Child Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles PDF

Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1 REPORTING NO. 1 FOUR BROAD DIMENSION OF CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT A. FIRST DIMENSION: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT MOD...

Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1 REPORTING NO. 1 FOUR BROAD DIMENSION OF CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT A. FIRST DIMENSION: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT MODULE OVERVIEW Physical development is the process by which the human body develops from infancy to adulthood, including the growth patterns, motor development, and general physical health. It involves the refinement of motor skills, which are essential for a child to control and use their bodies effectively. This process starts at infancy and childhood where the infant and toddler develop their physical senses, sight, touch, smell, sound, and taste, and use these senses to interact with and learn about their environment. Hence, the physical development of the children must be assessed so that the kid's growth can be checked, and any form of delayed development can be prevented. A physical development assessment evaluates an individual's physical development, health, and other aspects of development at any age. This includes height/length, weight, motor function, and coordination function, among other things. Physical developmental assessments should include information gathered from interviews with children's parents and childcare providers, as well as research into the children's medical histories. It should be performed in both formal and informal settings to gain an accurate view of a child's overall physical development. LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this module, you should have: 1. Define physical development and its importance. 2. Determine the role of prenatal development to physical development 3. Identify key components of physical development assessment. 4. Explain the role of developmental milestones and key stages of prenatal development. 5. Recognize common issues in physical development, challenges during prenatal development and solutions. 6. Explained the role of early intervention and prenatal care. IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ASSESSMENT Physical development assessment is essential in ensuring that individuals, particularly children, go through normal stages of growth and physical maturity. In this way, assessments serve to remind the child and parents of where he or she stands in terms of progress compared to their peers of the same age group. These assessments help to evaluate physical well-being, identify developmental issues, and establish the need for early intervention if any abnormalities are discovered. Gross motor development, body growth measurements, and posture assessments are very important in physical development. For such reasons, the assessments are helpful also for conditions that can affect growth and development such as obesity, malnutrition or physical disability. (Boyd & Bee, 2019). PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1 Two settings in Physical Development Assessment Formal settings – it includes clinics, hospitals, or other health care facilities. Formal assessment is performed by health care professionals who use norm- or criterion-referenced tests to evaluate a child's physical development. Norm-referenced - tests follow a set of standard procedures. They measure a child's performance in relation to other children of the same age or grade. These tests must be administered precisely to ensure reliability and validity. Criterion-referenced - tests place emphasis on mastery of specific skills. They measure a child's performance in relation to his/her past performances rather than comparing it to average group performance. Informal settings - include homes, childcare facilities, and other locations where children are not under direct supervision of a health care professional. It utilizes preexisting formulas and guidelines, checklists, and simple tests to evaluate whether children may have problems with physical development. Informal assessment, also known as screening, is performed occasionally by health care professionals but mostly by parents, childcare providers, and teachers. Both formal and informal assessments address several areas of children's physical development. It includes physical health and growth, visual and auditory functioning, gross and fine motor skills. Vital Foundations for Good Physical Development Primary (movement) senses 1. The vestibular (balance) system deals with the sensation of gravity and movement. 2. The proprioceptive system processes information from muscles and joints and enables us to know where the different parts of our body are, how they are moving, and how much strength our muscles need to use. It makes you aware of your posture, movement and body position. 3. The tactile (touch) system - discriminates sensations to the skin including pressure, temperature and pain. Secondary senses 1. The visual system - processes information taken in by the eyes and includes control of eye movement to fix on, and track, objects. 2. The auditory system - locates and processes sound information to the ears. 3. The olfactory system - processes our sense of smell. 4. The gustatory system - processes our sense of taste. PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT Pre-natal development refers to the process of encompassing the period from a single cell after conception into the formation of an embryo, through the development of a fetus, to birth. Prenatal development typically takes about 38 weeks from conception to completion. During this period, a single-celled zygote progresses through multiple stages, eventually developing into a full-term baby. Three Primary Stages of Prenatal Development Germinal stage Conception occurs when a female egg (ovum) is fertilized by male sperm during ovulation. The sperm travels through the vagina and uterus to reach the fallopian tube, where it penetrates the egg’s outer membrane, the zona pellucida. This process allows the genetic material from both the sperm and egg to combine and form a zygote. PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 2 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1 The zygote begins dividing rapidly through a process known as cleavage, first into two cells (blastomeres), then four, eight, and so on. About sixty hours after fertilization, the zygote develops into a morula, which moves toward the uterus approximately three days post-fertilization. As cell division continues, a fluid-filled cavity (blastocoele) forms, leading to the creation of a blastocyst, a structure composed of 200-300 cells with an outer layer of trophoblasts and an inner cell mass of embryoblasts. Around six days after conception, the blastocyst reaches the uterus and undergoes implantation, adhering to the uterine wall. This process is crucial for establishing a pregnancy and marks the end of the germinal stage and the beginning of the embryonic stage. Human Fertilization. The sperm and ovum unite through fertilization creating a zygote that (over the course of 8-9 days) will implant in the uterine wall, where it will preside over the course of 9 months. Image of the blastocyst at 6 days which shows the inner cell mass, which will become the fetus, the trophoblast which will form the placenta, and the blastocoel, a fluid-filled cavity. The endometrium is the lining of the uterus where the embryo will implant. Embryonic stage The embryonic stage begins after implantation and lasts until eight weeks after conception. The embryo undergoes significant changes, including the formation of the primary germ layers, ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm through a process called gastrulation. These layers develop into various tissues and organs in the body. PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 3 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1 The ectoderm forms structures such as forms of skin, hair, brain, and nervous tissue, the mesoderm develops into connective tissues, the circulatory system, muscles, and bones, and the endoderm becomes the digestive system, lungs, and urinary system. Key developments during the embryonic stage include: Week 3: Development of the brain, heart, spinal cord, and digestive system begins. Week 4: Formation of facial structures, limb buds, and a beating heart. Week 5: Development of eyes, nose, kidneys, lungs, and heart valves. Week 6: Formation of hands, feet, and digits, with continued brain and heart development. Week 7: Development of hair follicles, sex organs, and brain waves. Week 8: Distinct facial features, well-developed internal organs, and the brain controlling muscle movements. By the end of the embryonic stage, all essential structures have formed, and the embryo is referred to as a fetus. Fetal stage The fetal stage in human prenatal development begins around the eighth week after conception and continues until birth, measuring about 3 centimeters (1.2 inches) and weighing 3 grams (0.1 ounce). By full term at 38 weeks, the fetus may reach 50 centimeters (20 inches) and weigh 3.3 kilograms (7.3 pounds). This stage is characterized by significant growth and the maturation of tissues and organ systems. During this period, the fetus undergoes rapid development, including the ability to breathe, suck, and swallow by the 32nd week, and the capacity to respond to light and sound by the 36th week. The fetal period is distinct from the embryonic stage, which occurs from the second to the eighth week and is marked by the differentiation of major organs. Here are some major features of fetal development by week: Weeks 7–8 (End of Embryonic Stage): The embryo’s head becomes more erect, and the trunk straightens. Facial features like eyes, ears, and jaws become more defined, while limbs develop jointed digits. By the end of eight weeks, most internal organs are well-formed, and the embryo measures about 25 mm (1 inch) long. Weeks 9–12 (Third Month): The fetus is approximately 8 cm (3.2 in) long. The head makes up about half of the body’s size, and facial features such as the eyes, neck, and eyelids are well- formed. The fetus can make a fist, red blood cells begin forming in the liver, and teeth begin to develop. External genitalia become recognizable, and ossification centers (future bones) appears. Weeks 9–12 (Third Month): The fetus is approximately 8 cm (3.2 in) long. The head makes up about half of the body’s size, and facial features such as the eyes, neck, and eyelids are well- formed. The fetus can make a fist, red blood cells begin forming in the liver, and teeth begin to develop. External genitalia become recognizable, and ossification centers (future bones) appears. Weeks 13-15 (Fourth Month): The fetus grows to about 15 cm (6 in). Fine hair (lanugo) starts to cover the head, and structures like the lungs, muscles, and bones continue to develop. The fetus can swallow and make sucking motions. The umbilical cord attaches higher on the abdominal wall, and facial features become more distinct. Weeks 16-20 (Fifth Month): The fetus reaches around 20 cm (8 in). Lanugo begins covering the entire skin surface, and fat deposits start forming under the skin. Eyebrows, eyelashes, and nails PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 4 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1 are visible. The fetus becomes more active, and the mother may start to feel movements (quickening). The fetus’s body proportions become more balanced. Weeks 21-24(Sixth Month): The fetus measures about 28.5 cm (11.2 in) and weighs around 0.7 kg (1 lb. 10 oz.). Hair grows longer on the head and eyebrows and eyelashes finish forming. The lungs develop air sacs (alveoli), and the fetus can startle in response to sound. Eyebrows and eyelashes are visible, and the skin becomes less transparent, though the body remains lean. Weeks 25-28(Seventh Month): The fetus reaches approximately 38 cm (15 in) in length and weights around 1.2 kg (2 lb. 11 oz.). Rapid brain development occurs, and the fetus gains control over movements, including opening and closing the eyelids. The lungs continue developing, and fetus is capable of breathing air if born prematurely. Weeks 29-32(Eight Month): The fetus grows about 38-43 cm (15-17 in) and weighs around 2 kg (4 lb. 6 oz.). Fat deposits increase under the skin, and the bones, though developed, are not yet fully hardened. The lungs remain immature but breathing movements begin. The testes begin descending into the scrotum in males. Weeks 33-36 (Ninth Month): The fetus measures 41-48 cm (16-19 in) and weighs 2.6 -3.0 kg (5 lb. 12 oz. to 6 lb. 12 oz.) Lanugo starts to disappear, body fat increases, and fingernails fully grow. The fetus gains control over body function, and the skin becomes less wrinkled as fat accumulates. Weeks 36-38 (Full Term): The fetus measures around 48-53 cm (19-21 in) and is considered full-term. Most lanugo is gone, replaced by thicker hair on the head. Fingernails extend past the fingertips, and all organ systems are fully functioning, preparing the fetus for birth. By the end of the fetal stage, the fetus is fully developed and prepared for birth. Pre-Natal Development of the Fetus By the end of the fetal stage, the fetus is fully developed and prepared for birth. Common Problems During Prenatal Development Abnormalities may arise during the prenatal development. Here are the common problems: Congenital Abnormalities Congenital abnormalities can be caused by genetic factors, environmental influences, or a combination of both. Some are inherited, while others may result from new mutations or environmental exposures during pregnancy. These are structural or functional anomalies that occur during prenatal development and are present at birth. These disorders affect about 5% of infants and can involve various parts of the body, including the heart, limbs, and organs. Approximately 10 to 15 percent of pregnancies end before the twentieth week, a process called miscarriage or spontaneous abortion; congenital abnormalities account for a significant proportion of miscarriages. Genetic abnormalities account for approximately 5 percent of miscarriages. Diagnosis often involves prenatal imaging techniques like ultrasonography and genetic testing. Common examples of congenital abnormalities include congenital heart disease, which can manifest as septal defects (hole in heart), PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 5 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1 valve defects, or complex conditions like tetralogy of Fallot and transposition of the great arteries. Other examples include cystic fibrosis, a disorder affecting cell membrane transport, and Marfan syndrome, a connective tissue disorder. Maternal derived abnormalities Maternal-derived abnormalities refer to congenital disorders in a fetus caused by factors related to the mother. These can include infections, drug use, nutritional deficiencies, and other environmental influences during pregnancy. Babies born to mothers aged 17-35 tend to be healthier, as older mothers (especially over 40) face higher risks of complications like Down syndrome and pregnancy issues. A mother's health status, such as viral infections like HIV or illnesses like rubella, can affect fetal development. Proper nutrition, especially folic acid, calcium, and iron is crucial, with deficiencies leading to issues like neural tube defects. Exposure to harmful substances, called teratogens (e.g., alcohol, cocaine, and certain drugs), can also cause fetal malformations. Prematurity A premature birth means a baby is born too early. The birth takes place before the 37th week of pregnancy. Though, advances in medical care have improved survival rates for premature infants, the survival depends heavily on gestational age. Infants born at 21 weeks or earlier have no chance of survival, while those born at 22-23 weeks have a survival rate of up to 35%. By 24-25 weeks, survival improves to 40-80%, and at 26-27 weeks, survival exceeds 80-90%, with over 90% surviving past 27 weeks. 21 weeks or less: 0 percent survival rate 22 weeks: 0–10 percent survival rate 23 weeks: 10–35 percent survival rate 24 weeks: 40–70 percent survival rate 25 weeks: 50–80 percent survival rate 26 weeks: 80–90 percent survival rate 27 weeks: greater than 90 percent survival rate BRAIN DEVELOPMENT Brain Development Brain development is a complex process that begins in the prenatal stage and continues into early adulthood. It involves the formation and differentiation of neurons and glial cells, which are influenced by genetic and environmental factors. The nervous system starts forming around 18 days after conception with the development of the neural plate, eventually forming the neural tube, which differentiates into the brain and spinal cord. During prenatal development, neurons are generated at a rapid rate, forming intricate neuronal circuits and synapses essential for brain function. Physical development is closely linked to brain development, as the brain controls and coordinates physical growth and motor functions. The brain's growth is most rapid during the first two years of life, with significant increases in size and complexity due to the growth of neurons, glial cells, and myelination of axons. This rapid growth supports the development of motor skills and physical capabilities in infants and young children. Throughout life, brain development continues through processes like synaptic pruning and the formation of new neural connections, which are crucial for learning and adapting to new experiences. These processes are influenced by both genetic factors and environmental stimuli, such as nutrition, sensory experiences, and social interactions, highlighting the interconnectedness of brain and physical development. The brain is divided into three main parts: the brain stem, cerebellum, and cerebrum. The brain stem connects the spinal cord to the brain and controls reflexes and involuntary functions like breathing and heart rate. The cerebellum, behind the brain stem, helps with balance and coordination. The cerebrum, the largest part of the brain, is responsible for higher processes such as memory, learning, planning, and decision-making. Its outer layer, the cerebral cortex, is folded to increase surface area, enhancing complex brain functions. The folds are called gyri (ridges) and sulci (grooves). PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 6 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1 Neurons and Synapses form the Wiring of the Brain Neurons are the fundamental units of the brain and nervous system, responsible for receiving sensory input, sending motor commands, and transforming and relaying electrical signals at every step in between. Each neuron consists of a cell body, axon, and dendrites. Neurons communicate with each other through synapses, which are junctions where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals across a synaptic cleft to the next neuron or effector cell, such as a muscle or gland. Synapses play an essential role in neural communication by allowing the transmission of electrical impulses via chemical neurotransmitters. This process is essential for the complex responses of the nervous system to stimuli, as it involves the release, binding, and deactivation of neurotransmitters, which can either excite or inhibit nerve transmission. The development of neurons and synapses is vital for physical development, as they form the intricate wiring of the brain, enabling the formation of neuronal circuits and synaptic connections. This complex network is influenced by genetic and environmental factors, which are crucial for the differentiation and proper functioning of neurons throughout life. Communication Between Neurons FIGURE 2 Source: Adapted by Bill Day from www.educarer.org, 2006 The brain processes information through networks of neurons, which communicate using electrical and chemical signals, forming the basis of learning and memory. A neuron has a cell body, dendrites to receive signals, and an axon that sends signals to other neurons. Axons are sometimes coated with myelin to improve communication efficiency. Neurons communicate at synapses, where they do not touch but pass messages across a tiny gap called the synaptic cleft.. PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 7 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1 The brain processes information through networks of neurons, which communicate using electrical and chemical signals, forming the basis of learning and memory. A neuron has a cell body, dendrites to receive signals, and an axon that sends signals to other neurons. Axons are sometimes coated with myelin to improve communication efficiency. Neurons communicate at synapses, where they do not touch but pass messages across a tiny gap called the synaptic cleft. When a neuron (Neuron A) receives a signal, it generates an electrical charge that travels down its axon to the axon terminals. This causes vesicles in the terminals to release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters cross the gap and bind to receptors on another neuron (Neuron B), triggering a new electrical charge in Neuron B, continuing the communication process. Communication Between Neurons FIGURE 2 Source: Adapted by Bill Day from www.educarer.org, 2006 The Organization of a Child’s Brain is Affected by Early Experiences Early experiences significantly impact the organization of a child's 15,000 synapses per neuron, which is roughly twice the number found in an adult brain. These connections are strengthened or weakened based on sensory stimulation, leading to the development of efficient neural pathways. This process is crucial during early childhood, a critical period for brain development, where appropriate sensory inputs are necessary for proper neural development. After this period, a significant reduction in synapses occurs, retaining only those reinforced by sensory experiences. The early years also lay the foundation for future development, as caregivers play a vital role in shaping a child's experiences. Warm, engaged, and sensitive caregiving during infancy and toddlerhood supports learning and development, contributing to a secure and self-confident child These early interactions help children learn basic regulation and form secure attachments, which are essential for later developmental stages. The brain creates more synapses than necessary early in development to allow flexibility in adapting to the environment. Genes guide the brain’s initial wiring, but they don’t complete the entire design. Instead, the brain fine-tunes itself based on sensory input and experiences. For instance, hearing more speech strengthens the synapses involved in language processing, while those rarely used weaken and are eventually eliminated. This process of strengthening frequently used synapses and discarding unused ones helps optimize brain efficiency. The abundance of synapses during the first three years makes the brain highly receptive to new experiences, allowing it to absorb information more effectively. As synapses are pruned over time, the brain refines its networks, enhancing learning and cognitive abilities. This ability to reshape itself, or plasticity, allows humans to adapt to their environment. The process of creating excess synapses and later trimming them ensures the brain develops in response to a child’s unique experiences. From Conception to Age Three: An Outline of Early Brain Development FIRST TRIMESTER Brain development begins within weeks after conception. During the embryonic period (first 8 weeks), the structural foundation of the brain forms and continues to develop through the fetal period. The first key event is the formation of the neural tube, which begins as the neural plate folds into a tube. By 4 weeks after conception, the neural tube closes and later develops into the brain and spinal cord. PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 8 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No. 1 At around 7 weeks, the first neurons and synapses form in the spinal cord, enabling early fetal movements. These movements, although not yet felt by the mother, can be detected by ultrasound and MRI, and they stimulate further brain development. SECOND TRIMESTER During the second trimester, the brain surface starts developing gyri and sulci (folds and grooves), with this process nearing completion by the end of the trimester. The cerebral cortex grows in complexity, and synapses start forming. Myelination, or the development of myelin on axons, begins during this time and continues through adolescence, allowing faster neural processing. THIRD TRIMESTER In the early third trimester, the cerebral cortex takes over functions previously managed by the brainstem, such as fetal breathing and responses to external stimuli. The cortex also begins to support early learning, which starts developing currently. YEAR ONE At birth, the brain’s development is already remarkable. Newborns can recognize faces and emotions and are familiar with their mother’s voice. The cerebellum triples in size during the first year, aiding motor skill development. Vision improves dramatically as the visual cortex grows. At around 3 months, recognition abilities improve due to hippocampal growth, which is involved in memory. During this time, infants' brain circuits for language start consolidating, shaped by the language they hear. By the end of the first year, a baby’s brain is already wired for the primary language spoken at home. YEAR TWO The second year is marked by rapid language development, with a sharp increase in vocabulary, sometimes quadrupling. The brain’s language areas grow denser and more interconnected, supporting this vocabulary explosion. Myelination also increases, improving the brain's ability to handle more complex tasks. Self-awareness and higher-order cognitive abilities, such as recognizing oneself in the mirror and using personal pronouns, begin to emerge. YEAR THREE By the third year, synaptic density in the prefrontal cortex peaks at nearly twice the adult level. This region strengthens its connections with other areas of the brain, enhancing cognitive abilities such as interpreting past events and understanding cause and effect. Children become more flexible in their thinking and are better able to understand and respond to their environment. The Earliest Messages that the Brain Receives have an Enormous Impact Early sensory experiences play an essential role in brain development due to the brain's neuroplasticity, which is the ability to change and adapt throughout life. During infancy, the nervous system is particularly receptive to sensory experiences, which can significantly influence neuronal growth and the formation of neural connections and circuits. For instance, early visual experiences are essential for the normal development of the visual cortex, which is critical for form and depth perception. PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT Perceptual Development Perceptual development refers to the process by which infants and young children gain awareness and understanding of sensory stimuli from their environment. This development is essential as it involves the maturation of sensory systems and the ability to interpret sensory information, which is essential for interacting with the world. Infants are born with functional sensory systems, but they lack perceptual knowledge, which they acquire through experience. As their senses mature, they begin to coordinate information from different sensory modalities, a process known as intermodal perception, which improves throughout infancy. Perceptual development is closely linked to physical development. For instance, as infants grow, their ability to explore their environment physically, such as reaching, grasping, and moving, enhances their perceptual learning. PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 9 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No. 1 This interaction between sensory experiences and physical actions helps in the development of spatial awareness and depth perception. Sensory experiences are vital for the normal development of the nervous system, and early sensory stimulation can influence brain growth and neural connections, highlighting the importance of enriched environments for perceptual and physical development. The developing ability to become aware of the social and physical environment through the senses: 6–9 Months: At this stage, children actively explore their surroundings using their senses. Examining an object by looking at it and mouthing it. Turning their heads in response to sounds, like a caregiver’s footsteps. Showing excitement when recognizing familiar colors or foods. 12–18 Months: Children begin to adjust their interactions based on sensory information: Walking slowly on uneven surfaces and faster on smooth ones. Choosing to slide down a steep hill instead of walking down. Swaying to the rhythm of music. 30–36 Months: By this age, children combine sensory information to inform their actions: Identifying familiar objects by touch, like a blanket or a buried truck. Watching their own drawing movements and trying to replicate them. Climbing more carefully as they reach the top of a ladder. Foundational Behaviors (4 to 7 Months): During this period, infants may: Have a range of vision of several feet and recognize familiar objects. Startle at loud noises and explore textures, like crumpling paper. Exploratory Behaviors (9 to 17 Months): Infants may: Nuzzle into familiar fabrics to smell them. Recognize sounds associated with daily activities, like running water. Engage in messy play, exploring materials like play dough. Sensory Interaction (19 to 35 Months): Children enjoy various tactile experiences: Playing with sand and water. Handling fragile items carefully. Enjoying tactile books with different textures. COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ASSESSMENT Motor Skills Development Motor skills refer to the ability to execute movements using muscles in a coordinated and controlled manner. The term motor behavior describes all movements of the body, including movements of the eyes (as in the gaze), and the infant’s developing control of the head. They are generally divided into two categories: Gross Motor Skills These include activities such a walking, running, and jumping, which in their performance need the coordination of large muscle groups (Boyd & Bee, 2019). Gross motor development serves as the foundation for the suggested physical activity required to maintain a healthy weight (ChildObesity 180's Active Schools Acceleration Project, 2012; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2011; Berk, 2012). Furthermore, gross motor activity has been shown to improve a child's academic performance (CDC, 2010, 2011; Franke, 2005; Fredericks, Kokot, & Krog, 2006). Gross motor skills require the coordination of muscles of the body and the neurological system of the brain. These skills start developing at infancy, between 0-6 months, and continue throughout childhood. The developing ability to move the large muscles: 6–9 Months: Children at this age show emerging posture and movement abilities: Sit on the floor with bent legs, positioning one leg closer to the body. Use forearms to pull themselves while on their tummy. Move from sitting to hands and knees PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 10 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No. 1 12–18 Months: Children begin to walk and run with basic control and coordination: Stand on one foot, with or without support. Walk sideways and push toys like doll strollers. Climb onto adult-sized furniture and run with improved control. 36 Months: Children move with ease, displaying coordination and skill: Walk and run with the ability to change speed and direction. Kick and throw balls, although with limited control. Bend to pick up toys and pedal a tricycle. Foundational Behaviors (4 to 7 Months): Infants may: Roll from back to stomach and vice versa. Sit without support and turn to reach objects. Balance on one side and rock on hands and knees. Exploratory Behaviors (9 to 17 Months): Infants may: Creep on hands and knees or feet. Pull to a stand using furniture for support. Walk without assistance and throw balls. Advanced Motor Skills (19 to 35 Months): Children may: Jump off low steps and kick a ball. Ride non-pedal toys by pushing with their feet. Walk up or down stairs without support and catch larger balls. Tools used to assess gross motor skills are: Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID) - The BSID evaluates children aged newborn to 3 ½ years through measuring body control proficiency, large muscle coordination, purposeful movement, and posture. Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS) - The PDMS evaluates children less than 6 years of age, and measures reflexes; balance; locomotion, such as crawling, walking, and jumping; and object manipulation, such as catching and throwing. Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOTMP) - The BOTMP, which evaluates children aged 4 ½ to 14 ½ years, measures strength, speed and agility, and bilateral coordination. TGMD - The TGMD, or test for Motor Development, is administered to children aged three to ten years. The TGMD is a criterion-based assessment, with scores reflecting the existence or absence of a skill. The test contains the following: o Locomotion - includes running, galloping, hopping, and sliding. o Object control - two-hand hitting a ball, including dribbling, catching, and kicking skills TGMD-2 - The acronym TGMD-2 stands for Test for Gross Motor Development 2. It contains all TGMD testing but is limited to children aged 3 to 10 years and 11 months. The TGMD-2 test the following: o Locomotion - running, galloping, hopping, sliding o Object control - two-hand hitting a ball, dribbling, catching, kicking o Fundamental movement - sports-specific skills Fine Motor Skills Children develop fine motor skills in infancy and continue to improve them throughout toddlerhood and early childhood. The muscles that allow for fine motor skills take time to develop because they are not required until later in life. It occurs because of the learning process, which includes exposure to toys, food, and other experiences. This repetitive exposure helps toddlers establish muscle memory. Muscle memory occurs when an activity is repeated enough times that it can be PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 11 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No. 1 accomplished automatically and without thinking. Fine motor skills are strength, coordination, and eye-hand skills. This includes finer more detailed movements such as grasping, writing, or even drawing. Strength, coordination, and hand-eye coordination are all examples of fine motor skills. These abilities are essential in establishing roots in self-care, forms of writing, and artistic expression. This component focuses on a child's developing understanding of their health, including self-care, nutrition, and physical safety. The developing ability to move the small muscles: Around 6 Months: Children actively reach for and grasp objects, often using one hand and showing early exploration skills. Grasping objects using one hand. Sweeping toys closer with a raking motion. Holding and banging blocks together. Around 18 Months: Children manipulate objects with greater control, often using one hand or both hands together. Holding a crayon and scribbling. Placing pegs into a pegboard. Pointing to pictures in a book and stacking rings. Around 36 Months: Children demonstrate advanced coordination of fine movements, skillfully manipulating a variety of objects. Using child-safe scissors to cut paper. Stringing beads and building towers with blocks. Turning pages of a book and drawing with a crayon. Foundational Behaviors (4 to 7 Months): Early grasping and transferring of objects, reaching for toys, and making basic movements with hands. 9 to 17 Months: Improved ability to manipulate objects, including picking up and dropping blocks, turning pages of books, and using fingers to explore. 19 to 35 Months: More refined skills such as folding paper, drawing with crayons, and manipulating containers. Tools used to assess fine motor skills are: PDMS - The PDMS evaluates children less than six years of age, and measures hand function (such as grasp), dexterity, and hand-eye coordination. Lincoln-Oseretsky Motor Development Scale (LOMDS) - The LOMDS evaluates children of all ages, and measures finger dexterity and speed and hand-eye coordination. Beery-Buktenica Test (also called VMI or the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration) - The Beery-Buktenica Test evaluates children over two years of age, and measures hand control and hand-eye coordination. Tools used to assess the motor development of children with known disabilities or impairment: Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM) - The GMFM measures the continuing motor development of children with cerebral palsy. It evaluates children's functional abilities to sit, crawl, stand, walk, and jump (among other skills). Lighthouse Test – it measures visual acuity in preschool children with disabilities. Transdisciplinary Play-Based Assessment (TPBA) - TPBA measures gross and fine motor development in children using observation of unstructured play. Physical Growth Measurements Physical growth can be measured through a variety of means, including: Height and Weight Measurements - These are the most basic indicators of growth. Healthcare providers can establish whether a kid is growing normally for their age and PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 12 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1 Body Mass Index (BMI) - BMI is a commonly used method for determining if an individual's body weight is appropriate for their height. BMI is especially useful in detecting conditions like obesity or malnutrition, both of which can have long-term consequences for physical development. Growth Charts - enable comparison of children's growth against age-appropriate and gender- specific averages. Postural and Body Coordination Assessments Postural assessments assess muscle alignment and balance of the body. Good posture is a sign of healthy muscle and skeletal development. When it comes to physical coordination, poor posture can indicate physical problems, such as muscular imbalances, skeletal issues, or even developmental disorders (Malina, Bouchard, & Bar-Or, 2004). Coordination assessments typically involve testing balance, reflexes, and muscle control to ensure that the individual has normal physical functionality. Miller Assessment for Preschoolers (MAP) - evaluates balance and posture, touch, pressure, temperature, and pain perception, and awareness of the body's position. Visual and Auditory Assessments Vision and hearing should be assessed prior to motor development because impairments in these areas often result in impairments in other areas. For example, children with visual impairments may not crawl because they don't have visual stimulation needed to motivate them to move forward. Children with hearing impairments may not be able to stand without stumbling because damage to the inner ear upsets their balance. Tools use in visual and auditory assessments are: Test of Sensory Functioning in Infants (TSFI) - The TSFI evaluates how eyes see and how they process what they see. Snellen E Charts - Snellen E Charts evaluate the degree or sharpness of vision using 11 rows of letters that increase in number and decrease in size at each level. Teller Acuity Cards - Teller Acuity Cards also evaluate the degree or sharpness of vision but are for nonverbal children. They use a series of cards containing stripes of different widths. Visual reinforcement audiometry - involves presenting a series of sounds through headphones and providing visual reinforcements when correct responses are made. Pure-tone audiometry - also involves presenting a series of sounds through headphones, but responses are made through selecting a button. The Auditory Brain Stem Evoked Response Test - it uses high frequencies to assess how sound is processed by the brain stem. DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES AND THEIR ROLE IN ASSESSMENT Developmental milestones can be defined as measurable physical, cognitive, and social abilities that usually, if not always, are achieved by children within a particular age range. These milestones serve as reference points for determining normal development. Examples of physical developmental milestones include: By 6 months: Most infants can sit without any support. By 1 year: Children can stand or walk, if the adult offers them some help. By 2 years: Run and climb stairs and perform more advanced actions without falling. Milestones come in handy when physical development is being assessed as they act as a schedule of how progress is expected to be made in physical growth. It could also be a good indication of the state of the child’s development, especially when the said milestone has not yet been reached within the period that is considered normal (CDC, 2021). Common Challenges in Physical Development 1. Developmental Delays A developmental delay occurs when a child does not meet physical developmental milestone within the expected time. Such delays may be the result of genetic abnormalities, lack of nutrition, and environment as well. Delays in children’s gross and fine motor skills can affect the child’s ability capacity to engage with their surroundings and peers, thereby complicating physical and social development (CDC, 2021). PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 13 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1 2. Obesity and Malnutrition Obesity and malnutrition are two major areas of concern when it comes to a child’s physical development. Obesity can lead to chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases and diabetes while malnutrition affects the height and motor skills those children attain. Early diagnosis through physical development evaluations enables prompt interventions such nutritional counseling and physical activity programs (Malina et al., 2004). Addressing Physical Developmental Challenges The appropriate intervention may be in the form of physical therapy measures, exercise regimens or other management options tailored to the developmental delay or health problem. For instance, children with poor motor skills may benefit from occupational or physical therapy, while those with struggles in proper nutrition can be supplemented with nutrition plans that ensure their well - being. THE ROLE OF INTERVENTION For physical development assessment and evaluation, early intervention has been recognized as necessary and essential if there has been a delay detected. For instance, children with motor skill delays may require physical therapy concentrating on strengthening and improving coordination. Nutritional counseling addresses concerns that concern on the children’s growth patterns for example hunger and starvation or obesity thus healthy growth patterns are attained. Early intervention acts as a preventive measure, promoting the child’s full physical potential and preventing long-term health issues (Boyd & Bee, 2019; CDC, 2021). Parental Concerns Parents often have concerns about their child's prenatal development and want to know how to ensure a healthy pregnancy. During prenatal visits, mothers should receive guidance on proper nutrition and prenatal care, including the use of prenatal vitamins to prevent deficiencies. Prenatal testing is frequently recommended to evaluate the fetus's health and detect potential risks. Common tests include blood tests to check for infections like HIV and hepatitis B, and to determine Rh factor compatibility between mother and baby. Other tests include chorionic villus sampling (CVS) to detect chromosomal abnormalities, nuchal translucency screening to assess the risk of genetic disorders, and amniocentesis, which analyzes amniotic fluid for genetic issues, malformations, or lung development. The Influence of Parents and Educators Parents and educators play a crucial role in physical development assessment aside from health care providers. They usually get to see some of the children’s development concerns as the very first individuals. Regular observation of motor skills at home or in school settings allows for early identification of concerns. In this way, together with health specialists, they help to provide health observations and management to children where it is needed within the appropriate time (Malina, Bouchard & Bar-Or, 2004). The Interconnection Between Physical, Cognitive, and Social Development It is important to bear in mind that physical development is related to other domains such as cognitive and social development. An example would be that through motor skills children learn to explore and play with others, which encourages learning and socializing. Similarly challenges in communication and interaction due to failure to meet gross motor developmental milestones make it crucial to take all physical aspects of a child including their development in any assessments done on them (Franke, 2005; Berk, 2012). Continuous Monitoring of Physical Development Another reason why a growing number of children are suspected being developmentally delayed is that physical development of children is indeed a process. Regular assessments, including tracking growth patterns and motor skill development, provide a more accurate picture of a child’s progress. This approach guarantees that health professionals can manage problems potentially before they arise and give solutions that can help in avoiding worsening of situations (Boyd & Bee, 2019; CDC, 2021). Cultural and Environmental Factors in Physical Development It is necessary to acknowledge the significance of cultural and environmental factors in physical PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 14 Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1 development. The socioeconomic status of children can greatly influence their ability to obtain food, medical care, and engage in sports. These factors must be considered during assessments to ensure that the evaluations are accurate and that interventions are tailored to the child’s specific needs (Malina et al., 2004; Berk, 2012). SUMMARY Physical development encompasses the growth and refinement of motor skills, body functions, and overall health from the prenatal stage through adulthood. Prenatal development plays a crucial role in laying the foundation for a child’s physical and neurological growth, starting from conception and continuing through the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages. Proper prenatal care, including adequate nutrition and medical monitoring, is essential to support the formation of vital organs and brain development, which directly influences physical development after birth. As children grow, their gross-motor skills (such as walking, running, and jumping) and fine-motor skills (like grasping, writing, and manipulating objects) evolve. Regular physical development assessments in both formal (hospitals, clinics) and informal (homes, schools) settings are essential to monitor their progress. These assessments help identify developmental issues such as obesity, malnutrition, or motor delays early on, enabling timely intervention. Physical development is closely linked to a child's overall health, cognitive abilities, and learning potential. Early sensory experiences and motor activities are crucial for the brain’s development, while healthy physical growth supports active learning and social interaction. Cultural, environmental, and socioeconomic factors, along with the involvement of parents and educators, also significantly influence a child's physical development. REFERENCES Boyd, D., & Bee, H. (2019). Lifespan Development. Pearson. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2021). BMI for Children and Teens. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov Malina, R. M., Bouchard, C., & Bar-Or O. (2004). Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity. Human Kinetics. Lackaff, J., Hoisington, C., Lackaff, J., & NCS Pearson, Inc. (2019). Work Sampling System: Scientific Thinking— Background and Criteria. In W H I T E P a P E R. https://www.pearsonassessments.com/content/dam/school/global/clinical/us/assets/wss/w ss-white-paper-physical-development-health-safety.pdf What is physical development? (n.d.). Early Movers. https://www.earlymovers.org.uk/about-pd Berk, L. E. (2012). Child Development (9th ed.). Pearson. Franke, T. M. (2005). Physical Activity and Early Childhood Development. Sapunar, D., Arey, Leslie B. and Rogers, Kara (2022, October 30). prenatal development. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/prenatal- development. PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 15