Peace and Conflict Resolution PDF

GENERAL STUDIES UNIT, AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, AIR FORCE BASE, KADUNA COURSE TITILE: PEACE AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION COURSE CODE: GST 202 COURSE DESCRIPTION Conflict in our world today is inevitable, yet, peace is a prized commodity desired by all. It is against this backdrop that this course is invaluable to the students who would become better conflict managers and peace advocates, consequently impacting positively to their immediate society and the world at large. The course introduces the students to the concept of conflict, the nature, types and progression. Importantly, the course offers the students the knowledge of peace, the types, theories, and the role of some international organizations in the management of peace in the world. It also provides the students with the methods they could utilize to analyse conflicts, and the methods and styles they could best employ to resolve or manage conflicts around them, in Nigeria and the world. Students are expected to go beyond the Course outline with respect to contemporary/emerging issues. EVALUATION Continuous Assessment (Simulation and Test) - 30% Semester Examination - 70% COURSE OUTLINE WEEK 1: CONFLICT ⦁ Definition ⦁ Nature of Conflict ⦁ Levels of Conflict ⦁ Causes of Conflict ⦁ Stages of Conflict (Conflict Progression) WEEK 2: CONFLICT CONT…. 1 ⦁ Conflict Theories (Human Needs, Frustration-Aggression) ⦁ Violence (Definition and Types) ⦁ Terrorism and Insurgency Defined ⦁ Human Security ⦁ Consequences of Conflict WEEK 3: CONFLICT ANALYSIS ⦁ Stake Holders Analysis ⦁ Timeline Analysis ⦁ Conflict Analysis Tool (ABC Triangle, Onion/Doughnut, Conflict Tree) ⦁ Conflict Map WEEK 4: PEACE ⦁ Definition and Meaning ⦁ Types of Peace ⦁ Theories of Peace ⦁ Victor’s Peace (Pax) ⦁ Capitalist Peace ⦁ Liberalist Peace ⦁ Classless Peace ⦁ Democratic Peace ⦁ Culture of Peace WEEK 5: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION ⦁ United Nations (UN) and the Agenda for Peace ⦁ From the Treaty of Westphalia to United Nations (A brief) ⦁ Cold War ⦁ UN’s Agenda for Peace 2 ⦁ Preventive Diplomacy ⦁ Peace Making ⦁ Peace Keeping ⦁ Peace Enforcement ⦁ Peace Building ⦁ ECOWAS and Conflict Management in the Sub-Region WEEK 6: CONFLICT RESOLUTION ⦁ Conflict Resolution ⦁ Conflict Management ⦁ Conflict Transformation ⦁ Conflict suppression WEEK 7: PEACEFUL METHOD OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION (ADR) ⦁ Negotiation ⦁ Mediation ⦁ Arbitration ⦁ Advantages and Disadvantages of ADR WEEK 8: CONFLICT HANDLING STYLES ⦁ Avoidance ⦁ Competitive ⦁ Compromise ⦁ Accommodating ⦁ Collaborating WEEK 9: SIMULATION WEEK 10: SIMULATION CONT…/CAT 2 WEEK 11: REVISION 3 WEEK 1: CONFLICT ⦁ Definition ⦁ Nature of Conflict ⦁ Levels of Conflict ⦁ Causes of Conflict ⦁ Stages of Conflict (Conflict Progression) INTRODUCTION Conflict had been with man from time immemorial. This is because man has had to conflict with everything around his environment to survive. Hence, conflict is a social phenomenon that has always existed and will always exist as long as man exist. Pathetically, in the quest to survive, these conflicts have become more violent recently. This lesson is therefore designed to enlighten readers on the different dimensions of conflict, the nature and causes of conflict in the first place, the levels it occur, and the progression it takes. DEFINITION There are diverse definition for the word conflict, as there have been several scholars who have given their own meaning to the concept. A few of these definitions will be stated. The word ‘Conflict’ is from the Latin word confligere, which means to “strike together” In a simple context conflict could mean a struggle, quarrel, opposition, strife, incompatibility, contend, hostility, confrontation, fight, clash, discord, contention, controversy or disagreement. Kriesberg (1973) defines conflict as a relationship between two or more parties who believe they have incompatible goals. Conflict here is perceived as incompatibility between two or more people. The incompatibility can be in needs, interest, values, power, resources or aims. The parties may be individuals, small or large groups or countries. It thus means that conflict seem common, unavoidable and only natural. It is just a way of surviving and meeting needs. However, it is how the pursuance of these needs are expressed, that determines the nature of conflict. Quicy Wright (1990) sees conflict as opposition among social entities directed against one another, it distinguished competition and defines it as opposition among social entities independently striving for something of which the resources are inadequate to 4 satisfy all. Competitors may not be aware of one another, while they are parties to a conflict. The arguments that can be taken from Quicy’s definition is that conflict a disagreement arising from competition. And this competition is for resource that are inadequate and are barely enough for everyone. Hence, for conflict to be properly managed, the item of competition should be adequately managed. Conflict is a contradiction arising from differences in interest, ideas, ideologies, orientation, belief, perception and tendencies. It is also a confrontation between individuals or groups resulting from incompatible ends or mean. It is also a goal directed activity designed to improve the position of a party at the expense of the other. Conflict is also the struggle over values or claims to status, power, and scarce resources, in which the aims of the groups or individuals involved are not only to obtain the desired values but to neutralise, injure or eliminate rivals (Tidwell 2003) One can thus emphasize that as long as human exists, conflict becomes unavoidable. However, it is important for us to channel conflict energies into basis for future cooperation and development. NATURE OF CONFLICT From the above definitions, it could be deduced that conflict is in two natures, namely, destructive and constructive. ⦁ Destructive Destructive conflicts is usually characterised by violence, either in the physical, psychological or structural facets. In a destructive conflict, the process of conflict escalation is channelled towards mutual matters and efforts to destroying each other. Tidwell’s definition perfectly captures the crux of a destructive conflict In a destructive conflict, there is misjudgement and misperception and situational entrapment. The conflict will be unduly magnified such that it endangers decency and human survival. Most of the conflicts in Nigeria and most African counties depict a destructive conflict. ⦁ Constructive / Creative Here, conflicts are constructively discussed by parties and amicable terms of agreement are reached. The terms of agreement reached must be mutually satisfactory and lead to the realisation of desired change, human aspiration, and development. Buttressing the meaning to creative conflict, Burton (1972) opines that, conflict is “an 5 essential creative element in human relationship. It is the means to CHANGE, the means by which our social values of welfare, security, justice, and opportunities for personal development can be realised.” Therefore, the existence of a flow of conflict is the only guarantee that the aspirations of the society can be attained. LEVELS/TYPES OF CONFLICT There are different types/levels at which conflict occur daily in our society. They are: ⦁ Intra-Personal Level: This kind of conflict occurs within an individual. It more often ensues during decision making processes. Example of such conflicts are, the use of time, moral questions, choice of a career path, partner, goals and aspirations. ⦁ Inter-Personal Level: This is the conflict between two or more individuals over an issue ⦁ Intra-Group Level: This refers to a conflict between individuals or faction within a group (factions within a political party). ⦁ Inter-Group Level: This is a conflict between two groups, such as class versus class, family versus family, political party versus political party. ⦁ National Level: This conflict occurs within a nation, involving different groups within the nation. This could be inter-ethnic, inter-religious or resource control conflict. ⦁ International Level: This is a conflict between nations. It could be for ideological reasons (NATO (USA) and USSR (Russia)), territorial claims (Nigeria versus Cameroon) or and Political competition (USA versus China) CAUSES OF CONFLICT There are several inexhaustible things that cause conflicts, scholars have however classified them into four, viz. ⦁ Competition over Resources ⦁ Conflict over Psychological needs ⦁ Contradicting Value System ⦁ Conflict over Information Competition over Resources 6 This conflict ensues when conflicting parties are competing for inadequate or perceived to be inadequate resources. And this resources goes beyond financial or physical wealth and property such as land, to encompass different ramifications of position and power. So, groups competing over political power are said to be involved in a resource-based conflict. This framework also posits that conflict occurs when resources are not evenly distributed and when there is little or no access to the already scarce resources. Human needs are insatiable, as such conflict over resources will remain a social phenomenon, not because of the item of contest, but, the reason for the competition. Conflict over Psychological Needs Psychological needs as proposed by Abraham Maslow are those that affect the wellbeing of an individual. These needs include food, water, warmth, shelter, and rest (sleep). The absence of these self-preserving needs will make individuals conflict with themselves and their environment (including other individuals) to meet these needs. Other essential needs proposed by Maslow are safety, belongingness and love, self - esteem and self- actualization needs. Maslow states that when individuals meet or satisfy their psychological need, the drive to achieve other unmet needs becomes imminent, a process he terms “Fulfilment Progression”. However, working our way to meet the more complex needs is dependent on fulfilling the psychological needs. Contradicting Value System It has become evident today that people can die for the values, general world view, religious beliefs or and ideological positions they hold in high esteem. Conflict arises when two or more interacting groups have contradicting value or belief system. It is usually difficult to understand or resolve conflicts that have value or ideological undertone, because, values are elements acquired through socialization, hence, they become principles people live by. Example of value and ideological based conflicts are religious conflicts we have had in Nigeria such as the Maitatsine crisis in 1980, terrorism such as Boko Haram and the Cold War at the international level. Conflict over Information Information is a very crucial factor to societal conflict. This is because information can easily be distorted or manipulated before it is disseminated to the public. The manipulation of information is one of the major factor that causes conflict in the society. 7 With the availability of media (print, audio, audio visual, social media) technology today, it has become very easy for information to be easily disseminated and accessed quickly by many. Tampering with the information system of a relatively peaceful society begets conflict, it is even more dangerous for information to be distorted in a conflict ridden or divided society. Because, it could determine the nature and scope of the conflict. Remember the Rwanda genocide of 1994 and how the media stirred up the genocide? When information disseminated are filled with lies or the right information being disseminated at the wrong time, conflict becomes inevitable. Meanwhile, information is also invaluable in preventing and or mitigating the effects of conflicts. Hence, information can stir up a conflict and prevent or calm a conflict or violence. While information can be distorted or manipulated by the sender, other factors that could garble with information among others are language barriers, listener’s perception and value system and physical distance. STAGES OF CONFLICT / CONFLICT PROGRESSION Conflict progresses from one stage to the other and this is because urge to attain the object of conflict makes the conflict linger. Most violent conflict started from the non- violent stage, hence, they could have been prevented if they were quickly nipped to the bud. The stages/phases which conflict takes are: ⦁ Latent Stage ⦁ Manifestation Stage ⦁ Escalation Stage ⦁ Crisis Stage ⦁ Stalemate or Containment Stage ⦁ De-escalation Stage ⦁ Resolution State ⦁ Post-Conflict Peace building and Reconciliation Stage Latent Stage At this stage conflict is dormant and barely evident or stated in the society. However, the structural imbalance of the society, such as unemployment, inequality, human right abuse, and poverty will be evident at this stage, and more often, potentially lead to active 8 conflict if not quickly addressed. Therefore, at the latent stage, conflicts can be easily prevented. When conflict become evident, it means it wasn’t addressed at the latent stage. Manifestation Stage The conflict becomes evident at this stage. The conflicting parties express their demands through legal means. It is common for significant tension or grievances to persist over a period of time without resulting to violence. Since both the conflicting parties and their demands are noticeable at this stage, it is still possible to prevent the conflict from escalating into violent confrontation, through peace-making efforts. Escalation Stage Active conflict emerge at this stage, as it characterised by the development of enemy images. At this stage, conflict can turn into a spiral, people begin to take sides, position hardens, communication stops, perception and information become distorted, and parties begin to commit resources to defend their positions. More so, each parties continue to provoke each other to raise the stakes, making the conflict more and more destructive. It is characterised by physical attacks and confrontation leading to the destruction of life and properties. Crisis Stage This is the highest stage of a violence state. A sense of crisis emerge, where there is total breakdown of law and order. The destruction of life and properties reach its peak at this stage. There could be humanitarian crisis at this stage. At this stage, as the conflict lingers, the warring parties find it difficult to stop or lay down their arms, as they see it as a loss (having committed resources to it). The heightened violence at this stage makes it very difficult for peaceful intervention to take place, and it is even more dangerous to execute military intervention, however, it is necessary for humanitarian purpose. Stalemate (Containment) Stage The heightened progression of the conflict starts to decline this stage, as the parties often reach a stalemate. Here, neither parties can win, but neither parties want to breakdown. However, the parties have expended all available resources and supply of arms, and have reached a stage where there is war fatigue. They are now left with two (2) options, either to continue to fight and risk losing completely (since they are not aware of the capacity of the other party) or look towards the resolution of the conflict. At this stage, a third party intervention is visible and instrumental to facilitate discussions among the conflicting parties, in order to reach an amicable agreement to ensure a cease- 9 fire. A peacekeeping force can then be deployed at this stage to act as a buffer between the two parties. This is done to protect the two parties against possible breach of the cease-fire by either of the conflicting parties. With the peace-keeping force comes humanitarian aid for the victims of the conflict, favouring neither of the warring sides. De-escalation Stage This stage is characterised by gradual cessation of hostility among conflicting parties arising from conflict unwillingness, hunger, sanctions or and external interventions. While the basic causes of the conflict still remain, and uneasy calm still lingers, the conflict attitude and behaviour reduces significantly. Reduced violence, and more political mobilization and negotiation become more apparent at this stage. Resolution Stage At this stage, the parties search for mutually beneficial ways of resolving the conflict. This stage is however a very sensitive moment in the conflict progression which must be executed carefully to avoid a return to the escalation stage. The stage is characterised by negotiations and facilitations to reach an amicable settlement, hence, bringing an end to the active conflict. Post-Conflict Peace Building and Reconciliation Stage This is a very crucial moment in the conflict curve, as it addresses the intrinsic and immediate causes of the conflict. After successful negotiations and settlement, it is necessary to prevent a return to the conflict. Hence, every sector and institution of the society will be reformed. There, would also be Judicial and Security Sector Reforms (SSR), Demobilization, Disarmament and Reintegration (DDR) of the warring parties. In addition, those that have incited violence against humanity will be tried, while a reconciliation process will be facilitated between the disputants. As a result, the disputants begin to heal and rebuild relationship slowly, and bringing the society back together. The importance of external actors to facilitate this process cannot be overemphasized, however, it is important for locals to be actively involved in the peace building process. Transformation Stage At this stage, all the causes of the conflict have been addressed, the peace building process completely and successfully implemented, and healing, reconciliation and reintegration have fully taken place. This stage, through desirable, it is difficult to attain in any conflict situation. It is important to note that, if the resolution and post-conflict peace building stages are not 10 well managed, the reignition of the conflict is highly prospective. Most protracted conflicts are as a result of badly managed resolution and post-conflict peace building stages. CRISIS STALEMATE ESCALATION REIGNITION DE-ESCALATION MANIFEST RESOLUTION LATENT TIME POST- CONFLICT PEACE- BUILDING CONCLUSION As discussed, conflict is a social phenomenon that is inevitable in the society. We should however, always exploit conflict energy towards impactful changes and desired goals in oneself and the society. Class Assignment: Study the Nigerian Civil War or and the Liberian Civil War and give a brief on it, using the Conflict Progression. WEEK 2 11 WEEK 2: CONFLICT CONT…. ⦁ Conflict Theories (Human Needs, Frustration-Aggression, etc.) ⦁ Violence (Definition and Types) VIOLENCE More often, when the term violence is used, the destruction of life and properties is usually conceived. However through the course of this lesson, it would be understood that violence transcends the destruction of life and properties. The term has been given different meanings by several scholars, some of which will be discussed in the following paragraphs. Merriam Webster dictionary simply defines it as the use of physical force so as to injure, damage, or destroy. Also, violence is the use of considerable or destroying force against people or things, a use of force that offends against a norm. Wilkinson (1986: 23-24) defines violence as the illegitimate use or threatened use of coercion resulting in the death, injury, restraint or intimidation of persons or the destruction or seizure of property. This definition captures both the extreme (death) and the subtle (threats, intimidation and seizure of property) form of the term. Hence, violence does not just mean bloodshed and destruction alone, it also captures threats to one’s life and properties. Farraroti quoted in Adebanwi (2004) sees violence not as mad wolves but fully human and that violence is the perversion of a virtue and a search for meaning in order to escape the straightjacket imposed in achieving goals that run contrary to the values and ethos of societies by outlaws and extremists. Violence is also physical and psychological force exerted for the purpose of abusing and injuring others. Types of Violence The following are the types of violence, namely: ⦁ Direct or Physical Violence: is the use of force to achieve a desired goal. It involves direct harm to someone’s body or mind, such as violation, torture, rape, mutilation or beating, and ultimately, the threat to life, like killing. The effect of direct violence is usually evident and typifies physical harm, destruction, injury and even death. Direct violence is measureable and indisputable because they cause physical injury to persons with three main features, namely, it is brutal, 12 external and painful and the material use of force (Adebanwi, 2004). ⦁ Indirect Violence: introduced by Galtung (the father of Peace Studies) belonging to the Structural view of Marx sees indirect violence as the violence we do not see. It is a concealed violence in the unjust, unequal and unrepresentative social structures of a society. It is the violence eminent in the structure of a state, such as inequality, poverty, lack of health care and Basic Education, human right abuse, nepotism, to mention a few. Structure caused violence are more often lethal than the direct violence. It is also a situation where the actual somatic, physical and mental realization are below their potential realization. Indirect violence is also called Structural Violence. ⦁ Cultural Violence: is more often imbedded in cultures. It is the aspect of culture that symbolize spheres of our existence, justified by religion and ideology, language and culture, art, empirical and formal science, that can be used to justify, legitimize or direct structural violence on individuals. Examples of such violence are, violence against women and children, violence against foreigners (unwelcoming foreigners in a land), Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), Domestic Violence, Gender Inequality, Human Sacrifice etc. ⦁ Psychological / Secondary Violence: is the indirect act of negative influence that aims to affect or arouse fear or break mental resistance of a target audience. It includes but not limited to indoctrination, brainwashing, propaganda, blackmail, terror, misinformation, kidnappings, armed robbery, and oppression. Terms Associated with Violence ⦁ Intended Violence: Conflict strictly aimed at violating others ⦁ Incidental Violence: arising out of actions of protest or affirmation of certain view ⦁ Ecocide: Extreme violence by humans against nature ⦁ Suicide: direct, terminal violence against self ⦁ Homicide: direct, terminal violence against other people ⦁ Genocide: direct, terminal violence against an entire people ⦁ Structurocide: Destruction of a culture/structure 13 ⦁ Culturocide: Destruction of a culture or deculturation CONFLICT THEORIES A theory helps in explaining a phenomenon. Conflict theories therefore help to explain and understand a conflict situation and the trajectory of its occurrence. Understanding the nexus between a conflict and the theory or theories that backs it up, is necessary in drafting effective ways of managing and resolving the conflict. Some conflict theories are: ⦁ Structural Conflict Theory There are two sub-orientations for this theory. The First, Radical Structural and the Liberal Structural Theory. The structural conflict theory draws its philosophy from the way a society is structured. Radical structuralists such as Marx and Lenin argue that conflict occurs in a society because of the social problems embedded in the structure of a particular society. Some of these social problems regarded as causes of conflicts are exploitation, inequality, inequity, political and economic exclusion, injustice, poverty and disease etc. Structural conflict is often as a result of the existence of the social problems in the society and the awareness of these social problems by the subordinate group (who feel the brunt of the problems), who then questions the societal status quo (caused by the societal dominant group). The more the problem lingers, the more people become aware of the problem and the more stringent the relationship between the dominant and subordinate group become. Subsequently leading to division and conflict in the society. Due to the modus of production and division of high class (Bourgeoisie) and lower class (Proletariat) it creates in the society, capitalism, has been blamed for creating a platform for the exploitation and domination of the proletariats, which in turn causes conflict. Johan Galtung, a liberal structuralist suggests that to understand a conflict the ABC of the conflict should be understood. A meaning Attitude is the Parties’ negative perception of each other accompanied by emotions of fear, anger or hatred, while B, Behaviour (which is usually violent) takes the form of threats or attack to eliminate the opponents, while C, Contradiction is the underlying conflict causes (structure) which could be the actual or perceived incompatibility of goals, interest, needs and interest of each party. Hence, to understand why conflicting parties perceive, act or behave towards each other, the underlying cause and context of the conflict should first be understood. 14 ⦁ Frustration-Aggression Theory Developed by John Dollard in 1939 and later expanded by Berkowitz and Yates (1962), the theory sees conflict ensuing on the basis of the gap between what people feel they deserve and what they actually get. That is, the want – get ratio or and the difference between expected need satisfaction and the actual need satisfaction. Hence, people get frustrated when they are deprived of what they feel they deserve in comparison to what they get. When these expectations are not met, there is the high tendency for people to challenge those responsible for frustrating their desire. Gurr (1970), posits that the aggression that comes afterwards is not just an instinctive or natural reaction, but an outcome of the frustration over unmet needs. Hence, when an individual or group of people are denied their legitimate aspirations, either directly or indirectly or as a result of the structure of the society; as a result of their frustration, they may express anger (through violence) towards those they feel are responsible for the unmet desires. Remember the Niger Delta Militant or the End SARS Protest? ⦁ Human Needs Theory Remember that in the previous lesson, unmet psychological needs was identified as a source or cause of social conflicts? The human needs theory gives an explicit understanding of how it causes conflict. The human needs theory attributed to John Burton (1990) posits that all human have basic needs which they desire to meet, and when the realisation of these needs are denied or frustrated by other individuals or groups, conflict becomes inevitable. This is a result of the structure of the society where people satisfy their needs at the expense of others. Hence, the only way a society can manage or prevent conflict is to guarantee the satisfaction of everyone’s basic needs. Human needs Theorist have identified a number of needs for the survival of humans. While Maslow identified psychological need, safety needs, belongingness and love, esteem and self-actualization as the classification of human needs, some others classify these needs as material needs (food, shelter, healthcare, education etc.), social need (security, participation in decision making, human dignity, senses of belonging, ability to earn respect and recognition), cultural/psychological needs (life meaning through personal, cultural, religious identities, without persecution or intimidation). However the classification of these needs, it is established that frustrating the realization of these needs hamper the actualization of individuals and groups, which will lead to conflict. 15 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS ⦁ Identity Conflict Theory The theory suggests that conflict erupts as a result of the feeling of threat towards one’s identity. A case where people are ready to die for their group because of the attachment they have with their group. Here, conflict occurs when people have a sense of alienation and non-provision from the government, hence, they identify their group or immediate community, who they feel attached to, to voice their frustration. Here, the context of ‘majority versus minority’ or ‘us versus them’ is created and most often, these conflicts are deeply rooted in past unresolved conflicts, where the minority group (self-identified) conflict with a majority group. One of the reasons for the protraction of social conflicts is identity, which is a result of the group being discriminated and deprived of their basic needs. Ethic and religious conflicts in Nigeria, the Rwandan genocide are examples of identity conflict. ⦁ Greed versus Grievance Theory Developed by Collier (1998), who argued that it is misleading to assert that civil wars erupts because of accumulated grievance of segregated groups, saying it was only the facade excuse of the rebel groups to embark on the violent conflict. To him GREED played a more significant role than frustration. According to Collier (2000), countries rich in natural resources, such as gold, diamond, drugs, timber are highly prone to conflict. The high level of accessibility and availability, which are easily lootable and tradable, culminating with drastic economic decline, make conflict lucrative and extremely inevitable. Therefore, greed becomes a more suitable explanation for conflict than grievance. His argument is that grievance is not the only reasons for conflicts or civil wars, but greed of people who believe the resources are theirs to fight for. This creates a ‘war economy’, which protracts over time, because of the realization of the benefits of the conflict by the combatants. This theory has been highly contested because it is seen to be “Elite” (warlords) focused, as it overlooks the needs of the grassroots. 16 17 WEEK 3 ⦁ Terrorism ⦁ Insurgency ⦁ Human Security ⦁ Consequences of Conflict TERRORISM Terrorism Defined The calculated use of violence or the threat of violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological. (U.S. Department of Defense) Terrorism constitutes the illegitimate use of force to achieve a political objective when innocent people are targeted. (Walter Laqueur) Terrorism is defined here as the recurrent use or threatened use of politically motivated and clandestinely organised violence, by a group whose aim is to influence a psychological target in order to make it behave in a way which the group desires. (C. J. M. Drake) The unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives. (FBI) Hardman (1948) defines terrorism as the method or the theory behind the method whereby an organized group or party seeks to achieve its avowed aims chiefly through the systematic use of violence. The International Encyclopaedia of the Social & Behavioural Sciences describes it as referring to the ‘systematic use or threat of violence to communicate a political message rather than defeat an opponent’s military forces (Crenshaw, 2001). Hence, terrorism means premeditated, politically motivate violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience. While, international terrorism means terrorism involving citizens or the territory of more than one country, the term terrorist group means any group 18 practicing, or that has subgroups that practice international terrorism. CLASS ACTIIVITY Define terrorism in your words. How is terrorism different from warfare and criminal violence? Types of Terrorism Mainly there are five types of terrorism; ⦁ State-Sponsored terrorism. Which consists of terrorist acts on a state or government by a state or government. For instance, that of Teliban against America's World Trade Centre (WTC). ⦁ Dissent terrorism. Which are terrorist groups which have rebelled against their government. For instance. Boko Haram and ISWAP ⦁ Political ideological Terrorism: Terrorist groups rooted in political ideology. ⦁ Religious terrorism. These are terrorist groups which are extremely religiously motivated. For instance. Boko Haram / ISWAP in Nigeria and Lord Resistance Army (L.R.A) in Uganda. Spearheaded ⦁ Criminal Terrorism: These are terrorists acts used to aid in crime and criminal profit. For instance, banditry in the North Western Nigeria. Especially in Zafara and Katsina States. Causes of Terrorism The causes of terrorism are diverse. There is no one factor that leads people into of terrorism. Scholars have categorized the motivations for terrorism to include psychological, ideological, and strategic. ⦁ Psychological Perspective: Those who engage in terrorism may do so for purely personal reasons, based on their own psychological state of mind. Their motivation may be nothing more than hate or the desire for power. In many respects this terrorist is interested in getting attention from others for his or her act, rather than some grand ideological or strategic goal. ⦁ Ideological Perspective: Ideology is defined as the beliefs, values, and/or principles by which a group identifies its particular aims and goals. Ideology may encompass religion or political philosophies and programs. ⦁ Strategic Perspective: Terrorism is sometimes seen as a logical extension of the failure of politics. When people seek redress of their grievances through 19 government, but fail to win government’s attention to their plight, they may resort to violence. From this viewpoint, terrorism is the result of a logical analysis of the goals and objectives of a group, and their estimate of the likelihood of gaining victory. If victory seems unlikely using more traditional means of opposition, then one might calculate that terrorism is a better option Responses to Terrorism According to the United States Institute of Peace, there have been a number of responses to terrorism. They include ⦁ The use of violence to oppose terrorists ⦁ The use of negotiation ⦁ The use of international conventions to create international norms in opposing terrorism. While these three are not, by any means, the only ways in which governments have sought to address terrorism, they certainly have been among the most popular. ⦁ The use of force and violence against terrorism has been demonstrated periodically. U.S. military action against the Taliban in Afghanistan is an example of the use of force against terrorism. The use of force is both a tit-for-tat strategy, as well as an attempt to hinder the terrorists’ ability to operate. The Nigerian military against Boko Haram is another perfect example ⦁ Negotiation is a second method for dealing with terrorism. While nations may refuse publicly to negotiate with terrorist groups, they may follow a different strategy in secret. The negotiation that took place between the African National Congress (ANC) and the apartheid government of South Africa is good example. The ANC had been proscribed as a terrorist organization, and the government foreswore any negotiation with the ANC. Yet, behind the scenes negotiations did take place, ultimately resulting in the end of apartheid in South Africa. ⦁ International agreements are another attempt at addressing terrorism. International organizations, such as the United Nations, pass resolutions and seek to foster greater political action among member states. For example, the 1997 International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings requires that parties to the convention must make it a criminal act to unlawfully and intentionally use explosives or other deadly devices in public with the objective of causing death or injuring a person. Another example of action by the international community was UN Security Council anti-terrorism resolution 1373, “Improving 20 International Cooperation. INSURGENCY Insurgency is violence against authority, through the use of conventional and unconventional methods of fighting. Historically, the term insurgency is restricted to rebellious acts that did not reach the proportions of an organized revolution. It is also referred to any armed uprising, typically guerrilla in character, against the recognized government of a state or country. Some synonymous words which are used as insurgency are: insurrection, insurgence, uprising, mutiny, rebellion, revolt, revolution, sedition, resist and insurgent. While some examples of conflict around the world include the insurgency in Rhodesia, the one against the white minority government in South Africa, the Palestinian insurgency, Vietnam after 1965, the Afghan insurgency against the Soviet occupation, Chechnya, the current Taleban/al Qaeda insurgency in Afghanistan, the Iraq insurgency, the ISI insurgency in Syrian, the Malian insurgency and the Boko Haram/ISWAP insurgency in Northern Nigeria. Stages of Insurgency Although insurgencies can take many forms, there are three phases common to many insurgent actions, namely: ⦁ Pre- hostility phase ⦁ Guerrilla warfare phase ⦁ Conventional confrontation Modes of Insurgency Insurgency has been categorized into two different modes ⦁ The guerrilla ⦁ The terrorism Terrorism and Insurgency: A Comparative Analysis Terrorism is indiscriminate while insurgency is selective. Insurgency, is based on the selective use of violence against people or groups who do not comply politically with the wishes of the rebels or the government. Counter-Insurgency A Counter-Insurgency or Counterinsurgency (COIN) is defined by the United States Department of State as "comprehensive civilian and military efforts taken to simultaneously defeat and contain insurgency and address its root causes". The civil way of countering insurgency may be through dialogue, reconciliation, arbitration, pacification and many more. While that of military, could be through the use of coercion. 21 Effects of Insurgency and Terrorism The major negative effects that insurgency can cause are ⦁ Destruction of lives and properties, ⦁ Displacement of people from their residents, ⦁ Social dislocation (Separation of Families) ⦁ Separation of settlements ⦁ Hunger and Penury ⦁ Psychological trauma. The fear of terrorism has been found to induce many undesired psychological states in individuals such as increasing their level of anxiety. Depression, insomnia and other mental health challenges. ⦁ Terrorism indirectly affects the economy by creating market uncertainty. ⦁ Xenophobia. ⦁ loss of tourism ⦁ Increased insurance claims. Furthermore, authority also bears severity of the effect, in which the resources that are meant for societal development projects would be channelled to maintenance of peace and order. A situation which retards societal development, that government is voted for. For instance since the beginning of insurgency in the North Eastern states, such as Borno, Yobe, Adamawa, Taraba, Bauchi and Gombe, more than a hundred thousand lives have been lost, homes, schools, hospitals and other symbols of authority have been destroyed. It has also created over 50,000 widows and 53,000 orphans it also displaced over 2.3million people and Agricultural activities drastically reduced, hunger and penury set in (Source). HUMAN SECURITY Definition According to the United Nation General Assembly (UNGA), Human security is “an approach to assist Member States in identifying and addressing widespread and cross- cutting challenges to the survival, livelihood and dignity of their people.” It calls for people-centred, comprehensive, context-specific and prevention-oriented form of 22 ensuring security. Furthermore, human security is an emerging paradigm for understanding global vulnerabilities whose proponents challenge the traditional notion of national security through military security by arguing that the proper referent for security should be at the human rather than national level. Types of Human Security There are seven (7) primary areas or classifications of human security. These include: ⦁ Economic Security ⦁ Food security ⦁ Personal security ⦁ Health security ⦁ Community security ⦁ Political security ⦁ Environmental security CONSEQUENCES OF CONFLICT AND HUMAN SECURITY Conflict is an integral part and a social phenomenon that exists in every society; it is a situation whereby the goals, interest or values of people are divergent and they block the efforts if others to achieve their goals. Disagreements may arise due to differences in points of view, ideology or unhealthy competition that may yield either positive or negative consequences. Even though the term ‘CONFLICT’ has a negative connotation, every conflict that arises has its consequences, which can either be positive or negative. It may be difficult to imagine that conflict could have any advantages; it can actually be a strong impetus for change within an organization. KEY POINTS: 1. Conflicts exist in all societies. 2. Conflicts arise as a result of divergent interests or goals. 23 3. Every conflict has its consequences. Positive Consequences of Conflict There are many positive consequences of conflicts but for the purpose of this class we are going to consider these few points. ⦁ It leads to new ideas: Conflict contributes to the introduction of new ideas which stimulates social change ensuring both interpersonal and intergroup dynamics remain fresh and. reflective of current interests and realities. ⦁ It stimulates and inspires creativity: conflict can serve as an opportunity for finding creative solutions to solve problems. Conflict help inspire members to brainstorm ideas while examining problems from various perspectives. ⦁ It hastens decision making: When there is a conflict situation, it prompts the parties involved to seek for measures and take the right decisions quickly to solve the problems especially when so much is at stake. ⦁ It promotes group unity and cooperation: Conflict strengthens intragroup unity by providing an outlet for group members to discuss and negotiate their interests within the group. Without intragroup conflict, the health of the group typically declines. ⦁ It leads to individual sharing and respecting individual’s opinions: As members of the society or organization work together to solve a conflict, they are more willing to share their opinions with the group. Conflict can also cause members to actively listen to each other as they work to accomplish the organizations’ or society’s goals. ⦁ It serves as a safety valve for indicating problems: Conflicting situations helps the parties involved to discover the underlying problems that may not be too obvious but can be an instrument of disunity. ⦁ It improves future communication: Conflict can bring group members together and help them learn more about each other. From learning each other’s opinions on topics relevant to the organization’s or society’s growth to understanding each member’s preferred communication style, conflict within a group can give members the tools necessary to easily solve conflicts in the future. ⦁ It leads to reconciliation: Conflict allows for the reconciliation of the parties’ concerns, which can lead to an agreement benefiting both parties’ needs, and often their relationship and even their organizations. Negative Consequences of Conflict There are many negative consequences of conflicts but for the purpose of this class we are 24 going to consider these few points. ⦁ Diverts energy from work: Conflict can distract individuals and groups from their primary purposes, leaving them with less time and resources for other activities. It causes the individuals or groups involved in the conflict as well as individuals or groups not involved in the conflict to divert time and resources away from other needs, so instead of focusing on development the conflict forces those involved to shift their energy from their main purpose or work. ⦁ Threatens psychological well-being: Conflict can have both short term and long term effects on the physical and psychological health of the individuals involved in or affected by the conflict. In worst-case scenarios the psychological consequences can include deep trauma and diminished coping mechanisms, loss of sleep, loss of appetite or overeating, stress, headaches and becoming unapproachable. ⦁ Waste resources and time: When conflict persists without a solution or reconciliation it can lead to waste of time and resources because the energy that would have been invested in a productive venture was exerted on the conflict. Conflict causes members to focus less on the project at hand and more on gossiping about conflict or venting about frustrations. As a result, organizations can lose money, donors and access to essential resources. ⦁ Creates negative climate: Conflict can lead to frustration on the parties involved and increasing frustration can lead to tension which creates an unconducive and toxic atmosphere to work in. Conflict can distract individuals and groups from their primary purposes, leaving them with less time and resources for other activities. ⦁ Breaks down group cohesion: When there is a divergence in ideas, interest, goals and values it disrupts the unity and cohesion in a group or society. And this can result in unmet aspirations and goals. ⦁ Can increase hostility and aggressive behavior: When conflict escalates without mediation, it may lead to violent, hostile and aggressive behavior between the parties involved. This can result in legal problems for members and possibly the organization. ⦁ Members leave the Organization: members who are increasingly frustrated with the level of conflict within an organization may decide to end their membership. This is especially detrimental when members are a part of the executive board or heads of committees. In extreme cases, where several members leave, organizations risk dissolution. In conclusion, some levels of conflicts are inevitable in groups and the society at large given the wide range of goals and people involved. Some conflict is good because it can 25 enhance performance but too much of it however can be detrimental. Assignment What effects does insurgency and terrorism have on human security? WEEK 3: CONFLICT ANALYSIS ⦁ Conflict Analysis Defined ⦁ Element for Analysis ⦁ Conflict Profile ⦁ Actors / Stake Holders Analysis ⦁ Causal Analysis ⦁ Conflict Dynamics ⦁ Position, Interest, Needs, Goals Capacity and Relationship Analysis ⦁ Conflict Analysis Tool ⦁ ABC Triangle, ⦁ Onion/Doughnut ⦁ Conflict Tree ⦁ Conflict Map Conflict Analysis Defined Conflicts are not entirely destructive, and even destructive ones can be transformed if properly managed. So, it is important for mediators of conflicts to systematically and prudently analyse conflicts, which requires a skill set and tools for effective implementation. Conflict analysis is therefore a practical method of examining and understanding a conflict from a variety of perspective. It is when what is observed and recorded about a 26 conflict is critically reviewed, interpreted and explained for better understanding. Conflict analysis is a structured process of analysis to understand conflict, focusing on the conflict profile (history of conflict), the actors involved and their perspectives, the structural and proximate causes and the dynamics of how these elements interact (Conflict Sensitivity Consortium, 2012 cited in Herbert, 2017). According to Fisher et al., (2000) cited in Herbert (2017), a conflict analysis examines open conflict (a conflict that is very visible and deep-rooted), surface conflict (visible but shallow or with no roots), and also latent conflict (below the surface with the potential to emerge). In all, one can say that conflict analysis is important for understanding a conflict situation for conflict mediators to strategize in facilitating the peaceful resolution of the conflict. Importance of Conflict Analysis ⦁ It affords peace experts and conflict mediators the opportunity of gathering necessary data or information about a conflict situation. ⦁ Information gathered through conflict analysis help to provide a better understanding of a conflict from a variety of perspectives. ⦁ Information gathered will facilitate bringing together of parties in dispute. ⦁ It also helps to determine dependable, reliable and effective strategies and actions to be adopted to bring an end to a conflict ⦁ An analysis is vital to opening up the conflict, which helps in providing more clarity to both professionals and laypersons about the conflict situation. ⦁ Without a proper understanding of conflicts, it will be difficult to proffer any solution to it, thereby jeopardising conflict management. ⦁ Without a proper understanding of conflicts, it will be difficult to proffer any solution to it, thereby jeopardising conflict management. ⦁ Conflict analysis makes one’s subjective perceptions of a conflict situation transparent. This way they can be reﬂected on and communicated. ⦁ It allows conflict experts to X-ray the problems that underlie a conflict situationIt allows conflict experts to X-ray the problems that underlie a conflict situation. Element for Analysis 27 ⦁ Conflict Profile / Context Analysis ⦁ Causal / Issue Analysis ⦁ Actors / Stake Holders Analysis ⦁ Conflict Dynamics ⦁ Position, Interest, Needs, Goals, Capacity and Relationship Analysis Conflict Profile / Context Analysis Conflict analysis begins by describing the background to any conflict situation. Important questions such as “what is the context that shapes the conflict? Is there a history of the conflict? (E.g. when? How many people are killed and displaced? Who is targeted? Methods of violence? Where?) What political, economic, social and environmental institutions and structures have shaped the conflict? (E.g. elections, reform processes, economic growth, inequality, employment, social groups, demographics and resource exploitation), are asked. The underlying assumption is that every conflict has a specific context, history and background. Understanding the background is crucial to understanding the conflict itself. In analysing the context, three related dimensions are considered: ⦁ Distant Past: which may span back to centuries or decades ⦁ Immediate Past: includes the deterioration in the relation among the parties, and the trigger that sparked off the conflict. ⦁ The current Event: The historical background will help to understand the current event in a conflict. It is important to note that, analysing the context/conflict profile is not examining the causes of the conflict, but the background and framework within which the conflict have emerged and matured. Causal / Issue Analysis This aspect identifies the issues involved in the conflict. The causes of the conflict are identified and analysed. Crucial questions asked are, what are the structural causes of the conflict? (E.g. unequal land distribution, political exclusion, poor governance, impunity, lack of state authority) What are the proximate causes of conflict? (E.g. arms proliferation, emergence of self-defence non-state armed actors, overspill of conflict from 28 a neighbouring country, natural resource discovered etc) and what are the triggers? Therefore, it is important to understand the following terms: ⦁ Structural causes: The structural causes also known as Root or underlying causes are pervasive factors that have over time built into the norms, structures and policies of a society. ⦁ Proximate causes: This is also called immediate causes and they are factors that contribute to a climate, conducive for a violent conflict which can lead to an escalation of violent conflict. ⦁ Triggers: This is a single act, event, or their anticipation, that set-off or escalate a violent conflict. Actors / Stake Holders Analysis This entails identifying the parties involved in the conflict. Parties are individuals, groups and entities who participate in the conflict directly or indirectly, based on their interest, because they have a stake, or because they believe their needs, interests and positions have been threatened. Actors can be at the local, national, regional or global level. In analysing the stakeholders involved, questions to be asked are: Who are the main actors? (E.g. the military, leaders and commanders of non-state armed groups, criminal groups, state entities, groups); who are the actors that influence conflict? What are their interests, concerns, goals, hopes, fears, strategies, positions, preferences, expectations and motivations? (E.g. autonomy, inequality between groups (‘horizontal inequality’), political power, ethno-nationalist); what power do they have, how do they exert power, what resources or support do they have, are they vulnerable? (E.g. local legitimacy through the provision of security, power over corrupt justice institutions, weapons and capacity to damage infrastructure); what are their incentives and disincentives for conflict and peace? (E.g. benefiting or losing from the war economy, prestige, retribution for historic grievances) What capacities do they have to affect the context? Who could be considered spoilers? Who exercises leadership and how? (E.g. economic beneficiaries of conflict, criminal groups, opposition leader) What connects people across conflict lines? How do people cooperate? Who exercises leadership for peace and how? (E.g. civil society, religious authorities, local justice mechanisms and what are the relationships between actors (Herbert, 2017). 29 There are some categories of actors in a conflict, namely: ⦁ Primary Stakeholders: are the actors directly involved in the conflict, whose goals are incompatible and aim at achieving them at the expense of the other party. ⦁ Secondary Stakeholders: are actors who do not feel to be directly involved in the conflict, but, they are directly concerned and affected by the outcome of the conflict. They are not very visible in the conflict but may become more visible if the conflict lingers, they may even become primary actors. ⦁ Shadow Parties: These stakeholders hide their identity in the conflict, but, take responsibility for the success of the conflict. They complicate a conflict situation because it is difficult to identify them and their role in any given conflict. ⦁ Spoilers: These are specific individuals or groups with an interest in maintaining the negative status quo of the conflict. They actively seek to hinder, delay or undermine conflict settlement (Newman & Richmond, 2006 cited in Herbert, 2017) It is also important to take note of: ⦁ Dividers: These are negative factors that increase tensions between people or groups, reduce their ability to resolve conflicts non-violently and may lead to violent conflict. ⦁ Capacities for peace: It refers to actors, institutions or relationships that have the desire and/or capacity to promote peace. ⦁ Connectors: These are positive factors that reduce tensions between people or groups, improve cohesion and promote constructive collaboration (OECD DAC & CDA, 2007, cited in Herbert, 2017). Conflict Dynamics Analysis It is also important to analyse the current dynamics/trends of the conflict. To know whether, how and why the conflict is increasing or decreasing in intensity, the dimension and tactics employed, and how it spreads. The Dynamics result from the interaction of the conflict profile, actors and causes, and they can be triggered by events (FEWER et al, 30 2004). Hence, an understanding of the conflict context, causes, trajectory and actors may help understand the current dynamics of the conflict. Crucial questions such as, what are the current conflict trends? What are the recent changes in behaviour? (E.g. increased conflict acts but the number of deaths has decreased; increase in political violence around local elections) What scenarios can develop? (E.g. in the best-case scenario: a peace agreement is signed quickly and the conflict parties implement a ceasefire; worst-case scenario: violence increase where groups meet) (Herbert, 2017) are to be asked. Position, Interest, Needs, Goals Capacity and Relationship Analysis In most conflict situations, the conflicting parties compete for incompatible goals. It is therefore important for conflicting meeiators to understand the following elements: ⦁ Position: is what the parties say they want and these are wants and not needs. It is a protective and defensive stand. ⦁ Interest: is what the conflicting parties really want. It is the underlying motivation of the actors which includes their concern, goals, hope and fear. ⦁ Needs: are what the actors must have. Needs happen to be the least visible and discussed by the conflicting parties and conflict mediators. ⦁ Fears: are the situations and conditions which make parties restless and anxious and which creates uncertainty and threat perception in them. Individuals become more defensive against things that threaten their values, identity, security and privileges they enjoy. ⦁ Goals: this is the outcome the actors are attempting and expecting to achieve. ⦁ Capacity: this refers to the actors’ potential to affect the contest positively or negatively. Potential here could mean, the resources, alliance, and social networks conflict parties have. ⦁ Relationship: this refers to the interaction between actors at various levels and their perception of this interaction. Conflict Analysis Tool The ABC Triangle 31 This tool factors three interrelated components of conflict situations, the parties’ attitude, behaviour and the context of the conflict. The objective of utilizing this tool is to know how these components link to affect both parties individually and collectively. Afterwards, they are linked with the fears and needs of the parties. Conflict mediators will usually highlight issues relating to the each parties’ attitudes, behaviour and context and identify their needs and fears, which is highlighted in the middle of the triangle. It is advisable to use this tool at an early stage of the conflict to have an insight into the causes and background of the conflict (Yusuf 2018). A (Attitude) B (Behaviour) C (Context) Conflict attitude has to do with the perceptions, frustration, position, the willingness to change, etc., of parties involved in a conflict; the conflict behaviour is the action – agitation, demands, violence, pleas of the parties, while the context is the background of the conflict. Conflicts have these three interrelated elements. Once a conflict occurs, the attitude of the parties is negatively altered, hence affecting the behaviour of the parties towards each other. Onion/Doughnut The onion or doughnut is a conflict analysis tool used to understand a conflict beyond the surface. This tool is modelled after the onion and its layers, where the outer and visible layer is the - ‘parties’ position’ (demands), beneath the outer layer in the middle, is the ‘parties’ interest’ (wants) and the inmost layer which is usually the core cause of the conflict is the – ‘parties’ needs’ (what parties must have). The tool confirms that a conflict has many layers and what appears on the surface is only a minute element of the conflict. Like the ABC Triangle, the onion tool has to be used for each of the parties involved. In conflict situations, parties usually take a position, these positions are far from what the parties need or hope for from the conflict. Conflict mediators would have to probe further to understand the conflict beyond the positions the parties take, to understanding the needs, fears and hope of the conflicting parties. This is important because it helps the mediator understand the dynamics of the conflict, which in turn helps in facilitating the dialogue between the conflicting parties. The parties involved could also utilize this tool to understand what they hope to achieve before going to the negotiation table. 32 Conflict Tree A conflict tree is a tool used to visualise, sort and examine the relationship between the causes of a conflict and the effects. With the tool, structural causes (Root), the manifest /Core problems (Trunk) and the Dynamic factors/Effect (Leaves) are identified. The structural factors are the root causes of the conflict that has been swept under the carpet for a long time. These causes are difﬁcult to inﬂuence on a short time basis, but, if they are avoided, the conﬂict may pop up again later (Mason and Rychard, 2005). The manifest/core problems are issues conﬂicting parties want to talk about, that is “topic” of the conﬂict, while the dynamic factors are the form of communication between the parties, upshots of the conflict, escalation level, and actions of the parties etc. This tool helps to link the root causes, the manifest and the dynamic factors of the conflict. It helps the conflicting parties agree on the core problems and how on how to deal with the issues. Conflict Map Like a geographical map that makes it easy to navigate through an environment, conflict map is a graphical illustration that visualises and makes it easy to understand 1) the actors in a conflict and their powers relations 2) relationship between the parties 3) the influence 33 the parties exert in the conflict and 4) the conflict issue. It is preferred to utilize conflict mapping early in a conflict, alongside other conflict analysis tools. The date and title of the conflict map are added to the map. And if not confidential the name of the organization or group mapping can also be added. A good conflict map will: ⦁ Help conflict mediators understand the power relations between the actors, this will help to facilitate dialogue between the actors. ⦁ Help the mediators in their shuttle diplomacy as they will know which actor to meet at a particular time. ⦁ Also helps to identify who and where the allies or potential allies in the conflict are. ⦁ Help to detect the peace constituencies and the shadow parties. ⦁ Also, help to reveal channels for strategic intervention in the conflict situation. ⦁ Help to keep track of events as they unfold. Possible symbols used in conﬂict mapping 1 Circle - shows parties involved in the situation. The size of the circle signifies the power of the conﬂict party to the conﬂict. The name of the party can be written in the circle. 2 A straight line signifies a close relationship 3 A double line signifies an alliance, very good relationship, 4 Dotted line signifies weak, informal or intermittent links 5 Arrow signifies the predominant direction of inﬂuence or activity 6 Zig zag line signifies discord, conﬂict. Lightning bolts can be added to indicate hot events. 7 A crossed-out line signifies a broken connection 8 Half circles or quarter circles signify external parties, third parties 9 A rectangular box signifies issues, topics or things other than people and organizations 34 A Basic Conflict Map (Source: adapted from Herbert, 2017) Conclusion Conflict analysis is crucial in every conflict situation. As established in this note, conflict analysis is instrumental not just for conflict mediators to understand the conflict dynamics, actors, issue and trajectory, coping strategies to manage or bring enduring resolution to the conflict are derived from a well-thought-out conflict analysis. Conversely, a conflict can escalate, regenerate and become protracted if a conflict is not analysed or properly analysed. WEEK 5: PEACE ⦁ Definition and Meaning 35 ⦁ Types of Peace ⦁ Theories of Peace ⦁ Victor’s Peace ⦁ Classless Peace ⦁ Liberalist Peace ⦁ Democratic Peace ⦁ Culture of Peace DEFINITION AND MEANING “There is no way to Peace, peace is the way” – A. J. Muste What do you consider to be peace? When do you consider yourself living in peace? At what point would you consider a society to be peaceful? Would you say that if someone exercises his power at the detriment of the right of someone else and the person is not being satisfied, would you say he’s in peace or that there’s peace? Peace is the greatest and highest goal or hope that everyone wishes to achieve personally and expects to be created in society and the world. Peace is from the Latin word “PAX” which means a pact, a control or an agreement to end war. Peace is priced asset. According to Merriam Webster Dictionary, Peace is generally seen as the state of tranquillity, public quiet, and calm. Also, peace means freedom from confusion. A state of physical and emotional state of freedom from public distortion. It is also a state of being in harmony with oneself, others and things around. According to American military history, the word peace essentially means ―the absence of war. This means that, for the military, they fight wars to win peace, or they use force to maintain peace. In military paradigms, therefore, peace is seen as an ultimate or ideal goal rather than a means to an end. According to Albert Einstein‘s view, peace is not only an absence of war, but it means or includes the presence of justice, law, order or government in the society as he said ―Peace is not merely the absence of war but the presence of justice, of law, of order and government. For Martin Luther King, Jr., a famous human rights activist, peace must include justice in society. In his words, “True peace is not merely the absence of tension: It is the presence 36 of justice.” Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) emphasized peace in the sense of a state of mind. For him, Peace is not a relationship of nations. It is a condition of mind brought about by a serenity of soul. Peace is not merely the absence of war. It is also a state of mind. Lasting peace can come only to peaceful people. According to Johan Galtung, the term ‘peace and violence’ are linked. Peace is the absence of violence and should be used as a social goal. To Gultung, like a coin peace has two sides: negative peace and positive peace. Negative peace is the absence of personal violence; positive peace is an absence of structural violence or social justice. From the above definitions, it is evident that “Peace is reverence for life. Peace is the most precious possession of humanity. Peace is more than the end of armed conflict. Peace is a mode of behaviour. Peace is a deep-rooted commitment to the principles of liberty, justice, equality and solidarity among all human beings. Peace is also a harmonious partnership of humankind with the environment (David, 2005). According to Lao Tzu‘s famous saying: If there is to be peace in the world, there must be peace in the nations. If there is to be peace in the nations, there must be peace in the cities. If there is to be peace in the cities, there must be peace between neighbours. If there is to be peace between neighbours, there must be peace in the home. If there is to be peace in the home, there must be peace in the heart. TYPES OF PEACE There are two types of Peace, Negative Peace and Positive Peace. Negative Peace According to Johan Galtung, Negative Peace is the absence of organised military hostility, direct violence and war, but the presence of structural violence (the causes of the conflict ignored). Structural violence here is social and structural conditions such as poverty, exclusion, intimidation, oppression, psychological pressure etc. Negative Peace has also been called “the peace of the graveyard” or “graveyard peace.” Negative peace, therefore, means the mere absence of war, conflict, hostility, agitation, disturbance, disagreement or quarrel, struggle, violence, terrorism, civil strife or civil commotion, social disorder, etc., and an absence of mental disturbance such as anxiety, worry, restlessness etc. 37 Positive Peace Galtung sees positive peace as not just the absence of war and violence but also the absence of structural violence and the presence of social justice. Social justice here means a just, accountable and egalitarian society with well-functioning conflict management institutions, a society free from discrimination, poverty, intimidation, oppression, inequality and nepotism. Positive peace hence means a state of tranquillity, calm, repose, quietness, harmony, friendship, amity, concord, peaceful or friendly relation, public order, pacification, spiritual content, reconciliation, serenity, security, and social justice. Theories of Peace Victor’s Peace Victor’s peace is one of the earliest theories of peace. It is based on the idea that peace comes as a result of military victory. And this peace is sustainable upon the hegemony of the victor. It is premised on the philosophy of the Roman Empire, “PAX”, which connotes that “if you want peace, prepare for war”. Hence, it is peace attained following the victory of a stronger nation over a weaker nation Victor’s peace is also known as the “peace of the graveyard” or “graveyard peace.” Classless Peace Karl Max sees every society as being structured into classes (upper middle, lower class). To him such societies are always capitalist in Nature, having the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Hence, the presence of class in a society brings disparity and exploitation, as such, conflict ensues. For him, for societal peace and development, the society must be classless and egalitarian. Liberalist Peace Liberalist peace is grounded on the argument that countries that share liberal views (individual freedom, equity, fairness and rule of law), democratic views, cosmopolitan values and free trade, would not go to war. With the belief that liberal countries will instead cooperate to achieve peace, because of their trade relations, they see human beings as the end and not a means to an end. Democratic Peace Similar to the liberal peace opinion, democratic peace is based on the idea that democratic states will not go to war, as such, global peace and stability is assured. While a military dictator can easily declare war because of the absolute power s/he possesses, it will be difficult for a leader in a democratic state, because s/he will have to act in 38 conformity with the constitution. Also, in a democracy, the legislature, judiciary, press and civil society are there as watchdogs to check and make sure the state is being governed constitutionally. CULTURE OF PEACE Definition and Meaning “Since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed.” UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization) Living in peace and harmony cannot be overly emphasized. Importantly, it is a long-term process, which begins with the development of inner peace (intra-personal peace), and is translated to others, by nurturing attitudes that promote the expansion and integration of peaceful principles. This is what the UN seeks to promote with the support of the international community. As a response to the evolving dynamics of global war and security strategies in a post- Cold War world. The adoption of the 1998 resolution on the culture of peace and the Declaration and Programme of Action on Culture of Peace in 1999 by the United Nations was a watershed event. The resolutions were aimed at nurturing in minds of individual the culture of peaceful coexistence and the institutionalising structures that promotes peace. To fulfil the mission of the United Nations of avoiding “the scourge of war”, the Constitution of UNESCO also begins as follows: “Since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed”. As defined by the United Nations, “Culture of Peace” is a “set of values, attitudes, modes of behaviour and ways of life that reject violence and prevent conflicts by tackling their root causes to solve problems through dialogue and negotiation among individuals groups and nations.” This definition of culture of peace by the UN is about shifting the mindset and behaviour in all, in all aspects of our societies as we move from force to reason, from conflict and violence to dialogue and Peacebuilding and embrace humanity’s interconnectedness and inner oneness (Wick, 2014). Combining the definition of the two essential UN resolutions on the culture of peace – (the Programme of Action on a Culture of Peace adopted in 1999; and the 1998 UN 39 resolution on the culture of peace) - gives a detailed meaning to the term, thus: A culture of peace is an integral approach to preventing violence and violent conflicts, and an alternative to the culture of war and violence based on education for peace, the promotion of sustainable economic and social development, respect for human rights, equality between women and men, democratic participation, tolerance, the free flow of information and disarmament. The culture of peace aims to recondition the minds of people to be more open-minded to peaceful co-existence and ensure a transformation of their mindset from the things that cause conflict, violence and war to the things that ensure non-violence and peace coexistence. This is because peace has gone beyond the mere absence of conflict to encompass the following eight features, sustainable economic and social development, respect for human rights, equality between women and men, education for peace, democratic participation, tolerance, the free flow of information and disarmament. The Shift from a culture of war and violence to a culture of peace requires not just the transformation of an individual’s behaviour, but also institutional practices. This is illustrated by David (2005) in the table below: CULTURE OF PEACE AND NON- CULTURE OF WAR AND VIOLENCE VIOLENCE Belief in power that is based on force Education for a culture of peace Having an enemy Understanding, tolerance and solidarity Authoritarian governance Democratic participation Secrecy and propaganda Free flow of information Armament Disarmament Exploitation of people Human rights Exploitation of nature Sustainable development Male domination Equality of women and men The culture of peace begins with each one of us – unless we are ready to integrate peace and non-violence as part of our daily existence, we cannot expect our communities, our nations, and our planet to be peaceful. We should be prepared and confident in resolving 40 the challenges of our lives in a non-aggressive manner (Maver, 2015). And as Dr Martin Luther King Junior affirmed that “an individual has not started living until he can rise above the narrow confines of his individualistic concerns to the broader concerns of all humanity.” Hence, the achievement of the culture of peace transcends an individual’s quest to meets his needs to providing the platform for others to meet their needs without fear. WEEK 6 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION ⦁ United Nations (UN) and the Agenda for Peace ⦁ From the Treaty of Westphalia to the United Nations (A brief) ⦁ Cold War ⦁ UN’s Agenda for Peace ⦁ Preventive Diplomacy ⦁ Peace-Making ⦁ Peace Keeping ⦁ Peace Enforcement ⦁ Peace Building 41 ⦁ ECOWAS and Conflict Management in the Sub-Region From the Treaty of Westphalia to the United Nations (A brief) TREATY OF WESTPHALIA The treaty of Westphalia is the collective name for two peace treaties signed in October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster. They ended the Thirty Years' War and brought peace to the Holy Roman Empire, closing a calamitous period of European history that killed approximately eight million people. The negotiation process was lengthy and complex. Talks took place in two cities because each side wanted to meet on territories under its control. A total of 109 delegations arrived to represent the belligerent states, but not all delegations were present at the same time. Two treaties were signed to end each of the overlapping wars: the Peace Treaty of Münster and the Peace Treaty of Osnabrück. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire, with the Habsburgs (rulers of Austria and Spain) and their Catholic allies on one side, battling the Protestant powers (Sweden, Denmark, and certain Holy Roman principalities) allied with France, which was Catholic but strongly anti-Habsburg under King Louis XIV. Joachim Whaley, a leading English-language historian of the Holy Roman Empire, mentions that later commentators such as Leibniz, Rousseau, Kant, and Schiller eulogized the Peace of Westphalia as the first step towards universal peace, but he points out that "their projections for the future should not be mistaken for descriptions of reality". Scholars of international relations have identified the Peace of Westphalia as the origin of principles crucial to modern international relations, including the inviolability of borders and non-interference in the domestic affairs of sovereign states. This system became known as Westphalian sovereignty (Appadorai, 2004:148). Significance of the Treaty The Peace of Westphalia recognized the full territorial sovereignty of the member states of the empire. They were empowered to contract treaties with one another and with foreign powers, provided that the emperor and the empire suffered no prejudice. The United Nations Organization The failure of the League of Nations experiment gave the rise to new proposals regarding international peace. Thus, Oscar Newfang suggested the conversion of the League of Nations into a world federation with a world legislature, executive and judiciary (Appadorai, 2004:156). 42 Establishment of United Nations started with the Atlantic Charter, which was signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States and Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Great Britain. That Charter which indicated that an Allied victory was imminent and that an institutional framework in the context of collective security would be brought into being was signed on August 13, 1941 (Akinbobola, 1999:344). The United Nations derived its name from President Franklin D. Roosevelt who first used it at a meeting of the major powers in which 26 nations agreed to fight together against the axis powers. However, a more demonstrated commitment was signed in October 1943 under the Moscow declaration by the representatives of the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain and the Chinese joining later. The deliberations at Dumbarton Oaks in 1944 provided yet another important reference point of the perception of what the founding fathers had envisaged that the UN would represent. Both the United States, the Soviet Union. China and the United Kingdom were well represented. However, the activities leading to the establishment of the United Nations were climaxed by the decision of the 1945 San - Francisco’s conference which was attended by the representatives of 50 countries. Thus, the United Nations as an international Organisation was established on 24th October 1945 when the Charter was ratified by the United States, the United Kingdom, France, China and the Soviet Union and by a majority of other signatories (Akinbobola, 1999:344). Structure of the UN On its establishment, the UN was structured into six divisions namely: ⦁ The Security Council. ⦁ The General Assembly; ⦁ The Economic and Social Council. ⦁ The Trusteeship Council. ⦁ The International Court of Justice ⦁ The Secretariat. The purposes of the organization among others include the following: ⦁ To maintain international peace and security. ⦁ To develop friendly relations among nations based on the principles of equal right and 43 self-determination of peoples. ⦁ To cooperate in solving international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems and in promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. ⦁ To serve as the avenue for cooperation and harmonization of the member states for the realization of these objectives ((Akinbobola, 1999:348). The essential principles that guide the activities of the UN are as follows: ⦁ Respect for sovereign equality of member states. ⦁ Expectation that member states would meet their charter obligations in good faith. ⦁ Expectation that member states would settle international disputes by peaceful means consistent with the maintenance of international peace and security and justice. ⦁ Expectation that member states would abstain from threat or use of force against any other states. ⦁ Expectation that member states would support the UN in all its actions under the Charter and that no member state would support any member state against whom the UN is taking preventive or enforcement action. ⦁ Expectation that the UN would ensure that states that are not members of the UN would act in a manner which is consistent with the principles guaranteeing the maintenance of international peace and security. ⦁ Expectation that the UN should not intervene in matters which are considered to be within the domestic jurisdiction of a member state. Cold War The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies, the Eastern Bloc and the Western Bloc, after World War II. Historians do not fully agree on the dates some are of the view that cold war started in 1917, during Bolshevik Revolution when Russian government withdrew from the scene of First World War, that begun in 1914 and ended in 1918. Whatever was the case, the period is generally considered to span the 1947 Truman Doctrine to the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union. The term "cold" is used because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two superpowers, but they each supported major regional conflicts known as proxy wars. The conflict was based around the ideological and 44 geopolitical struggle for global influence by the two powers, following their temporary alliance and victory against Nazi Germany in 1945. The doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD) discouraged a pre-emptive attack by either side. Aside from the nuclear arsenal development and conventional military deployment, the struggle for dominance was expressed via indirect means such as psychological warfare, propaganda campaigns, espionage, far-reaching embargoes, rivalry at sports events and technological competitions such as the Space Race (Byrd, 2003:87). The West was led by the United States as well as the other First World nations of the Western Bloc that were generally liberal democratic but tied to a network of authoritarian states, most of which were their former colonies. The East was led by the Soviet Union and its Communist Party, which influenced the Second World. The US government supported right-wing governments and uprisings across the world, while the Soviet government-funded communist parties and revolutions around the world. As nearly all the colonial states achieved independence in the period 1945–1960, they became Third World battlefields in the Cold War. United Nation Agenda for Peace An Agenda for Peace: Preventive diplomacy, peacemaking and peacekeeping, more commonly known simply as An Agenda for Peace, is a report written for the United Nations by Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali in 1992. In it, Boutros-Ghali responds to a request by the UN Security Council for an "analysis and recommendations" to strengthen peacemaking and peacekeeping. The document outlines the way Boutros- Ghali felt the UN should respond to conflict in the post-Cold War world. Recognizing the limitations of peacekeeping, especially as such efforts were becoming prevalent in the early 1990s, the UN Security Council convened in 1992 in a first-time meeting of heads of state. The 15 members finished the conference by issuing a statement calling on then-Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali to write a report recommending future reforms. According to Peter, (2018). In their statement, the heads-of-state recognized that, “The absence of war and military conflicts amongst States does not in itself ensure international peace and security. The non-military sources of instability in the economic, social, humanitarian and ecological fields have become threats to peace and security. The United Nations membership as a whole, working through the appropriate bodies, needs to give the highest priority to the solution of these matters.” The Security Council saw what many critics of peacekeeping have suggested, and some recent failures had made obvious: peacekeeping alone, as then practised, was not enough to ensure lasting peace. Boutros-Ghali submitted his response some months later, in the form of An Agenda for Peace. In it, he outlined some additional processes of preventative diplomacy the international community could use before peacekeeping, or 45 simultaneously. He also suggested distinct definitions for peacemaking and peacekeeping, and referenced Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter to justify military involvement without the consent of both parties. Previously, these concepts had not been formally addressed by the UN's leadership. The following are the meaning given to the elements of the Agenda for Peace Preventive Diplomacy Preventive diplomacy is action to prevent disputes from arising between parties, to prevent existing disputes from escalating into conflicts and to limit the spread of the latter when they occur. Preventive diplomacy requires measures to create confidence; it includes but not limited to early warning based on information gathering, shuttle diplomacy and informal or formal fact-finding; it may also involve preventive deployment and, in some situations, demilitarized zones. Peacemaking Peacemaking is action to bring hostile parties to an agreement, essentially through such peaceful means as those foreseen in Chapter VI of the Charter of the United Nations. According to chapter VI, Article 33 of the UN Charter, “The parties to any dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, shall, first of all, seek a solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice Peace-keeping Peace-keeping is a technique that expands the possibilities for both the prevention of conflict and the making of peace. Peace-keeping is the deployment of a United Nations presence in the field, hitherto with the consent of all the parties concerned, normally involving United Nations military and/or police personnel and frequently civilians as well. Peace Enforcement Refers to the use of military assets to enforce a peace against the will of the parties to a conflict when, for instance, a ceasefire has failed. Peace enforcement often exceeds the capacity of peacekeeping forces and is this better executed by more heavily armed forces. An Agenda for Peace’s most significant contribution to the modern understanding of peace is its introduction of the concept of “post-conflict peacebuilding.” 46 Post-Conflict Peace-Building Boutros-Ghali defines “post-conflict peace-building” as “action to identify and support structures which will tend to strengthen and solidify peace, advance a sense of confidence and wellbeing among people to avoid a relapse into conflict.” According to the Agenda for Peace, through agreements ending civil strife, post-conflict Peace Building may include disarming the previously warring parties and the restoration of order (DDR), the custody and possible destruction of weapons repatriating refugees, advisory and training support for security personnel (SSR), monitoring elections, advancing efforts to protect human rights, reforming or strengthening governmental institutions and promoting formal and informal processes of political participation. It is a framework for peace that addresses not only the latent forms of physical violence, but also aspects of a society that are structurally violent, and could lead to a re-emergence of fighting. Hence, it could be viewed as the counterpart of preventive diplomacy. Economic Community of West African States (ECO WAS) and the Maintenance of Peace The success of the European Union since its establishment first as the European coal and steel union 1952, has become an important reference point for regional integration among contiguous states. Given the very small size of many African countries in terms of population and economic output, particularly within West Africa, Regional integration became an attractive option after the attainment of political independence. Besides Nigeria, Ghana and Cote d’Ivoire each with a population of 10 million people and above, the rest have populations and economic output similar to those of cities. While Nigeria stands out with a large population of well over 200 million people, the poverty of the entire sub-region is comparable only with those of some countries in other parts of Africa. A high degree of ethnic differentiation and ethnic politicization has contributed to an impoverished West Africa that is lacking in a reasonable level of infrastructural facilities. The implication of this situation for the countries of the sub-region is that left alone, many of the countries will not be effectively viable in a way to achieve the desired development (Shehu, 2017:93). It is because of these and other factors that the 16 West African States desired to form a regional integration body, the treaty of which was signed on May 28, 1975. The membership extends from Cape Verde to Nigeria. It encompasses not only the Anglophone West African States but also the Francophone West African States too. While regional integration is expected to involve more than market liberalization, the experience of ECOWAS indicates the investment in physical infrastructure. Part of the central objectives of ECOWAS is to provide regional economic development. However, despite the promises that ECOWAS represents since its establishment, not too much could be shown as the achievements of the Organization. There is evidence that rather 47 than for member states to harmonize their policies in commerce, trade, investment and industrial output, the tendency is for each state to promote national planning rather than regional planning. There is a wide difference between what the nation-states agree to do in ECOWAS summits of Heads of State and Government, and what they actually do or implement as their respective national priorities. Although the member states are happy to identify with the aims and lofty goals of ECOWAS, part of the ineffectiveness of ECOWAS could be appreciated by the failure of member states to adhere to the provisions of the protocols they have so far enacted. Several protocols agreed to in principle at the summits are not in reality implemented by all the member states. The level of intra-community trade among member states for example when compared with trade with non-community members is rather negligible. An important problem in this regard is the issue of currency convertibility. The more difficulty encountered in converting currencies for trade and investment purposes, the less impressive trade expansion becomes. Although the performance of ECOWAS is rather unimpressive especially in the light of the challenges that gave rise to its establishment, progress in the direction of regional integration depends on how well the member states could provide the political will to support the organization. Such a development could only take place in stable polities. The Establishment of ECOMOG The scene of horrific mindless killings of human beings alarmed the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) to become heavily concerned with the instability of Liberia which threatened the peaceful atmosphere of the Sub-region. As such, the body determined to find a solution to the lingering crisis. Consequently, the Mediation Committee of ECOWAS that comprised representatives of Ghana, Nigeria, Gambia, Mali and Togo met on August, 6th and 7th 1990 at Banjul, the capital city of Gambia to restore peace to that country thereby creating favourable conditions necessary for Liberians to choose their leaders. At the meeting, fundamental issues of security were discussed with specific attention to Liberia. These include regional security, stability, peace and

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