GST 202 Fundamentals of Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution PDF

COURSE GUIDE GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION Course Team Oyedolapo Babatunde Durojaye, Abiodun Joseph Oluwadare & Mathias E Jarikre. (Course Developers/Writers) - NOUN Prof. Anifowose Remi (Course Editor) NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA GST 202 COURSE GUIDE National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters University Village, Plot 91, Cadastral Zone, Nnamdi Azikiwe Express Way, Jabi, Abuja Lagos Office 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way, Victoria Island, Lagos e-mail: [email protected] URL: www.nou.edu.ng Published by National Open University of Nigeria Printed 2013, 2015 Reprinted 2017 ISBN: 978-058-099-9 All Rights Reserved ii GST 202 COURSE GUIDE CONTENTS PAGES Introduction…………………………………………… iv What You will Learn in this Course………………….. iv Course Aim……………………………………………. v Course Objectives…………………………………….. v Working through this Course………………………… vi Course Materials……………………………………… vi Study Units……………………………………………. vi Textbooks and References……………………………. vii Assignment File……………………………………….. viii Presentation Schedule…………………………………. viii Tutor-Marked Assignment……………………………. ix Final Examination and Grading………………………. ix Course Marking Scheme………………………………. ix How to Get the Most from this Course………………… xi Facilitation/Tutors and Tutorials………………………. xii Summary………………………………………………… xiii iii GST 202 COURSE GUIDE INTRODUCTION GST 202 Fundamentals of Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution is a two-credit unit course. It is a compulsory course for all undergraduate students of the National Open University of Nigeria. The course is recommended for other student(s), who may be interested in the study of peace studies and conflict resolution. This course consists of three modules made up of fifteen units, which include the meaning of conflict and the conceptual definition of conflict resolution from the perspective of the United Nations. Other areas of discourse are themes, theories, issues, challenges, tools and techniques of peace studies and conflict resolution. This course draws its major case studies from the global arena and continent of Africa with particular reference to Nigeria with the aim of equipping you with the desired skills and knowledge of developing viable analytical mind and conceptual framework for addressing the conflict problems in Nigeria and elsewhere. This Course Guide informs you on what this course is all about, what you should appreciate in each unit, what text materials you shall be using and how you can make the best use of these materials. This Course Guide also discerns the need for taking tutor-marked assignment seriously. However, necessary information on tutor-marked assignment shall be made known in a separate file, which will be sent to you. This course is also supported by periodic tutorial classes. WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE The overall aim of GST 202 Fundamentals of Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution is to introduce you to the interrelationship between conflict, peace, and conflict resolution, and prominent areas of inquiry and issues in the discourse of peace and conflict resolution. Your understanding of this fundamentals will enable you to explain some basic concepts in the study of conflicts. In fact, the course will also expose you to relevant issues in conflict resolution at the local, national and international levels. GST 202 is an interesting course, which can stimulate your understanding of how values, resources, psychological needs and information management can cause conflict the world over. Therefore, this course is so significant as it shows how conflict resolution can bring about enduring peace among opposing people of a state. It can also engender a systemic approach to resolving conflict at iv GST 202 COURSE GUIDE the latent stage. In the quest to address culture of violence and war, a lot of individual and institutional (both lateral and multilateral) initiatives have been adopted to promote social networks, that can guarantee peaceful co-existence. However, efforts to engendering peace are very important because it is only under a peaceful atmosphere that sustainble development can take place in any society. There is also the need to promote peace-generating values among state and non-state actors. This can be achieved through peace education, proper practice of democracy, respect for fundamental human rights, and poverty alleviation among others, to remove the culture of violence in the behaviour of state and non-state actors. Conflict resolution demands that parties should resolve their conflicts through non-violent and peaceful ways for effective conflict transformation. COURSE AIM The aim of this course is to enable you understand the fundamental issues and requirements for foundational principles of peace studies and conflict resolution. To attain this, you will be introduced to the: general background and basis of the fundamental of peace studies and conflict resolution meaning, trend and trajectories of peace studies and conflict resolution nature of conflict and processes of conflict resolution benefits of peace education and global trends in peace studies and conflict resolution importance of social conflict and conflict management, transformation and resolution. COURSE OBJECTIVES This course is designed to equip you with basic understanding of the fundamental issues in peace studies and conflict resolution. As indicated above, it is pertinent that you acquire basic principles at the general studies level in peace studies and conflict resolution. Each unit has its specific objectives. The unit objectives can be found at the beginning of each unit. You should always look at the unit objectives after completing a unit to ascertain whether you have covered the unit requirement. At the end of this course, you should be able to: define and explain the meaning and nature of conflict discuss the causes and types of conflicts v GST 202 COURSE GUIDE discuss issues on conflict analysis, management, resolution and transformation explain the processes of conflict resolution – mediation, negotiation, arbitration, litigation, conciliation and so on give detailed explanation of peace education examine the role of communication and language in conflicts explain the importance of the rules of conflict intervention determine the latent stage of conflict and possible responses discuss and be familiar with global issues and peace-building. WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE On the completion of this course, you are required to study the whole units, and try to read all (or substantial number of) the recommended textbooks, journals and other reading materials including electronic resources. Each unit contains self-assessment exercise(s) and you are required to submit your assignment for the purpose of assessment. At the end of the course, there will be a final examination. The time of the final examination and venue shall be communicated to you through your study centre. Below are the components of the course and what you are required to do. COURSE MATERIALS Major components of this course include: 1. Course Guide 2. Study Units 3. Textbooks/References 4. Assignments File 5. Presentation Schedule It is incumbent upon you to get your copy of the course material. You are also advised to contact your tutorial facilitator, if you have any difficulty in getting any of the text materials recommended for your further reading. STUDY UNITS In this course, there are four modules. The first module is the introduction and general background of peace studies and conflict resolution. The second examines dynamics of conflict while the third looks at forceful/peaceful processes of conflict resolution. The fourth module presents practical trends in global issues. vi GST 202 COURSE GUIDE There are three modules in this course; each module contains five units. They are as listed below. Module 1 Basic Understanding of Conflict Unit 1 Definition Causes and Types of Conflict Unit 2 Conflict Theories Unit 3 Phases in Conflict Unit 4 Conflict Analysis Unit 5 Conflict Transformation Module 2 Dynamics of Conflict Unit 1 Relationship between Perception and Conflict Unit 2 Language Barriers in Conflict and Resolution Unit 3 Early Warning and Early Response Mechanism Unit 4 Arms Control and Demilitarisation Unit 5 Peace and Education Module 3 Trends in Global Issues Unit 1 International, Continental and Regional Organisations in the Pursuance of World Peace Unit 2 Peaceful Methods of Conflict Resolution I Unit 3 Peaceful Methods of Conflict Resolution II Unit 4 Coercive Means of Conflict Resolution Unit 5 Gender Issues and Humanitarian Intervention TEXTBOOKS/REFERENCES Best, S. G. (2006). Introduction to Peace and Conflict Studies in West Africa (ed.). Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. Otite, O. & Albert, I.O.(1999). Community Conflict in Nigeria: Management Resolution and Transformation (ed.). Ibadan:Spectrum Books Ltd. Albert, I. O. (2002). Introduction to Third-Party Intervention in Community Conflicts. Ibadan:John Archers Publisher Limited. Schimd, A. P. (2000). Thesaurus and Glossary of Early Warning Conflict Prevention Terms. Forum on Early Warning and Early Response. Goldberg, S. et al. (1992). Dispute Resolution; Negotiation, Mediation and Other Processes. Little, Brown and Co. vii GST 202 COURSE GUIDE Deutsch, M. A. (1973). The Resolution of Conflict. New Haven: Conn Yale. Lederach, J. P. (1996). Preparing for Peace; Conflict Transformation Across Culture.Syracuse: N.Y. Syracuse University Press. Pirouet, M. L. (1995). “The Effects of Conflict Human Rights and Refugees.” In Oliver Furley (Ed.). Conflict in Africa, Tanris Academic Studies, Publishers Inc. Mansson, K. (2005). “Integrating Human Rights in United Nations Peace Building Activities; Developing Gender Justice Best Practices” in Gender Justice in Post Conflict Countries in East, Central and Southern Africa. Advocacy Magazine, Centre for Human Rights, University of Pretoria UNIFEM. ASSIGNMENT FILE In this file, you will find the necessary details of the assignments you must submit to your tutor for assessment. The marks you get from these assignments will form part of your final assessment in this course. PRESENTATION SCHEDULE The presentation schedule included in your course materials gives you the important dates for the completion of tutor-marked assignments and attending tutorials. Remember, you are required to submit all your assignments by the due date. You should guard against falling behind in your work. ASSESSMENT There are two aspects to the assessment of the course. First are the tutor- marked assignments; second, there is a written examination. In tackling the assignments, you are expected to apply information and knowledge acquired during this course. The assignments must be submitted to your tutor for assessment in accordance with the deadlines stated in the assignment file. The work you submit to your tutor for assessment will count for 30 per cent of your total course mark. At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final three-hour examination. This will also count for 70 per cent of your total course mark. viii GST 202 COURSE GUIDE TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT There are twenty tutor-marked assignments in this course. You need to submit four assignments out which the best three will be used for your assessment. These three assignments shall be 30 per cent of your total course mark. Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the Assignment File. You should be able to complete your assignments from the information and materials contained in your set textbooks, reading and study units. However, you are advised to use other references to broaden your viewpoint and provide a deeper understanding of the subject. When you have completed each assignment, send it, together with tutor- marked assignment (TMA) file to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment gets to your tutor on or before the deadline. However, in case of being unable to complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the submission deadline of assignments elapses to discuss the possibility of an extension. FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING The final examination of GST 202 will be of three hours’ duration and have a value of 70 per cent of the total course grade. The examination shall consist of questions which reflect the type of self-testing, practice exercises and tutor-marked problems you have come across. All areas of the course will be assessed. You are advised to revise the entire course after studying the last unit before you sit for the examination. You will find it useful to review your tutor-marked assignments and the comments of your tutor on them before the final examination. COURSE MARKING SCHEME This table shows how the actual course marking is broken down. Table 1: Course Making Scheme Assessment Marks Assignment 1 – 4 Four assignments are to be submitted, out of which the three best shall be considered at 10% each, making 30% of the overall scores Final Examination 70% of overall course marks Total 100% of course marks ix GST 202 COURSE GUIDE COURSE OVERVIEW This table brings together the entire units contained in this course, the number of weeks you should take to complete them, and the assignments that follow. Table 2: Course Overview Unit Title Week’s Assessment Activity (end of unit) Course Guide 1 Module 1 Basic Understanding of Conflict 1 Definition Causes and Types of 1 Assignment 1 Conflict 2 Conflict Theories 2 Assignment 2 3 Phases in Conflict 2 Assignment 3 4 Conflict Analysis 3 Assignment 4 5 Conflict Transformation 4 Assignment 5 Module 2 Dynamics of Conflict 1 Relationship between Perception and 5 Assignment 6 Conflict 2 Language Barriers in Conflict and 6 Assignment 7 Resolution 3 Early Warning and Early Response 6 Assignment 8 Mechanism 4 Arms Control and Dimilitarisation 7 Assignment 9 5 Peace and Education 7 Assignment 10 Module 3 Trends in Global Issues 1 International, Continental and 8 Assignment 11 Regional Organisations in the Pursuance of World Peace 2 Peaceful Methods of Conflict 9 Assignment 12 Resolution I 3 Peaceful Methods of Conflict 10 Assignment 13 Resolution II 4 Coercive Means of Conflict 11 Assignment 14 Resolution 5 Gender Issues and Humanitarian 11 Assignment 15 Intervention Revision 17 Examination 18 x GST 202 COURSE GUIDE HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE In distance learning the study units replace the university lecturer. This is one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In this same way that a lecturer might set you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read your set of books or other materials. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your study units provide exercises for your to do at appropriate points. Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives shall let you know what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You should use these objectives to guide your study. When you have finished, the units you must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If you make a habit of doing this you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources. Remember that your tutor’s job is to assist you. When you need help, do not hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it. Read this Course Guide thoroughly. Organise a study schedule. Refer to the ‘Course Overview’ for more details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments related to the units. Whatever method you chose to use, you should decide on and write in your own dates for working on each unit. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that they get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late for help. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need xi GST 202 COURSE GUIDE for a unit is given in the ‘Overview’ at the beginning of each unit. You will almost always need both the study unit you are working on and one of your set books on your desk at the same time. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit you will be instructed to read sections from your set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your reading. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study material or consult your tutor. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives, you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep yourself on schedule. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the tutor- marked assignment form and also on what is written on the assignment. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions or problems. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide). FACILITATION/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS There are between eight hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. The dates, time and venue of these tutorials shall be communicated to you. The name and phone number of your tutor will be made known to you immediately you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutor- marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board if you need help. You will definitely benefit a lot by doing that. Contact your tutor if: xii GST 202 COURSE GUIDE you do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings, you have difficulty with the self-tests or exercises, you have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor’s comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment. You should make an effort to attend the tutorials. Thus, it is the only opportunity you have to enjoy face to face contact with your tutor and to ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in discussion actively. SUMMARY GST 202 aims to expose you to basic concepts, ideas, themes, perspectidge of peace studies and conflict resolution. Finally, you are advised to read the course material appreciably well in order to prepare fully and not to be caught pants down by the final examination questions. So, we sincerely wish you success in your academic career as you will find this course GST 202 very interesting. You should always avoid examination malpractices! xiii MAIN COURSE CONTENTS PAGE Module 1 Basic Understanding of Conflict…………. 1 Unit 1 Definition Causes and Types of Conflict….. 1 Unit 2 Conflict Theories…………………………… 9 Unit 3 Phases in Conflict………………………….. 21 Unit 4 Conflict Analysis…………………………… 33 Unit 5 Conflict Transformation……………………. 49 Module 2 Dynamics of Conflict……………………… 66 Unit 1 Relationship between Perception and Conflict……………………………………… 66 Unit 2 Language Barriers in Conflict and Resolution………………………………….... 74 Unit 3 Early Warning and Early Response Mechanism…………………………………... 84 Unit 4 Arms Control and Demilitarisation…………. 91 Unit 5 Peace and Education………………………… 101 Module 3 Trends in Global Issues…………………….. 117 Unit 1 International, Continental and Regional Organisations in the Pursuance of World Peace. ………………………………… 117 Unit 2 Peaceful Methods of Conflict Resolution I…. 131 Unit 3 Peaceful Methods of Conflict Resolution II… 140 Unit 4 Coercive Means of Conflict Resolution…….. 149 Unit 5 Gender Issues and Humanitarian Intervention…………………………………… 158 GST 202 MODULE 1 MODULE 1 BASIC UNDERSTANDING OF CONFLICT Unit 1 Definition, Causes and Types of Conflict Unit 2 Conflict Theories Unit 3 Phases in Conflict Unit 4 Conflict Analysis Unit 5 Conflict Trasformation UNIT 1 DEFINITION, CAUSES AND TYPES OF CONFLICT CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Conceptual Definition and Historical Background of Conflict 3.2 Causes of Conflict 3.3 Types of Conflict 3.4 Classification of Conflict 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION The word “conflict” is as old as mankind. This is because the word has been in existence in all spheres of human life since the inception of the world. In the recent past, the world socio-political environs have been on the boil despite the colossal amount of human and material resources expended on global peace and conflict management by several nations, states, regional organisations and the United Nations (UN). Rather than t global crisis diminishing in spite of the several steps taken, it is becoming more virulent and destructive because it has continued to drain the energy and man power resources of the troubled spots if not the entire world and emasculate governance. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should able to: identify the origin of the word “conflict” define conflict in your own words 1 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION discuss causes of conflict explain types of conflict. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Historical Background and Conceptual Definition of Conflict The word “conflict” is derived from the Latin word confligere, meaning to “strike together.” Lexically, according to Webster Dictionary, Vol. 1, 1971,conflict means : to strike, to dasy. A fight, struggle or battle, clash, contention, confrontation, a controversy or quarrel, active opposition, strife or incompatibility, to meet in opposition or hostility, to contend, to be contrary or to be at variance. Conflict also means contradiction arising from differences in interests, ideas, ideologies, orientations, beliefs, perceptions and tendencies. Although, conflict is a normal, natural and inevitable phenomenon in any interactive situation of human life, contradictions exists at all levels of the society – intra – psychic/personal, interpersonal, intra – groups, inter – group, institution, intra – national and international. Conflict is not necessarily negative in itself. It is often a by – product of social change and may lead to constructive transformation. Many scholars have come up with different definitions, concepts, views or school of thoughts of conflicts from a more intellectual platform all over the world. Quicy Wright (1990:19) defines conflict as opposition among social entities directed against one another, it distinguished competition and defined it as opposition among social entities independently striving for something of which the resources are inadequate to satisfy all. Competitors may not be aware of one another, while they are parties to a conflict. Two points which are directly related to conflict analysis and management can be deduced from this definition. One is that contrary to the old perspective which regards conflict as national, it is not inevitable, only competition can be so regarded. Secondly, conflict and competition are two points of a continuum on which conflict represents aggravated competition. In order words conflict arises when disagreement emerging from competition cannot be resolved. It follows therefore that conflict management has to begin with 2 GST 202 MODULE 1 and include management of supposedly simple competition. The other point that can be inferred from Wright’s definition is that conflicts are themselves processes that tend to degenerate from non-violent to violent and from crisis to full-scale war. Conflict take on a wide variety of forms and have been classified based on the intensity or scale of violence, structural and character of parties in conflict ( such as class, ethnic, groups, religious group, racial group, and so on) and manifesting a distinct spatial character ( such as national, regional, inter-state or international). However, non-violent conflict has the potential to become violent if the regulatory mechanism is ineffective. Wright also opines that war is a type of conflict, thus, by understanding conflict we may learn about the probable characteristics of war under different conditions and methods most suitable for regulating, preventing, and winning wars. Wright proceeds to give two senses in which war could be understood, that is, in the legal sense, war is considered a situation during which two or more political groups are equally entitled to settle conflict by armed force. Whereas in the sociological sense, which is of ordinary usage, war refers to conflicts among political groups carried on by armed forces of considerable magnitude. Kriesberg (1973:17) simply defines conflict as “…… a relationship between two or more parties who….. believe they have incompatible goals.” Stagner defines conflict as “…a situation in which two or more human beings desire goals which they perceived as being obtainable by one or the other, but not both… each party is mobilising energy to obtain a goal, a desired object or situation, and each party perceives the other as a barrier or treat to that goal.” Ross (1993 6:xiv) notes that: “If disadvantaged groups and individuals refuse to consider open conflict, they deny themselves what sometimes is their most effective means for bringing about needed change”. Rose therefore saw nothing wrong in conflict, he saw it as a natural and inevitable human experience and as a critical mechanism by which goals and aspirations of individual and groups are articulated, it is a channel for the definition of creative solutions to human problems and a means to the development of a collective identity. What Ross is trying to infer is that without conflict we cannot have change. Similarly, Laue (1990:256-7) tries to disabuse our minds about the dysfunctional perception of conflict. He notes that: 3 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION conflict is not deviant, pathological, or sick behaviour per-se. It is not the opposite of order….. There is orderliness in conflict, although conflict can become disorderly. And it can be a very helpful and useful part of society. What to be feared is destructive conflicts (that is, conflict that have started producing negative results) rather than conflict itself. Action Aid (1994) and Hoivik and Meijer (1994) see conflict as “incompatible behaviour between parties whose interests are or appear to be, incompatible or clashing.” Two things could be taken from these simple definitions. The first is that conflict emanates from (social) relationships. The conflicting group must groups must reside in close proximity whether physically or psychologically. 3.2 Causes of Conflict As earlier mentioned, conflict is inevitable and it keeps occurring in every individual life, either at home, work, social outings or even when we sleep in our bedroom without interacting with anyone. Although, we are familiar with those inexhaustible things that cause conflicts, but in this context, they can be categorised into four namely: conflicts over resources conflicts over psychological needs conflicts involving values conflicts over inadequate information Conflicts over Resources These types of conflicts are usually easy to identify because they can be seen and are more potentially easy to resolve. This conflict occurs when two or more people are competing for inadequate (or perceived to be inadequate) resources over a period of time. The competition may assume negative or destructive dimension when the available resources are not evenly and judiciously distributed. The relatively deprived would always struggle to improve their lot. This view agrees with the Marxian theory of conflict, which posits that the more the rate of unequal distribution of scarce resources in the society, the greater is the basic conflict of interest between its dominant and subordinate segments. He also says that when practices of dominant segment create “alienation dispositions” the more the subordinate segments of a system become aware of their collective interests and question the distribution of scarce resources, the more likely they are to join in overt conflict against dominant segment of a system. Resources that cause conflict include 4 GST 202 MODULE 1 landed properties, money, vehicles, and company ownership/shares among others. Conflict over Psychological Needs Conflicts over psychological needs of groups and individuals are conflicts which cannot be seen but affect the psyche of the individual and group self-actualisation, need for individual and group respect, attempt to project one’s group to be better than the others. With particular reference to Maslow’s theory, he points out that when an individual psychological need is achieved or satisfied, such an individual becomes dominated by a drive for the other unsatisfied needs through a process he calls “Fulfillment Progression”. Example includes structural factor, politics, personality clash, and ethnicity. Conflict Involving Values Contradicting value systems such as religious beliefs, ideological positions, and general worldview is another factor responsible for social conflict among the interacting parties. Conflict involving values are the most difficult to understand and resolve because most times people could die for what they believe in. According to Weaver, who likens culture to an iceberg, he says “internal culture”, is implicitly learnt and difficult to change. That is part of culture that is below the waterline in the iceberg analogy. It includes some of our beliefs, our values and thought patterns, attitudes, non-verbal communication and perception. Beliefs are interrelated and form “belief system”, which because they are learnt in life, are difficult to change. Examples of values laden conflicts include the Cold War, terrorism (suicide bombing), religious conflicts such as 1980 Maitatsine crisis, the 1991 Bonnke crisis in Kano, the 2002 Beauty Pageant crisis. Others include the September 30, 2005 Cartoon crisis over a Danish newspaper, Jyllands Posten, published cartoons caricaturing Prophet Mohammad, the most recent of all the religious crisis in Nigeria is the Boko Haram crisis that has killed an estimated 3,500 people. Conflict over Information The last but not the least of the factors causing conflict in any society is “manipulation of information”. The pivotal role of information in societal conflict cannot be over-emphasised, they can either be manipulative or constructive. Especially in a widespread conflict situation, the role of information becomes more crucial, difficult and dangerous. When the information system in a society is tampered with, there is bound to be conflict. The information system can be tampered with in different ways. This can be either by feeding people with lies or 5 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION giving the right information at the wrong time. In our contemporary societies, the quantity and quality of information vary dramatically and are dependent on wide range of factors, from level of literacy to social cohesiveness and stability to available technology. Central to the availability and quality of public information is the media (print, audio and audio-visual). Also, in deeply divided societies, the media can also shape opinion and decisions related to the nature and scope of conflicts, as well as the potential alternatives to conflict, where social, political and economic conflict have degenerated into widespread violence, the role of information in mitigating the effects of violence or in presenting alternatives can be crucial. Because communication is an integral part of conflict, it comes as no surprise that those participating in organised violence often use the media to attack opponents, and “spread disinformation or misinformation” and “rally external and internal support.” Some of the communication barriers that are capable of distorting meanings are physical distance, language, and the listeners value judgement. 3.3 Types of Conflict It is important that we know types of conflict we encounter in our day-to -day activities. There are numerous kinds of conflicts but we will limit ourselves to the following:. a. Intra-Personal Conflict: This type of conflict occurs within an individual. Examples of such are use of time, choice of partner, moral questions, goals and aspirations. b. Inter-Personal Conflict : This refers to conflict between two or more individuals over an issue. c. Intra-Group Conflict: This refers to conflict between individuals, or faction within a group. d. Inter-Group Conflict: This refers to conflict between groups such as club, class versus class, family versus family. e. National Conflict: This refers to conflicts within a nation, involving different groups within the nation. This could be interethnic, inter-religious, or competition for resources. 6 GST 202 MODULE 1 f. International Conflict: This refers to conflicts between nations. This could be for ideological reasons, territorial claims, and political competition. 3.4 Classification of Conflict Ted Robert Gurr, in his article “A Comparative of Civil Strife” and Quincy Wright in his paper “The Nature of Conflict” rightly argue that the level of violence rather than its absence or presence is a better criterion for classifying conflicts. Wright for instance distinguishes between “ordinary” conflict which involves small-scale violence usually at the individual and group levels and war, which is carried out by armed forces and involves violence of considerable magnitude. Similarly, Gurr distinguishes between “turmoil,” which includes both non-violent and small-scale violent conflict and rebellion or internal war. The point in this latter classification is that notwithstanding their peculiarities, conflicts differ largely in degree rather than kind and should therefore be analysed in terms of continuum which has non- violent conflict at one end and violent ones at the other. This enables us to pay close attention to the possible escalation or worsening of conflicts, sometimes a simple non-violent/violent classification appears to shape the other. Another popular classification categorises conflict into structural and non-structural conflicts. Structural conflicts which tend to be endemic are those which are predisposed by the innate character of the polity. Typically, they result from “unjust repressive and oppressive sociopolitical structure”. Structural factors also include inequality among groups in obtaining access to socioeconomic and political privileges and benefits such as education, income distribution, unemployment, and control of political power, as well as low levels of national integration which encourage “zero-sum” context for state power. Defined in such terms, Wherp, in his work “Conflict Resolution” opines that most conflicts in Africa are endemic by definition to the extent that the predisposing factors are not embedded in the political system. They result from specific policies or actions by the state or groups and do not generally last for too long. The third classification of conflicts is based on the character of the parties in conflicts. Thus, ethnic and religious conflicts (which are most prevalent in Africa) tend to be the most important bases of identity for 7 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION most individuals and as such attract strong loyalties to the groups involved. 4.0 CONCLUSION In the light of the above discussion on the concept of conflict, we can deduce that conflict is inevitable in human life, but the degree or intensity of conflicts is determined by the attitude or mode of approaches adopted by the parties involved. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit, historical background and various definitions of conflicts postulated by different scholars were critically examined, which various causes and types of conflict were discussed to facilitate proper understanding of the concept. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT i. Critically discuss the concept conflict from your own perspective. ii. Is conflict negative or positive to human existence? Discuss. iii. Can conflict be totally eradicated? Discuss. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Ball, C. & Dunn, L. (1996). Non-Governmental Organizations: Guidelines for Good Policy and Practice. London: The Commonwealth Foundation. Drukkman, D. (1993). “An Analytical Research Agenda for Conflict and Conflict Resolution.” In Dennis J. D. Samdole and Hugo Vander Marwe (Eds.), Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice: Integration and Application. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press. Folger, J. P. (1997). Working Through Conflict: Strategies for Relationships. New York. 8 GST 202 MODULE 1 UNIT 2 CONFLICT THEORIES CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Conflict Theories from Sociological Perspective 3.1.1 Karl Marx Theory 3.1.2 Max Weber Theory 3.1.3 Conflict-Theory Models of Dahrendorf 3.1.4 Pluralist Perspective of Conflict 3.1.5 Structural – Functional Theory 3.1.6 The Theory of Structural Balance 3.1.7 Assumption on Ethnicity and Conflict 3.1.8 Assumption on Culture and Conflict 3.1.9 The Role Theories of Turner 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION It is important for you to learn about the theories and empirical studies conducted by scholars or researchers in the area of social conflicts to have comprehensive understanding of the various school of thoughts and their diverse views and opinions in this unit. The rationale for the study of these theories is to enable you identify the strengths and weakness of the previous work done in the past in relation to the protracted contemporary issues of social conflicts coupled with arrays of various emerging conflicts at all levels of every society worldwide. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: categorise different conflict theories analyse the various conflict theories identify and relate one or more conflict theories to different conflicts facing the human race. 9 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Conflict Theories from Sociological Perspective 3.1.1 Karl Marx Theory Marx the great social philosopher opines that the degree of inequality in the distribution of resources generates inherent conflicts of interest. He explains that contradiction in capitalist modes of economic production and how these would lead to conflict processes that would usher in communism via a revolutionary action that would be carried out by the proletariats (the ruled). Although, his predictions were wrong, perhaps because of some fatal errors in his logic, but his analysis is still very much useful, applicable and relevant to most of the conflicts being experienced the world over. Karl Marx views that the more the rate or degree of inequality in the distribution of the relatively available or the scarce resources in the society, the greater is the basic conflict of interest between its dominant and subordinate segments. The more the subordinate segments (proletariat) become aware of their true collective interests, the more likely they are to question the legitimacy of the existing pattern of distribution or allocation of scarce resources. Also the subordinates are more likely to become aware of their true collective interest when changes wrought by dominant segments disrupt existing relations among subordinates, practices of dominant segments create “alienative dispositions”, members of subordinate segments can communicate their grievances to one another, which, in turn, is facilitated by the ecological concentration among members of subordinate groups, and the expansion of educational opportunities for members of subordinate group. Marx also exerts that the more the subordinate segments at a system become aware of their collective interests and question the legitimacy of the distribution of scarce resources, the more likely they are to join in overt conflict against dominant segments of a system. The greater is the ideological unification of members of subordinate segment of a system and the more developed is their political leadership structure, the more likely are the interests and relations between dominant and subjugated segments of a society to become polarised and irreconcilable. The more polarised are the dominant and subjugated, the more will the conflict be violent. The more violent is the conflict, the greater is the amount of structural change within a society and the greater is the redistribution of scarce resources. 10 GST 202 MODULE 1 3.1.2 Max Weber Theory Weber sees conflict as highly contingent on the emergence of “charismatic leaders” who could mobilise subordinates. He opined that subordinates are more likely to pursue conflict with super ordinates when they withdraw legitimacy from political authority when the correlation among members in class, status, group, and political hierarchies is high, the discontinuity or degrees of inequality in the resource distribution within social hierarchies is high, and when social mobility and social hierarchies of power, prestige, and wealth are low. Conflict between super ordinates and subordinates becomes more likely when charismatic leaders can mobilise resentment of subordinates. When charismatic leaders are successful in conflict, pressure mounts to routinise authority through new systems of rules and administration. As a system of rules and administrative authority is imposed, the more likely are new subordinates to withdraw legitimacy from political authority and to pursue conflict with the new super ordinates, especially when new traditional and ascriptive forms of political domination are imposed by elites. 3.1.3 Conflict-Theory Model of Dahrendorf Dahrendorf (1958) introduces to the theory of conflict the view of productive and constructive conflict. He sees conflict as necessary for achieving an end in the society or for realisation of social goals. He holds that social conflict produces change in the system which is necessary and good. Dahrendorf’s attempt was to determine a systematic locus and a specific framework for a theory of conflict in sociological analysis. He contends for two different kinds of struggles in an organisation. He calls them “exogenous” and “endogenous” conflicts. The endogenous conflict is the conflict that is generated with an organisation, system or a society. In this, he agreed with Marx that internal conflict comes from the present social structure. He went beyond the internal dynamics of conflict to allow for external factors, which he called exogenous conflict. This also influences social change. In order words, exogenous conflict is brought upon or into a system from the outside. The theory asserts that certain conflicts are based on certain social structural arrangements and hence are bound to arise whenever such structural arrangements are given. Furthermore, the dichotomy of social roles within imperatively coordinated groups, and the division into positive and negative dominance riles are fails of social structure. Here are the assumptions 11 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION for the structural arrangement which could lead to conflict as Dahrendorf presents in his conflict theory model. In every imperatively coordinated group, the carriers of positive (status quo) and the negative (change of status quo) dominant roles determined two quasi-groups with opposite latent interest. The bearers of positive and negative dominant roles organise themselves into groups with manifest interests unless certain empirically variable conditions intervene. Interest groups which originate in this manner are in constant conflict concerned with the preservation or change in the status quo. The conflict among interest groups in the sense of this model leads to changes in the structure of the social relations in question through changes in the dominant relations. 3.1.4 Pluralist Perspective of Conflict The advocates of the pluralist school of thought such as Hugh Clegg et al, holds a different view about conflict. The school views conflict as having a constructive contribution towards what is defined as healthy industrial order. Thus, given the appropriate institutions of regulation, the overt and active manifestation of conflict resolves discontent, reduces tension, clarifies power relation and adjusts the industrial structure. Accordingly, it creates as many solidarity groups as it devices and re-embodies the principles of self-determination. The pluralist school emerged as a criticism to the political doctrine of sovereignity, the notion that in an independent political system, there must be a final authority whose decision is supreme. Contrary to this assumption, the pluralists believed that within any political system, there are groups with their own interests and beliefs and the government itself depends on their consent, loyalty and cooperation to survive. Rather than existence of a definitive decision by final authorities, this theory contends that there are instead only continuous (conflicts, antagonisms) and compromises. In essence, a plural social or industrial relation has to accommodate different and divergent pressure groups in order to ensure that the differing group interests are harmonised such that social and political changes take place peacefully. Thus, to the pluralists, same is achievable through continuous negotiation, concession and compromises within and among these pressure (interest) groups and between the authorities. 12 GST 202 MODULE 1 Given these backgrounds, and based on expositions of the functionalist and the pluralist schools, and their identification of the place of effective communication in the prevention and management of industrial conflicts, as evident on the need for clear communication, understanding, continuous dialogues, negotiation, concession and compromises within and among the differing groups in the work place, institution or society. 3.1.5 Structural – Functional Theory Talcott Parson (1960) champions the course of this theory after the World War II. The structural functionalist asserted/projected that individuals will adjust to a given structure in an organisation institution or society. Any change in the structure of the organisation or institution causes conflict and it destabilises the organisation. Conflict should then be minimised in order to maintain stability with both the individual as well as the institutions. The theory reflects a system approach where each part has one or more functions to perform. The theory sees conflict as dysfunctional, abnormal, and a disease which can be endemic to a society. It focuses on things that will maintain the state of equilibrium and collaboration in the organisation. 3.1.6 The Theory of Structural Balance Helder (1958) in this theory states that Ego tends to like whom his friend like, but dislike whom his enemy like. Also Ego tends to dislike whom he dislike, and likes whom his enemy dislikes. This non-rational approach to theory of conflict has the following assumptions according to Mazur (1968). For any three persons or groups, there are four trials: like – dislike, support – conflict, conformity – divergence, and positive identity – negative identity. All these tend to balance. Within any triad, an increase in magnitude of one sign leads to an increase in magnitude of all signs. Relationship of like, support, conformity, and positive identity tend to coincide. On the other hand, the relationship of dislike, conflict, divergence and negative identity tend to coincide. The tendency increases with increasing intensity of the signs, and consonant relationship increase together. 13 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION Assumption on Ethnicity and Conflict According to Person, Novak, and Gleason (1982:1), the word “ethnic” was derived via Latin from the Greek ethnos, which means “nation or race”. Ethnicity has been viewed since the earliest times in terms of a group setting associated with the idea of nationhood. But in recent years, the instrumentalists’ view of ethnicity and ethnic conflicts in Africa and the rest of the world hold that “ethnicity is not a natural cultural residue but a consciously crafted ideological creation”, ethnic conflicts result from the manipulations of the (radical) elite who incite and distort ethnic/nationalist consciousness into an instrument to pursue their personal ambitions. The problem with the theory despite the fact that it contains some validity is that, it almost ignores completely the core motives and elements in ethnic conflicts such as the roles of fear and group psychology and importance of symbolic controversies which are often less comprehensible to the “outsider”. Thomson (2000:58) defines an ethnic group as “a community of people who have the conviction that they have a common identity and common fate based on issues of origin, kinship, ties, traditions, cultural uniqueness, a shared history and possibly a shared language.” Toland (1993:3) basically agrees with Thomson in her conception of an ethnic group, but takes it one step further by adding a sense of longing on the individual level: “…(ethnicity is) the sense of people- hood held by members of a group sharing a common culture and history within a society.” Bamass argues the assumption “ethnicity and nationalism are not ‘givens’, but are social and political constructions. They are the creations of elites, who draw upon distorted and sometimes fabricated materials from the cultures of the groups they wish to represent in order to protect their wellbeing or existence or to gain political and economic advantage for their groups as well as for themselves… this process invariably involves competition and conflict for political power, economic benefits, and social status between the political elite, class, and leadership groups both within and among different ethnic categories” (Kruger 1993: 11). In the light of the discussion above, it is important to note that mere differences in values or regional development, or between ethnic groups for that matter, do not as such promote ethnicity and ethnic conflict, according to Kruger (1993:12). Quoting Brass, he states “… Ethnic self- consciousness, ethnically based demands, and ethnic conflict can occur 14 GST 202 MODULE 1 if there is some conflict either between indigenous and external elites and authorities or between indigenous elites.” Nevertheless, the assumption on ethnicity and conflict therefore, states that, “ethnic identity has a symbolic dimension which makes conflict arising from it more intense than otherwise. Ethnicity has the symbolic capability of defining for individual the totality of his existence including his hopes, fears and sense of the future. Any action or thought that is perceived to undermine the ethnic group which include those that diminish its status in the eyes of the members evokes very hostile and some times violent response.” An aggressive and murderous ethnic militia man may even believe that his very existence is threatened by the perceived injury to his ethnic group. Similarly, a poor villager believes that a cabinet minister from his village represents his own interest and share of the national cake even though he may never receive any personal material reward as a result of the appointment. 3.1.7 Assumption on Culture and Conflict Culture simply means the sum-total of all human existence which comprises norms, values, traditions, beliefs, customs, languages, patterns of behaviours, art music, food, mode of dressing and so on. Cultures have been delineated along a number of dimensions by various writers such as: Glen Fisher, in an interesting book called Mindsets and in his chapter in Weaver’s book (1998:140) characterises two kinds of societies: those based on achievement and those on ascription. Those described as “achievement” emphasise doing, in contrast to being, which describes “ascriptive” societies. The former value change and action, whereas the latter value stability and harmony. Weaver (1998:72-74) likens culture to an iceberg, in which only the tip is seen above the water line. The part that is obvious is the external culture, which is explicitly learned, is conscious and more easily changed. The external culture includes many of the elements that we normally think of as “culture”: music, literature, drama, foods, dress, customs, and verbal communications. These are all aspects of “behaviour”. External culture may also include some of our beliefs, such as religion and explicit ethnics. These aspects of culture are all obvious to a newcomer. However, there is also an internal culture, which is implicitly learned and difficult to change. That is the part which is below the waterline in the iceberg analogy. It includes some of our beliefs, our values and thought patterns, attitudes, non-verbal communication, and perceptions. Beliefs are 15 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION interrelated and form “belief system”, which because they are learnt early in life, are difficult to change. It is also difficult to perceive and fully understand the internal culture of someone from a different group. Yet it is this part of culture that defines who we are and what really is important to us. Because we are often unaware of these elements it is difficult to articulate them to others, even to those whom we love. And we most unlikely to expose our inner-selves to someone with whom we are in conflict. Geert Hofstede in Weaver 1998:148-158 describes four dimensions by which he placed a number of societies on graphs. Two are particularly relevant o conflict transformation (p.149): Power distance – defines the extent to which the less powerful person in a society accepts inequality in power and considers it normal. All societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others. Individualism – opposes collectivism (in the anthropological sense). Individualist cultures assume individuals look primarily after their own interest and those of their immediate family. Collectivist cultures assume that individuals – through birth and possibly later events – belong to one or more close “in-groups” from which they cannot detach themselves. A collectivist society is tightly integrated; an individualist society is loosely integrated. Hofstede characterises American and Northern European societies as generally having low power distance and high individualism. Many African and Latin American societies have large power distance and low individualism. Some of the Southern European societies are in the middle with large power distance and medium individualism. John Paul Lederach, probably one of the best known theorists and practitioners in the field of conflict transformation today, posits that “social conflict emerges and develops on the basis of the meaning and interpretation people involved attach to action and events. Social meaning is lodged in the accumulated knowledge, that is a person’s bank of knowledge” (1995:8). Conflict is related to meaning, meaning to knowledge, and knowledge is rooted in culture. People act on the basis of the meaning that things have for them. The symbolic interactionist, Herbert Blummer (1969) emphasises the importance of symbols and meanings attach to them. Therefore, Ladarach’s assumptions (1995:9- 10) can simply be liberally summarised as follows. Social conflict is a natural, common experience present in all relationships and cultures. 16 GST 202 MODULE 1 Conflict is a socially constructed cultural event, people active participants in creating situations and interactions they experience as conflict. Conflict emerges through an interactive process based on the search for and creation of shared meaning. The interactive process is accomplished through and rooted in people’s perceptions, interpretations, expressions, and intentions, each of which grows from the cycles back to their common sense knowledge. Meaning occurs as people locate themselves and social “things” such as situations, events, and actions in their accumulated knowledge. A person’s common sense and accumulated experience and knowledge are the primary basis of how he creates, understands and responds to conflict. Culture is rooted in the shared knowledge and schemes created and used by a set of people for perceiving interpreting, expressing and responding to social realities around them. However the term “culture” is often linked with ethnicity, as both the external and internal cultures are often determined by our ethnic groups, along with influences from the larger world through socialisation, education, the media and exposure to a different way of thinking and behaviour. We talk about “the culture of violence”, “the culture peace”, “the culture of poverty”, “the culture of corruption”, “corporate culture” and so on as they pervade different societies in various or different forms. 3.1.8 The Role Theories of Turner Role is defined as that set of activities associated with any given position in an organisation, which include potential behaviours in that position, and not only those of the incumbent in question. Although Turner accepts a process orientation, he was committed to developing interactionism into “something akin to axiomatic theory”. He recognised that role theory was segmented into a series of narrow propositions and hypotheses and that role theorist had been reluctant “to find unifying themes to link various role processes.” Turner’s strategy was to use propositions from the numerous research studies to build more formal and abstract theoretical statements. He therefore, sought series of statements that highlight what tends to occur in the normal operation systems of interaction. To this end, Turner 17 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION provided a long list of main tendency propositions on (a) roles as they emerge, (b) roles as an interactive framework, (c) roles in relation to actors, (d) roles in societal settings, (e) roles in organisational settings, and (f) roles and the person. The most important of these propositions to this study are examined below. Role as an Interactive Framework The establishment and persistence of interaction tend to depend on the emergence and identification of ego and alter roles. Each role tends to form as a comprehensive way of coping with one or more relevant alters roles. There is a tendency for stabilised roles to be assigned the character of legitimate expectations and to be seen as the appropriate way to behave in a situation. (Tendency for legitimate expectations). In these three additional propositions, interaction is seen as depending on the identification of roles. Moreover, roles tend to be complements of others as in parent/child, boss/employee roles – and this operate to regularise interaction among complementary roles. Role in Societal Settings Similar roles in different contexts tend to become merged, so they are identified as a single role recurring in different relationships. (Tendency for economy of roles). To the extent that roles refer to more general social contexts and situations differentiation tends to link roles to social values. (Tendency for value anchorage). The individual in the society tends to be assigned and to assume roles consistent with one another. (Tendency for allocation consistency). Many roles are identified, assumed, and imputed in relation to a broader societal context. Turner first argued that people tend to group behaviour in different social context into as few unifying roles as is possible or practical. This people will identify a role as a way of making sense of disparate behaviour in different contexts. At the societal level, values are the equivalent of goals in organisational settings for identifying, differentiating, allocating, evaluating, and legitimating roles. Finally, people tend to assume multiple that are consistent with one another. 18 GST 202 MODULE 1 Role of Business in Conflict Situations Widening communities of business actors around the world is moving to adopt new approaches to corporate social responsibilities, and a “triple bottom line” of profitability, social and environmental responsibilities. Under the right conditions, the private sector may be able to help prevent violent conflict. Like public and aid supported investments, the private sector needs to be guided by an informed commitment to guard against side effects of its investments which may have negative impacts on the “structural stability” of the local and national host society, and plan for ways in which it can ensure the maximum positive benefits. Business – local, small and medium – sized enterprises, multinationals and large national companies – can play a useful role in conflict situations. Conflict implies higher risks and costs for businesses, and it is therefore, in the interest of most businesses to support efforts that prevent, resolve or avoid exacerbating conflicts. It thus becomes imperative for each and every business enterprises/organisations to support peace making and peace building activities. It is only under a peaceful atmosphere and environment that the “corporate culture” of any organisation could be accomplished. Challenges include how to: develop a sufficiently long – term perspective to promote sustainable development and help reduce conflict, and strike a balance between long–term thinking and short–term investment horizons, with the need for quick returns in unstable situations. understand the roles of some trade actors or networks in causing or exacerbating conflict – in particular in extractive industries (diamond, oil, forest products, and others) that are major sources of revenue for warring parties and arms sellers. encourage big business to stimulate local development, job creation and basic social infrastructure, especially in remote areas. This can contribute to long – term social stability and improved local livelihoods. link the social investment programmes that are sometime supported by companies, in particular in the health or education sectors, to wider development and conflict concerns. harness the potential role of companies as powerful players who could use their influence positively on political actors not only to negotiate immediate conditions for their investments but also to avert violent conflicts. 19 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION ensure that the use by companies of public security agents and military personnel to secure installations and protect staff is not at the expense of the local population, and that illegitimate armed groups or the youth are not being inadvertently supported or financed by them. 4.0 CONCLUSION However, the conflict theories from sociological perspective have exposed us to various views, opinions, ideologies and assertions propounded by different scholars about how conflicts emerge or arise among individuals during the course of social interaction at the individual, institution and societal levels. 5.0 SUMMARY This unit has considered some of sociological theories of conflict. The first and second theories discussed were propounded by Karl Marx and Max Weber. Dahrendorf’s conflict theory models, pluralist perspective of conflict and theory of structural balance were also examined. Assumption on ethnicity and conflict, culture and conflict and role theories of Turner were also explained in order to broaden your knowledge and to expose you to various multidimensional theories of conflict. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT i. Justify the relevance of Karl Marx’s theory to modern day conflicts. ii. Explain the relationship between culture and conflict. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Burton, J. (1990). Conflict: Resolution and Prevention. London: Macmillan. Cohen, P. S. (1968). Modern Social Theory. London: Heinemann. Coser, L. (n.d). The Functions of Social Conflict. New York: Free Press. Gurr, T. R. (1970). Why Men Rebel. Princeton University Press. Yates, A. (1962). Frustration and Conflict. London: Methuen. 20 GST 202 MODULE 1 UNIT 3 PHASES IN CONFLICT CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Stages of Conflict and Conflict Cycle 3.1.1 Stages of Conflict 3.1.2 Conflict Cycle 3.2 Conflict Energy 3.3 Conflict Handling Styles 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION A beginner in the field of peace studies and conflict resolution usually perceives or sees conflict as something negative that should be avoided like the plague. Although, due to individual differences, conflict is an inevitable and recurrent fact of life. We should therefore develop our understanding of conflict and its positive management. The Chinese do not see conflict as negative in their language; rather, they see conflict as “an opportunity or chance for change as well as risk or danger.” Therefore, conflict is neither positive nor negative; however, how it turns out to be is determined by our response, which is a function of our perception, attitude, background and the environments. Knowing the root causes of conflicts does not automatically proffer solution or clue on how to prevent or resolve them, as the inherent dynamic of conflicts tend to give them a Life of their own. Conflict tends to emerge/evolve in a cyclical pattern, often with several vicious cycles that are closely entertained. Even a removal of the original problems may not guarantee an end to a conflict, as additional conflict is being generated by the conflict itself. However, having a positive approach to conflict help one to manage it in a constructive manner with positive results while people with negative connotation of conflict tend to handle conflicts in a destructive way with negative effects. Each conflict situation contains certain predictable elements and dynamics that are amendable to regulation and change. There are two 21 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION key propelling variables in conflict (escalation) cycle: opportunity and willingness. Opportunity This has to do with the available resources at the disposal of a person, group or a country such as money, people, arms, land, minerals, good organisation, external support and so on. Willingness This is desire or need to act. This is a situation whereby a group of people are determined and convinced to embark on an action aimed at changing their situation irrespective of the likely consequences. Both the opportunity and willingness are complimentary in nature in the sense that one may have the means to act but may not be willing to do so or the willingness to act may be there but the means is lacking. In the light of the above, for conflict to move from one stage to the other, both must be present because they are dependent on each other. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: explain dynamism of conflict discuss stages of conflict or conflict cycle present two sides of conflict energy state various forms of conflict handling styles. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Conflict Cycle and Stages of Conflict Conflict tend to progress from one place to another when the stakeholders (the oppressed and the oppressor) become more aware of a conflict of interest, means to act and then mobilise to alter the prevailing situation to each group advantage. In the course of altering the situation or addressing the injustice being faced by the oppressed, a sporadic violence can erupt if either parties should fail to adopt positive approach of conflict management. 3.1.1 Stages of Conflict The following are the various stages of conflicts emerging in different parts of the world. 22 GST 202 MODULE 1 3 Violent Crisis 2 ESCALATION STAGE 4 De-escalation Stage Improvement 5 Stage 1 Formation Stage (Early Warning Signs ) Transformation 6 Stage Source: Conflict Resolution Stakeholders’ Network (CRESNET) Training Manual 2001. STAGES A. The Formation Stage This is the first stage of conflict whereby a problem emerges and acts or things, or situations that were previously ignored or taken for granted now turn to serious issues. The obvious antagonistic shifts in attitude and a behaviour patterns is a clear indication of the early warning signs of conflict formation, which need to be addressed if further escalation is to be avoided. B. The Escalation Stage This stage is characterised by the formation of enemy images. People begin to take sides, positions harden, communication stops, perception becomes distorted and parties begin to commit resources to defend their position, leaders begin to make inflammatory public statements regarding their positions and street demonstrations intensity. 23 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION C. The Crisis Stage At this stage, parties in conflict now begin to use physical barricades to demarcate their territories. Attempts to defend or expand territories or interests lead to direct confrontation and eruption of violence. Stockpiled weapons or arms are now freely used in an attempt to dominate or have upper hand leading to breakdown of law and order and essential. Services are virtually disrupted and people begin to experience discomfort due to lack of water, food, electricity and other essential goods and services. D. De-escalation Stage This is the stage in which parties in conflict begin to experience gradual cessation of hostility arising from conflict weariness, hunger, sanctions or external intervention. E. Improvement Stage At this stage, stakeholders begin to have a rethink, shift ground and needs for dialogue are recognised and efforts are made towards attaining relative peace. F. Transformation Stage All causes of conflicts have been removed at this stage and reconciliation has occurred. This stage is the most difficult stage to attain in any conflict situation, though desirable, attainable and accomplishable. 3.1.2 Conflict Cycle It is now generally believed that conflict most times evolve in a cyclical pattern that are closely related. 24 GST 202 MODULE 1 Escalated Violent Contained Reignited Intensity Manifest Mitigated Latent Resolved? TIME Source: Background Paper for the Danida Conference on Conflict Prevention and Peace Building in Africa 2001 Prepared by Bjorn Moller. i. Latent Phase This is the first phase of the conflict cycle where a conflict is dormant and barely expressed by the conflicting sides that may not even be conscious of their conflicting interests or values. At this phase, a conflict can easily be “nipped in the bud” through a preventive action on the basis of early warning in principle. Although, latent conflicts are difficult to detect with any degree of certainty – and their presence and absence may be hard to verify. Despite that, we can still identify various indicators of impending conflicts, such as inequality, growing poverty, frustrated expectation, unemployment, pollution and a growing tendency to view problems in “us versus them – terms,”. ii. Manifest Phase At this phase, conflicting parties express their demands and grievances openly, but only by legal means. It is easier to identify both problems and stakeholders, at this stage while preventive action can still be taken to prevent conflict escalation or degeneration into violent confrontation. Despite limited time available, exhibit conflict behaviour and regroup themselves in opposing camps. Mediation efforts geared towards compromise solutions still stand a reasonable chance of success provided violence has not occurred. 25 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION iii. Violent Phase This phase is characterised by direct physical attacks and confrontations leading to spilling of blood and loss of life of both conflicting parties and innocent people and thereby produce additional motives for struggle elongation, if only to “get even” or escape retribution for atrocities committed. Moreover, people having their various private agendas and that are personally benefiting or profiting from the continuing crisis often usurped the initial/existing leadership structure in order to have influence and control over their groups. iv. Escalation Phase Under this phase, violence breeds further violence, producing an escalatory momentum. Moreover, the longer the struggle has lasted, and the more destructive it has been, the more do the warring parties (and especially their leaders) have to lose by laying down their arms. Only victory can justify the preceding bloodshed; hence, the proclivity to struggle on as long as there is even a slight hope of prevailing, thereby attaining the power to set the terms. Neither the violence nor the escalation phases therefore leave much scope for peaceful intervention, mediation or negotiations. On the other, embarking on military intervention at this stage could be regarded as a risky enterprise despite the fact that it might make a difference. v. Contained Phase Escalation comes to a halt in this stage. This could be because the conflicting parties have temporarily exhausted their supply of weaponry, leading to lower intensity. At this stage, there appears hope for negotiations and mediation efforts by the intervention of a third party aiming towards a truce. Most times, peacekeeping forces can be introduced to protect each side against the possible breaches of the truce by either of the conflicting parties. The truce agreed upon allows for the provision of humanitarian aid to the civilian victims without supporting either of the warring sides. vi. Mitigated Phase Mitigated stage of any conflict is the period during which the basic causes of conflict remain in place, but the conflict behaviour and attitude has been significantly changed with reduced or less violence and more political mobilisation and negotiation. At this stage, the ray of post- conflict recovery can easily be read and felt in the minds of political leaders on opposing sides, while external factors are at the advantage of 26 GST 202 MODULE 1 gaining new leverage, that is, serving as potential (but not unconditional) provider of aid. vii. The Resolution Phase This phase is the most perceived critical stage of all the phases, as success or failure of post-conflict peace-building will determine whether the conflict will flare up again. For a tangible and enduring or sustainable success to be accomplished, both the underlying causes of the conflict and its immediate consequences must be addressed. This include reordering of power relationships, bringing some of those responsible for the preceding blood shed to trial and facilitating reconciliation between the opposing sides as a precondition of future coexistence. At this stage, the importance of external actors is very crucial in the following areas such as provision of various forms of assistance and support to the emerging civil society after the resolution of the conflict, and to support programmes for disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of former combatants, including child soldiers. 27 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION 3.2 Conflict Energy Conflict Energy Wounding Deaths Destruction Bad Leadership Bad Followership Less Stressed Individual Divided Cohesive Families nations/cities Peaceful Environment 419 Development Crime Better Informed Citizenry Poor Infrastructure Good Governance Lack of Compassion Vibrant Political Parties Cohesive Nation/Cities Societies in Pains PEACE Suppressed Conflict Source: Conflict Resolution Stakeholders’ Network (CRESNET) Training Manual 2001 3.4 Conflict Handling Styles 3.4.1 Conflict Handling Styles These are various forms or ways by which individual, groups, societies or nations perceive and respond to conflicts arising from diverse/conflicting views, opinion, ideas, values and belief. The behaviours and attitudes of the parties concerned usually determined the success and failure of any conflict which can be described along these two basic dimensions namely: 28 GST 202 MODULE 1 a. Assertiveness This describes the extent to which an individual attempts to satisfy his needs and concern. b. Cooperativeness This explains the extent to which a person attempts to satisfy his needs and concerns as well as the other person’s needs. These two basic dimensions of behaviour can be applied to define or explain the following five conflict handling styles: dominating/competing; accommodating; avoiding; collaborating and compromising. i. Dominating/Competing This takes place when an individual is very assertive and not cooperative. Such a person pursues his own concerns at another person’s expense. It is a power-oriented mode. It is a position that states: “I have to win.” It can also mean: “I have to stand up for myself, for my rights.” It entails defending a position by argument, by rank, or by economic advantage. This position connotes “you win, the other loses.” ii. Accommodating You are unassertive and cooperative. It is the opposite of competing. When accommodating, you neglect your own concerns to satisfy the concerns of the other person; there is an element of self-sacrifice in this handling style. It can be selfless, generous; it can be yielding because of weakness or low self-esteem. iii. Avoiding You are unassertive and uncooperative. You do not (immediately) pursue your own concerns or those of other person. You do not address the conflict. It can be a diplomatic way of handling conflict, postponing for a better time. It can also be a withdrawal, that could lead to worsening of a relationship. iv. Collaborating Under this dimension, you are both assertive and cooperative. It is the opposite of avoiding. You are working with the other person to find a solution that fully satisfies the concerns of both parties. It means dialogue, it means good listening, it means understanding your and the other person’s needs and concerns and creating solutions to meet those concerns. In this case, both sides win. A win-win situation for all. 29 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION v. Compromising You are partially assertive and partially cooperative. When you compromise you attempt to find an expedient, mutually acceptable solution which partially satisfies both parties. When you compromise, you split the difference, you make concessions, you give up something, to gain something in return. You seek a middle – ground position. You win a little, and you loose a little. 3.4.2 Model Two This second model grouped conflict handling styles into three major headings or classifications in as much as approaches to conflict vary from individual to individual. The classifications are thus: 1. Avoidance/Denial This is a common way of handling or dealing with conflict. We may decide to avoid the other party/person or pretend that the conflict does not exist even though we are hurt or angry. We need to observe that this approach or style of handling conflict often leaves us feeling more hurt, frustrated, and annoyed. It can be likened to a housewife who keeps sweeping dirt under the carpet; the dirt will surely become a heap, which she will not be able to manage one day. This approach creates room for a win/lose option, an option where one person gets what he/she needs and the other person gets nothing. This style does not actually solve the problem but buries it for the time being. However, this style is useful is some situations, for example, avoidance method can be a stop gap to reflect on what next line of action or step to be taken. 2. Confrontation/Fighting In this approach, some people, group, nation or state might decide to slog it out with the other party in conflict situation. They threaten, attack, yell, insult and tenaciously hold on to their point of view and disagree with the other party’s point of view. This approach often leads to violence and it creates lose/lose option, an option where both parties lose. Neither party gets what he/she needs. In some cases, confrontation might also lead to win/lose where the stronger party with bigger power wins while the weaker party ends up being the loser. 30 GST 202 MODULE 1 3. Problem Solving This is an approach whereby the parties in conflict listen with the intent conflict and attack underlying elements in the conflict and attack the issues. The parties adopting this style normally show respect for differences and look for ways to resolve the problem. Furthermore, people using this style or approach are less concerned about who is right or wrong. They view conflict as belonging to both parties which require their mutual collaboration to resolve. This approach creates room for a “win/win solution”- a situation where both parties come out satisfied with the solution. They are both happy and satisfied because their needs and desires have been met and their relationship has been restored. 4.0 CONCLUSION Based on the above discussion, it is now crystal clear that it is important to know the stages or phases of conflict progression to enable you ascertain the step to be taken in the prevention of conflict escalation and management approaches to be adopted in managing conflicts that are at different stages or phases of conflict cycle. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit, two key propelling variables in conflict escalation are discussed together with the stages of conflict, conflict cycle, and conflict energy while various conflict handling style were extensively discussed. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT i. With particular reference to the key propelling variables in conflict escalation, discuss five stages of conflict of any of the types of conflict.. ii. Define conflict cycle and explain different phases of conflict known to you. iii. With reference to a case study of any past conflict, discuss the phase or stage of such conflict and the conflict handling style adopted in managing the conflict. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Jeong, H. (Ed.). (1999). Conflict Resolution: Dynamics, Process and Structure. Aldershot: Ashgate. Kriesberg, L. (1998). Constructive Conflicts. From Escalation to Resolution. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. 31 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION Lipsey, R. K. (1997). Breaking the Cycle. A Framework for Conflict Intervention. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Miall, H., Oliver R. & Tom, W.. (1999). Contemporary Conflcit Resolution: The Prevention, Management and Transformation of Deadly Conflict. Cambridge: Policy Press. Rupesinghe, K.(1998). Civil Wars, Civil Peace. An Introduction to Conflict Resolution. London: Pluto Press. Sandole, J. D. & Hugo, V. M. (Eds.). (1993). Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice. Integrated and Application. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Wallensteen, P. & Margareta, S. (2000). “Armed Conflcit, 1989-99.” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 37, p. 5. 32 GST 202 MODULE 1 UNIT 4 CONFLICT ANALYSIS CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Meaning/Definition of Conflict Analysis 3.2 Categories of Stakeholders 3.2.1 Criteria fro Determining Primary Stakeholders 3.3 Pre-Intervention Conflict Analysis 3.4 Definition of Conflict Mapping and Tracking 3.4.1 Conventions for Mapping Relationship 3.5 Conflict Analytical Tools 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION It is a clear known fact that conflict exist at all levels of human interaction either at interpersonal, intra-group, inter group or at communal, national and international levels. Therefore, it has become imperative for a conflict management practitioner, intervener or a peace studies and conflict resolution student to acquire necessary knowledge and skills required to enable such a person gain an insight into the hidden issues in conflict. The issues ranging from the causes of the conflict, stages/phases of conflict, the stakeholders (parties in conflict), and the conflict analytical tools and techniques necessary for proper understanding of conflict analysis in view of proffering sustainable solution to the conflict. Analysis is usually accompanied by “conflict mapping” and “tracking” both of which are very important at giving the conflict management practitioner a clear picture of what is happening, what is at stake and what could be done to manage the “difficult” situation. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: define the concept of conflict analysis explain the meaning of stakeholders, categorise stakeholders and itemise criteria for determining them state pre-intervention conflict analysis define conflict mapping and tracking. 33 GST 202 FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION identify conventions used in mapping relationships enumerate different conflict analytical tools. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Meaning/Definition of Conflict Analysis Conflict analysis is a critical review, interpretation and explanation of what is observed and recorded about the conflict situation. Alternatively, conflict can be defined as a process by which the root causes, dynamics, issues, and – other – fundamentals of conflict are examined, reviewed and unraveled through the use of various mechanisms for proper and better – understanding of the conflict from several perspectives. Conflict analysis avails peace experts intervening in a conflict the opportunity of gathering necessary data or information that will facilitate bringing together of parties in dispute and reveal a dependable, reliable and effective direction on the choice of strategies and action to be adopted for a successful intervention and termination of conflict. 3.2 Categories of Stakeholders A stakeholder is defined as those men and women, group or parties who are directly or indirectly involved in the conflict and have a significant stake in the outcome. a. Primary Stakeholders They are those whose goals are, or are perceived by them to be incompatible and who interact directly in pursuit of their respective goals. They are the direct investors in the conflict. b. Secondary Stakeholders These categories are affected directly by the outcome of the conflict but do not feel to be directly involved. As the conflict progresses, they may become primary and primary may become secondary. c. Interested Stakeholders These parties have an interest in the conflict. They stand to benefit from the outcomes whether peaceful or conflictual. The difference between interested and secondary stakeholders is that the interested stakeholders suffer no direct impact of the conflict in the short and medium term. 34 GST 202 MODULE 1 3.2.1 Criteria for Determining PrimaryStakeholders Determining where stakeholders should be put is both political and fluid. The following often determines the decisions of interveners in selecting the stakeholders to engage. i. Functional This suggests those who directly wage the conflict. Their legitimacy on the negotiating table is their capacity and ability to perpetuate the conflict. They are the embodiment of the conflict. Observers believe they have the power to end the conflict. ii. Representativity This is political aspect of stakeholders’ categorisation. Stakeholders are primary because they represent a large number of people who are directly affected by the conflict. These

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