, the meaning that others design into the social relationship. c. Eigenwilt – “own world” is the mode of relationship with one’s identity. d. All of the above Question 29 29. Behavioral theorists describe personality characteristic in terms of a. Unconscious motives b. Innate personality characteristics c. Conditioning d. Intrinsic motivation Question 30 30. Erik Erikson’s theory states that if a person does not resolve a conﬂict within a stage, they will not acquire the life stage virtue, but will be able to move on to the next stage of development. a. Agree b. Disagree c. False d. True Question 31 31. The doctrine that motivation should be considered according to its ﬁnal purpose or aim is called a. Teleology b. Causality c. All of the above d. None of the above Question 31 31. The doctrine that motivation should be considered according to its ﬁnal purpose or aim is called a. Teleology b. Causality c. All of the above d. None of the above Question 39 39. Which of Jung’s beliefs differed from Freud’s theories? a. Everyone has a collective unconscious b. The unconscious is important in shaping personality c. The main motivation for behavior is a stiving for superiority d. Behavior depends on the consequences that follow it Question 46 46. Psychologists who believe that people grow and develop throughout their lives and that people are inherently good are a. Psychoanalysts b. Behaviorists c. Social Learning theorists d. Humanists Question 46 46. Psychologists who believe that people grow and develop throughout their lives and that people are inherently good are a. Psychoanalysts b. Behaviorists c. Social Learning theorists d. Humanists Question 50 50. Of the following approaches to understanding behavior, which is most likely going to focus on the way that adults process information? a. Biological b. Cognitive c. Psychodynamic d. Humanistic Thank you WORDS OF MOTIVATION ✔ If you can do your best later, why not do it now? ✔ Always do your best in taking tests, drills, exams, and quizzes. Have no regrets. ✔ Never settle for less. ✔ Know your priorities and make them your goal. ✔ Make sacrifices if you have to. ✔ Aim high! ✔ Start, so what if you fail? What if you'll pass then? ✔ Study, persevere, and never give up. ✔ If not now, when? If not you, who? ✔ Always know and believe that if others can, why can't you? “Follow excellence; success will chase you.” -3 idiots “The experiences does not define us, its what we learn from them that matters.” - one piece BOARD EXAM TIPS Before the exam: ❑ CRAM but CRAM EARLY - Justin Sung ❑ Know what works for you, study techniques, study habit ❑ Read as many books as u can ❑ Pray like never before ❑ Do your own research, watch videos ❑ Do well in the drills, assess and learn (board exam style) ❑ Time management, perseverance, consistency ❑ Sleep well, sleep on time consistently ❑ Eat HEALTHY Before the exam: ❑ Make your own goals and take small steps to achieve it. ❑ Make a study plan. Your aim for a month, a week, a day, an hour. ❑ Base your schedule sa TOS or sa schedule ng topics sa review center and start there. ❑ Allot time for laba, laag, simba, facebook, movie… ❑ Do things that will make your brain happy. ❑ Take care of your health because that will be your weapon throughout the process. ❑ Study lightly at least a week or days before the exam. BOARD EXAM TIPS During the exam: ❑ Rest well the night before the exam ❑ Prepare everything you need days before the exam ❑ Presence of mind and listen carefully to the proctors instructions ❑ Read the questions carefully, write anything you want in the questionnaire but be extra careful with the answer sheet ❑ Pray, do your part and let God do the rest BOARD EXAM TIPS After the exam: ❑ Pray, pray, pray ❑ Do anything you like to do. STUDY PRAY STAY

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