GROUP 1 REPORT (ÐOCUMENT).docx

**INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT CHANGED WORLDVIEW** **LEARNING OBJECTIVES** At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to: 1. Discuss the different intellectual revolutions that changed worldview; and 2. Examine how these revolutions affected and shaped science and human b...

**INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT CHANGED WORLDVIEW** **LEARNING OBJECTIVES** At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to: 1. Discuss the different intellectual revolutions that changed worldview; and 2. Examine how these revolutions affected and shaped science and human beliefs through time. The term **revolution** denotes a drastic change in what is established, believed, and embraced by society. Intellectual revolutions throughout history heavily influenced politics, religion, and cultural institutions by impacting people's views of the world. In the fields of science and technology, people who shared revolutionary ideas were often branded as heretics or outcasts of society. Many were ostracized, imprisoned, and prevented from publishing their writings. One of them was **Nicolaus Copernicus**, an astronomer of the Renaissance period who challenged the previous notion about the cosmos, led the so-called **Scientific Revolution**, and permanently changed the way people viewed the world. **COPERNICAN REVOLUTION** **Pre-Copernican System** The revolution led by Copernicus came about in response to the questions that could not be addressed by the geocentric model of the universe. The geocentric model, also known as geocentrism popularized by the thinker **Ptolemy** in 140 AD, was a description of the universe with the Earth as the center. However, its beginnings can be traced to a much earlier time. In the 6^th^ century BC, the Greek philosopher **Anaximander (c. 610-546 BC)** drew the first map of the world with the Earth taking the shape of a cylinder floating in the center of the universe. He believed that the Sun and Moon were hollow rings of fire and that eclipses were the result of these rings closing. **Pythagoras** (c. 570-495 BC), a student of Anaximander, on the other hand, was the first to suggest that the Earth was a sphere. He was able to come up with such a conclusion by studying the constellations and the Earth's circular shadow on the moon during a lunar eclipse. **Plato (c. 428-348 BC)**, a famous student of Socrates and was said to be a follower of the teachings of the Pythagoreans, believed that the cosmos is made up of matter in geometric shapes. He explained that the multiplicity of the orbits were simple circular paths that keep on repeating inside each other around the Earth. However, he could not make sense of the retrograde motion of planets in his theorization of the geocentric model. Not much later, **Aristotle (c. 384-322 BC),** having studied under Plato, posited that the Earth was at the center of the universe with all other celestial bodies arranged in concentric crystalline spheres around it. Although his ideas were proven to be incorrect, he still inspired great thinkers to search for the truth. The version of the geocentric model by **Ptolemy (100-170 AD)** was a refined explanation behind the movements of planets. The people at the time openly accepted the idea that the Earth was unmoving while the Sun, planets, and stars revolved around it. This belief was left uncontested until **Copernicus (1473-1543)**, considered the "Father of Modern Astronomy," formulated the heliocentric model of the universe that triggered a major shift in worldview. **Copernican Heliocentrism** Copernicus attended the University of Krakow where he studied astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, and sciences. He became the apprentice of Domenico Maria de Novara, who introduced him to studies on Johann Muller's *Epitoma in Almagestum Ptolemaei (Epitome of Ptolemy's Almagest)* and *Disputationes adversus astrologiam divinatricem* (Disputations against Divinatory Astrology). **The first book discusses the foundation of Ptolemy's studies in astronomy, whereas the second book is about planetary models. Exposure to such works may have aided Copernicus in developing the heliocentric model.** For Copernicus, the geocentric model did not explain the occasional backward movement of the planets that was regarded as **the retrograde motion**. Between 1507 and 1515, Copernicus laid down the principles of his **heliocentric model.** He proposed that the Earth is not the center of the known universe but the Sun. **He put forward the idea that the Earth's rotation causes the rising and setting of the Sun and the seasons, and the movements of the stars are caused by the Earth's revolution around it. He proposed that the movement of the Earth through space is what sometimes causes the retrograde motion of planets and claimed that planets traveled in perfect circles.** **Copernicus finished his research in 1532 but was hesitant to publish his ideas because he knew it would be considered controversial by many. As a devout Catholic, he was afraid of judgment and religious objections because the ancient Greek and biblical teachings supported the geocentric model.** At the age of 70, Copernicus published the book *De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium* (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), which challenged the perception regarding the universe and detailed the heliocentric model. When the heliocentric model was presented to the public, only a few astronomers took interest in it. Many rejected the model outright because it went against the popular belief at that time and contradicted Aristotelian physics. **Most people subscribed to the idea that mathematical calculations were the primary means of understanding celestial bodies. As the physics required to explain the concepts of the Copernican model did not yet exist, there was no definite way of validating that it was more likely correct than the Ptolemaic system.** It took almost a hundred years before Copernicus's theory formally gained respect and recognition through further explorations by **Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), Johannes Kepler (1571-1630),** and **Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)**. These scientists worked to validate the heliocentric model despite the opposition of the church. **Tycho Brahe**, although inspired by the Copernican model, rejected the idea that the Earth is not the center of the universe because it defies the laws of physics that were taught and accepted. He proposed his own model, dubbed as geoheliocentrism or the Tychonic System, **which combined the Copernican and Ptolemaic systems. His model is geometrically identical to that of Copernicus, except that the Earth is the fixed center, with the Sun and Moon orbiting the Earth, and the other planets revolving around the sun.** Meanwhile, Copernicus's claim that planets moved in a perfect circle remained undisputed until **Johannes Kepler** proposed his laws of planetary motions in 1609, including the theory that planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus. In 1632, **Galileo Galilei**, an Italian thinker best known for his works in the fields of astronomy, cosmology, philosophy, mathematics, and physics, published a book that further reinforced the claim that the Earth orbited around the Sun. Using a telescope that he constructed, he was able to observe the movements of the Moon, Venus, and Jupiter and its satellites. He also became the first person to observe the craters of the moon using the telescope, disproving the idea that it is a perfectly smooth sphere. He even directed his telescope at the Sun, which led to the discovery of the existence of sunspots. **His observations did not exactly provide solid proof of the heliocentric model, but they eventually led to its acceptance, revolutionizing the human understanding of the cosmos. However, like Copernicus, Galileo drew the church's ire with his observations. He was persecuted and put on trial by the Inquisition in Rome, where he was found guilty of heresy and compelled to say that all his findings were wrong.** Nevertheless, the heliocentric theory continued to develop with the contribution of several scientists, among them, **Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1726)**. He was the first one to provide mathematical equations that could prove what Copernicus, Brahe, and Kepler tried to explain. In his work *Philosophic Naturalis Principia Mathematica*, Newton discusses the laws of motion and Kepler's laws of universal gravitation, placing heliocentrism as the foundation of his theoretical claims. **Key Figures of the Scientific Revolution** The ideas of intellectual giants Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton gradually ushered in the notion that the universe and the things that constitute it could be explained by human reason. This shift in thinking brought forth other personalities of the Renaissance era who came to prominence for their unconventional beliefs and breakthroughs, such as **Giordano Bruno (1548-1600)**, a martyred Italian monk who spread Copernicus's theory of a heliocentric and scientific universe; **Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), t**he "Father of Microbiology" who discovered bacteria; **Robert Boyle (1627-1691)**, considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry" for his extensive experiment and use of the scientific method; **Francis Bacon (1561-1626)**, a staunch supporter of the empirical method and inductive reasoning which provide that people understand truths according to their own experience; and René Descartes, a French mathematician and philosopher who practiced deductive reasoning and the scientific method in solving problems and whose idea of the human consciousness dominated until the 20th century. **DARWINIAN REVOLUTION** **Pre-Darwinian Belief** **Evolution, in the field of biology, is the change in characteristics of a species over several generations, relying on the idea that all species are related and gradually change over time.** Throughout history, the theory of evolution has always been controversial because it conflicted with long-held religious beliefs such as creationism-the view that the universe originated from \"specific acts of divine creation.\" Even scientists such as **Carolus Linnaeus**, a leading botanist of the 18th century whose binomial classification system is still being used today, subscribed to the Judeo-Christian version of creationism and saw their work as a mere representation of the unchanging order of life created by God. Late in the 18th century, theorizations on the concept of evolution quietly came to light in England and France, thanks to a small number of scientists, among them **Erasmus Darwin,** the grandfather of the well-known 19th-century naturalist, Charles Darwin. Erasmus Darwin was a physician and a discreet evolutionist, then called a transmutationist, who believed evolution occurred in living things including humans. However, he lacked the idea as to what drove the change. His *Zoonomia; or the Laws of Organic Life (1794-1796)* contained his theories about evolution and suggested that the Earth could have been much older than the timeline based on biblical origin. His writings, later, served as Charles Darwin's springboard for his theory of evolution. **Darwin's Theory of Evolution** Charles Darwin, at the age of 16, entered Edinburgh University to study medicine. It was there that Darwin discovered his inclination toward the natural sciences and worked with the transmutationist, **Robert Edmond Grant**, who was a radical evolutionist and a follower of the French biologist, **Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. Grant was accompanied by Darwin in collecting sea slugs and sea pens on seashores. He became Darwin's mentor and taught him the growth and relationships of primitive marine invertebrates.** Darwin was also influenced by prominent individuals in the fields of natural sciences, namely **Adam Sedgwick** and **John Stevens Henslow.** Adam Sedgwick and Darwin traveled to Wales for geological research and mapped the strata in the area in the summer of 1931. Later, on December 27, 1831, Henslow and Darwin went on a voyage to Tierra del Fuego, located in the southern tip of South America, aboard HMS Beagle with Captain Robert Fitzroy to survey the world. **During their journey, Darwin collected various specimens such as birds, plants, and fossils. He was able to study the principles of botany, geology, and zoology through close observation, research, and experimentation of such specimens.** **When he returned to England in 1836, he wrote his findings in the *Journal of Researches*, which was later published as part of Robert Fitzroy's narrative of the voyage entitled *Zoology of the Voyage of the HMS Beagle*. The trip made an impact on Darwin's view of natural history that urged him to establish theories on the origin of living things that were radically different from the popular views of naturalists during his time. Darwin's account of the voyage published in 1839, commonly referred to as *The Voyager of the Beagle*, caught the attention of scholars and institutions. The Cambridge Network gave him a £1,000 treasury grant, which he used to employ experts and publish their descriptions of the many specimens he collected in his travels.** Darwin's travels exposed him to different species of the world. Most naturalists during his time believed that living things were created since the beginning of time or over time. **In either case, the species did not change and remained the same throughout time, but Darwin believed otherwise.** Darwin's observations of the similarities of different species in different parts of the globe and their variations in specific areas led him to believe that they evolved from common ancestors. Darwin posited that species survived through "natural selection"-a process where species that adapt to the changing environment survive, whereas those that do not simply die out. After years of study and investigation, Darwin presented to the Linnean Society the concept of evolution in a letter that was read in a meeting in 1858. On November 24, 1859, further explaining his theory, he published the book, *On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection*. Although there were many scientists ahead of Darwin who suggested the theory that species evolve over time, he was the first one to publish a book with compelling evidence on the concept, earning him the title, "Father of Evolution." Darwin's findings were scrutinized by experts. Renowned anatomist **Richard Owen** determined that Darwin's Uruguay River skull came from a Toxodon, a hippopotamus-sized ancestor of the South American capybara, and the Pampas fossils were not rhinoceroses and mastodons but extinct armadillos, anteaters, and sloths. Meanwhile, ornithologist **John Gould** disclosed that the bird specimens that Darwin brought from Galapagos were all ground finches that adapted differently. Gould also determined that the Galapagos mockingbirds were composed of three species that are unique to each island. By then, Darwin examined the Fitzroy collection and found that each island also has its own species of finches. Darwin was baffled on how the finches diverge from their mainland colonies. In response to Darwin's publication, the Cambridge clerics declared Darwin's theory as bestial heresy that could corrupt mankind and destroy the spirituality of man. Despite the mixed reception of his theory at that time, Darwin spent the rest of his life researching until his death on April 19, 1882, in his family home in Down House, London. **Evolutionary Science and Philosophy** Darwin's publication steered the intellectual history of humanity in a new direction. Darwinian Revolution, in a way, completed the Copernican Revolution that was initiated three centuries before as it radically changed the perception of humans of their place in the universe. While the key figures of the Scientific Revolution placed into the realm of science the workings of the cosmos, Darwinian Revolution drew out for biology the notion of nature as an orderly system governed by natural laws, where the origin of humanity itself could be explained. Following his theory, the contemporary study of DNA of different species showed evidence of Darwin's theorization of evolution. Darwin's theory of biological evolution, also known as Darwinism, paved the way not only for developments in evolutionary biology but also served as the foundation for the philosophy of biology. **Evolutionary biology**, a subdiscipline of biological sciences that has to do with the origin of life as well as diversification and adaption of life forms through time, emerged nearly a century after Darwinian Revolution when several fields of biological research such as genetics, paleontology, taxonomy, and ecology came to be understood to be related. It was **Julian Huxley**, a leading figure of the mid-20^th^ century in the field of evolutionary biology, who coined such a relationship into a term called **modern synthesis**, otherwise named **Neo-Darwinism**, reconciling Darwin's theory of evolution with that of Gregor Mendel's ideas on heredity into a joint framework. While Darwin and Mendel lived and published works almost at the same time, Mendel, with his strong religious conviction, did not believe in evolution, and Darwin did not read Mendel's paper on his genetic research. Several differences between modern synthesis and Darwinian evolution exist. For one, scientists of the 1930s and 1940s who supported modern synthesis recognized evolutionary mechanisms other than natural selection. They were also able to explain the problem of genetic variation which Darwin failed to address. The incorporation of Mendel's theory of inheritance involving gene alleles solved such a problem. **Philosophy of biology** is the branch of philosophy of science that has to do with biology. It makes biology relevant to classic issues in the philosophy of science such as causation and explanation, progress, reductionism, and chance. It emerged as an field of philosophy between the 1960s and 1970s when scientists increasingly paid attention to biology due to Neo-Darwinism and independent the discovery of the DNA structure. **FREUDIAN REVOLUTION** **Pre-Freudian Psychology** Philosophical interest in the human mind, as well as behavior, could be traced back to ancient philosophers of the early civilizations in Greece, Persia, Egypt, and Asia, but psychology as a branch of philosophy did not emerge until the late 1870s in Germany and eventually developed into an independent scientific field. It was **Wilhelm Wundt** who founded the first laboratory dedicated to psychological research and conducted experimental studies. Early figures in the field include **Hermann Ebbinghaus** (memory), **William James** (pragmatism), and **Ivan Pavlov** (classical conditioning). In the early development of psychology as a field of science, psychologists had to work within a paradigm that they inherited from 17^th^-century philosopher **René Descartes.** Descartes's paradigm, also known as the **Cartesian paradigm**, consists of two components: the **mind-mind** problem, a view of the mind in relation to itself, and the **mind-body problem**, a view of the mind in relation to the body. **Descartes was of the position that humans are immediately aware of their own cognitive states and process out of necessity, and such self-aware mind is distinct from the body. The mind is a mere non-physical thing that interacts with the physical body through the brain as the medium**. The Cartesian paradigm came under pressure in the 19^th^ century as studies of disorders caused by brain lesions showed that the mental faculty for language is connected to a region between the ears that contains a ball of nerve tissue. In addition, Charles Darwin's evolution theory that every aspect of humans, including their mental capacities, evolved in response to the physical selection process has already gained acceptance. Although not the only one doubtful of Cartesian thought and arguing for the concept of the unconscious, Sigmund Freud rose to fame for his unconventional stance at that time that all cognitive processes are unconscious. Freud's radical view thus sparked the change in how humans understand and think about themselves. **Freud's Psychoanalysis and Structure of Personality** **Sigismund "Sigmund" Freud (1856-1939)** was initially interested in laboratory work concerning biological and anatomical subjects, but his interest shifted from microscopic studies to living patients. **During his first decade as a young neurologist, he initially accepted the prevalent philosophical assumptions regarding the mind and body. However, he gradually dissociated from these ideas because of the symptoms that he witnessed among his patients which were difficult to reconcile with the Cartesian view, which eventually led to his eventual rejection of the notion that humans are essentially rational animals and should use reason in controlling their emotions and drives.** Freud spent most of his life studying human psychology through a series of clinical researches and corresponding theories. His studies and case observations of different mental illnesses led him to his magnum opus Psychoanalysis, a book that detailed the methodology of treating mental illnesses, which earned him the title, "Father Of Psychoanalysis." Freud's psychoanalysis is anchored on the concept that human behavior is determined by unconscious motivations and biological and instinctive drives that support the idea that human beings have no real ability to make choices and control life events. Drives or instincts are recurring concepts in Freud's theories. According to survival instincts involving basic hunger, thirst, and sexual impulses; him, there are two conflicting main instincts: Eros, which refers to survival instincts involving basic hunger, thirst, and sexual impulses and Thanatos, which refers to aggressive and self-destructive instincts driven toward death. Through this, he summarized that humans are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain. Freud continued to develop multiple theories including his theorization on the **structures of personality**. This theory describes how people act according to different systems of personality. The human personality, according to Freud, is complex as it has more than a single component. He claimed that the personality is composed of three structures known as the **id**, **ego**, and **superego**. The **id** is the unconscious aspect of the personality that includes untamed instincts, impulses, and desires. It is said to be present since birth and operates by the pleasure principle that requires immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs to avoid feeling anything other than pleasure. **It does not mature and resides within every individual as he or she ages. The existence of the ego and superego allow people to control the id's impulses and act according to what is socially acceptable and realistic.** The **ego** is the structure of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality. It functions as a "referee" that balances the needs of the id against the demands and expectations of society. It controls and regulates a person in accordance with the outside world and is ruled by the reality principle, which maintains realistic and logical thinking to satisfy one's needs in a socially acceptable manner. The **superego** is the judicial structure of the personality that holds all the internalized moral standards and ideals that are acquired from close relationships, environment, and society. **It is the sense of right and wrong that provides the guidelines for making judgments anchored on one's established moral standards.** According to Freud, the superego is comprised of two parts-the **ego ideal** and **conscience ego**. The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for good behavior one has learned from his or her parents and other figures of authority. It is also known as the ideal self. The conscience ego, which leaves room for self-evaluation and criticism, is ruled by a reward and punishment system. It is responsible for the sense of guilt one feels when acting wrongly according to the superego. The superego works regardless of perceived consequences or benefits, and often does not maintain the idea of "the end justifies the means." **These personality systems function as a whole instead of three distinct and separate entities. While each component is unique, they interact with one another, and how they interact affects an individual's behavior. In essence, some aspects of human personality are more of primal urges to act upon the most basic needs. However, other aspects of one's personality work to counteract these urges to conform to the demands of reality**. **Evolution of Freud's Psychoanalysis** **Despite the critics of Freudian psychology, particularly concerning id or the unconscious as the dominant personality structure, psychoanalysis played an important role in how mental health issues are addressed to this day.** Freud's theory c psychoanalysis underwent transformation due to the modification by a number of psychologists of the 20^th^ century, among them, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erickson, and Erich Fromm. The theory's evolution has shaped not only the science that deals with the human mind but also the perception of society's role in human Personality development. **Carl Jung,** who is known for the development of **analytical psychology**, a branch of psychotherapy, was an early supporter of Freud because of their shared belief in the unconscious. He, however, disagreed with Freud's emphasis on the role of sexuality in personality and introduced the concepts of **collective consciousness**, referring to shared social norms, as well as archetypes. He also coined the terms "introvert" and "extrovert." Freud and **Alfred Adler** previously worked together, but just like Jung and Freud, they drifted apart when Adler rejected Freud's theory on the psychosexual aspect of personality. He developed his own method called **individual psychology** using a holistic approach to study a person's character. Adler's method considers a person's environment as well as the people he/she interacts with, and such an approach became extremely relevant in 20^th^-century counseling and psychiatric strategies. Meanwhile, **Erik Erickson** accepted Freud's psychosexual development theory but modified it as a **psychosocial theory**. While Freud believed that personality only takes shape during childhood, Erickson suggested that personality develops throughout one's lifespan. According to Erickson's theory, in each stage of development, there is a psychosocial task that a person must master to feel a sense of competence. He is known for coining the term "identity crisis." Another influential figure that reshaped psychoanalysis was **Erich Fromm**. He suggested that personality problems can be traced to conflicts between human needs and societal demands. His theory's emphasis is on the social and cultural influence on human personality. **SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AND NATION BUILDING** LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to: 1\. Discuss the role of science and technology in Philippine nation building; 2\. Identify the policies of the government regarding science and technology and appraise their impact on the development of the Filipino nation; and 3\. Evaluate government policies pertaining to science and technology in terms of their contributions to nation building. **HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES** **Precolonial Period** In precolonial Philippines, inhabitants of the islands were known to possess scientific and technological knowledge, particularly in livelihood. **During this time, people were already engaged in farming, fishing, mining, weaving, and pottery**. Natives made tools out of stones for sawing, drilling, and polishing. Later, they made use of copper, gold, bronze, and iron to craft metal tools. Early Filipinos were noted for their expertise in shipbuilding and seafaring which allowed them to trade with neighboring regions such as Borneo, Malacca, parts of the Malay Peninsula, and China. **Some products that were exchanged were jars, rattan, and tobacco.** In the highlands, rice and vegetables were grown in terraced rice paddies that utilized spring water. The **Banaue** **Rice Terraces** is among the engineering marvels made during the precolonial period. **Spanish Colonial Period** **The modernization of science and technology in the Philippines began when the country was colonized by Spain.** Research in agriculture and rising industries was encouraged by the *Real Sociedad Económica de los Amigos del País de Filipinas* (Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Philippines) founded by **Gov. Gen. Jose Basco y Vargas** under the authority of the Royal Decree of 1780. **Composed of private individuals and government officials, the society functioned like a modern national research council. It undertook the task of promoting the cultivation of several crops and the development of the silk industry. The society was provided with funds, which were used to provide incentives for successful experiments and inventions for the improvement of agriculture and other industries. It is also funded the publication of scientific literature, trips of Filipino scientists from Spain to the Philippines, and foreign and local scholarships for Filipinos.** Sanitation and more advanced agricultural practices were taught to the natives by the Spaniards. The Spanish constructed roads, bridges, and buildings through the *polo y servicio*, a system of forced labor required of every male native aged 16 to 60 years old. Modern innovations such as tram networks, electric lights, newspapers, and the banking system were introduced to the country by the latter half of the 19^th^ century. Offices and commissions were established by the Spanish government to undertake studies and regulations on various areas such as mines, Philippine flora, agriculture, geology, and chemical analysis of mineral waters throughout the country. Later, meteorological studies were promoted by Jesuits who founded the **Manila Observatory** in 1865 at the Ateneo de Manila University. The Observatory issued the first public typhoon warning in the country in 1879. In 1884, a royal decree made the Observatory an official institution. By 1901, it was made the central station of the **Philippine Weather Bureau** that was set up by the American colonial government. The Observatory remained under the Jesuit scientists and sponsored not only meteorological but also seismological and astronomical studies. One of the biggest contributions of Spanish colonial rule was the introduction of formal education by establishing colleges and universities. One notable institution is the **University of Santo Tomas** (UST), one of the world's oldest Catholic universities. It was founded by **Miguel de Benavides** in 1611 to establish a formal space to teach theology, philosophy, and the humanities. Medicine and pharmacy were later offered. **Dr. Leon Ma. Guerrero** was one of the first pharmacy graduates of the UST School of Pharmacy. He became known as the "Father of Philippine Botany and Pharmacy" because of his extensive work on medicinal plants and their uses. The study of medicine in the Philippines was also given priority in the Spanish era. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 made travel and trade easier. Filipinos involved in trade became wealthy and were able to send their sons to study in Europe. They were then called *Ilustrados*. In the early 1880s, Filipinos were beginning to cultivate their intellectual awareness and national consciousness when the Philippine nationalist movement was founded (Mojares, 2013). The propaganda-based movement, led by Filipino Ilustrados such as Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. Del Pilar, and more, established networks in Europe and asked the Spanish government for reforms in the Philippines. **However, the propaganda movement failed to bring reforms from Europe and incited the Philippine Revolution of 1896. The propaganda movement moved from Spain to Asia and established headquarters in Hong Kong. In 1898, Mariano Ponce became the representative of the Revolutionary Government of the Philippines. He established connections with Spanish intellectuals and wrote the book *Cuestión Filipina: Una Exposición Historico-Crítica de Hechos Relativos a la Guerra de la Independencia* (1901), which a expresses the Philippine's struggle for independence.** Though colonized still, the fervent love for intellectualism and independence grew among Filipinos, which enabled them to demand for the establishment of more educational institutions. Rizal's death brought attention to the cause of *Ilutsrados*-to prioritize education. **Knowing that education will empower Filipinos and help them gain independence, the Filipino people strived to further their knowledge and aim not only for independence but for economic and technological development.** **American Colonial Period** The development of science and technology in the Philippines was sustained during the American occupation through the establishment of government research institutions. On July 1, 1901, the Philippine Commission of the American colonial administration established. **The Bureau of Government Laboratories**, which replaced the **Laboratorio Municipal** founded by the Spanish colonial government. On October 26, 1905, the Bureau of Government Laboratories was renamed the **Bureau of Science**. It dealt with the study of tropical diseases such as leprosy, tuberculosis, cholera, and malaria. It also handled studies on the economic value of tropical products, the nutritional value of foods, and the testing of Philippine minerals and road building materials among others. In 1906, the bureau also published the *Philippine Journal of Science* that reported work done in local laboratories and scientific developments abroad, which were relevant to the Philippines. Other government institutions were also established such as the **Bureau of Health** (1898), **Bureau of Mines** (1900), **Bureau of Forestry** (1900), **Weather Bureau** (1901), **Bureau of Public Works** (1901), **Bureau of Agriculture** (1901), **Bureau of Coast and Geodetic Survey** (1905), **Bureau of Plant Industry** (1929), and **Bureau of Animal Industry** (1929). A national educational institution was established in this period, along with organized faculties in the areas of sciences arts, medicine, philosophy, and literature, which resulted in the founding of the University of the Philippines (UP) on June 18, 1908. The College of Agriculture, School of Forestry, School of Pharmacy, and the Graduate School of Tropical Medicine and Public Health were among the first colleges to be organized under UP. Further move to research on the fields of science and technology was evident through the establishment of research councils and granting of scholarships. Qualified Filipinos were given scholarships for advanced training abroad. On December 8, 1933, the **National Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP)** was established to actively involve the promotion of scientific researches in the country. Basic and applied research in the field of medicine and agriculture also received significant support during the American occupation. **Post-war to Present** The onset of World War II significantly diminished educational and scientific progress in the Philippines. It was only after the war that established organizations for science and technology resumed their tasks. The creation of more public and private educational institutions resulted in the increase of science and engineering students. However, there has been little innovation in the education and training of scientists and engineers. This is due in part to the conservative nature of self-regulation of professional associations. In effect, they have been unable to perceive the dynamic relationship between science, technology, and society, and failed to see the relevance of their training to Philippine conditions. *Lowering of the American flag and raising of the Philippine flag during the Declaration of Independence in 1946* Several changes occurred in an attempt to reorganize existing agencies and integrate new services. In 1947, the **Philippine Bureau of Science** was transformed into the **Institute of Science**. The **Institute of Nutrition** and the **Science Foundation of the Philippines** (SFP) were also established (along with the Institute of Science) under the Office of the President. In 1952, the **Commission on Volcanology** (COMVOL) was created and placed under NRCP. Another challenge during the early post-war years of the Philippines was the lack of funding, planning, and coordination of government-sponsored scientific research. To address this issue, the Philippine Congress enacted the **Science Act of 1958** establishing the **National Science Development Board** (NSDB) to formulate policies for the development of science and technology programs, and coordinate with different agencies. The Act also founded the **Philippine Atomic Energy Commission** (PAEC) and the **National Institute of Science and Technology** (NIST), placing NRCP under NSDB. Through the passage of laws, additional science agencies were created that broadened NSDB's role and network in the 1960s. These were the **Philippine Inventors Commission** (1964), **Philippine Coconut Research Institute** (1964), **Philippine Textile Research Institute** (1967), and **Forest Products Research** and **Industries Development Institute** (1969). Several existing agencies were also assigned to the NSDB for coordination of policies, namely the NRCP, **Philippine Science High School** (PSHS), **Metals Industry Research and Development Center** (MIRDC), the SFP, and **Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research** (PCARR).