Globalizing Worlds Notes PDF

Globalising Worlds Algemeen: --------- **Key themes:** **Climate change, production and consumption, global urban world, global health, conflict & rural urban.** **Focus of the course:** **Exam 50%** **Multiple choice 3/5, essay-questions 2/5** **MMP 50%** Introduction and critical reflectio...

Globalising Worlds Algemeen: --------- **Key themes:** **Climate change, production and consumption, global urban world, global health, conflict & rural urban.** **Focus of the course:** **Exam 50%** **Multiple choice 3/5, essay-questions 2/5** **MMP 50%** Introduction and critical reflection on globalisation and development (wk1) =========================================================================== **What is globalization?** Yeung,et al. (2002): the term 'globalisation' is at first sight mereley a discriptive category, denoting either the geograpahical extension of social processes or, as in Giddens' definition, '['the intensificatoin of worldwide social relations']. - It has effect on political, economic and technological forcers and social arrengements. Globalisation is not only material, but also socially constructed. Globalisation is a set of mutually constitutive tendencies comprising both material processes of transformation and counter movements, and contested idealogies/discourses that operate across a variety of geographic scales. [Implications:] - Globalization is not inevitable (there are conditions that make globalization possbile) - Glocalisation (aanpassingen van producten etc.) - Globalization is nothing external to localitaties, which are socially constructed in relation to the global scale. (global south, third world, developing world) - Majojrity world without voice. - Problem: stereotyping, generalization, automatization etc. ### To sum up - The global S and N are not distinct but often interwoven - To study globalization, local, historical contesxts requiere profound study, as they are contantly changing, and may be infinitely more complex than thought. - Representation matters (there is an urgent shift to thinking in academia and governance fields beyohnd the obvious 'development;. Globalization and governance (11-9-24) -------------------------------------- **Perspective based on Held,1999** - Globalization -- driving force behind social, political, cultural and economic changes. - Long-term "virtually all countries in the world, if not all parts of their territory and all segments of their society, are now functionally part of that larger (global) system in one or more respects'' (Nierop 1994, p. 171 apud Held 1999) ''However -- the existence of a single global system -- not evidence of global convergence or a single world society'' (Held et al 1999, 7) **Not a single society...** - New patterns of global stratfication (integration/marginalization) - New configurations of power relations - N,S,first and third world are no longer out there but nestled together within all the world's major cities. **Globalization concepts** - Accelerating independence - Time-space compression - Action at a distance - Widining, deepening and speeding up of global interconnectedness **Not a single society but strechting social relations in space** - Stretching (spatial dimension) - Transregional interconnectedness, reach of networks. **Intensification and speeding up** - Patterns of interactions and flows of trade, investiment, finance, migration, culture increase. - Conntections across frontiesrs are [not] occasional or random Furthermore, the speeding global interactions and communication increase the potential velocity of the global diffusion of ideas, goods, informationl, capital and people. *Growing extensivity, intensity and velocity of global interactions -- deepening enmeshment of the local and global such that the impact of distant events is magnified while even the most local developments may come to have enormous global consequences* - **Impact**: bounderies between the domestic and global are being blurred. **[Door globalisatie gaat alles sneller vanwege de connecties. ]** Impact propensity (harder to operationalize) [Four distinct types of impacts:] 1. **Decisional** Degree to which the relative costs and benefits of the policy choices confrontating governments, corporation, collectivities and households are influenced by global forces and conditions. 2. **Institutional** Reconfiguration of agenda of decision-making itself, availability of choices. 3. **Distributive** Distribution of power and wealth within and between countries. Ways in which globalization shapes the configuration of social forces within and accros societies. 4. **Structural** Globalization conditions patterns of domestic, social, economic and politial organization and behaviour inscribed within the institutions and everyday function of societies. ### To sum up: globalization as an analytical framework (Held 1999) - To capture extensity, intensity, velocity and impact. - Account of globalization exame thoroughly these four elements as the spatio-temporal dimensions of globalization. **Flows and networks** (observable) - Movements of physical artefacts, people, symbols, tokens and information accros space and time - Networks -- regurlarized or petterned interactions between agents, nodes of activities, or sites of power. **Domains of globalisation** - Political, military, economic, cultural, labour, migratory movements, environment, technology (?) ### Historical forms of globalization **Thin Globalization** - **High extensity of global networks not matched by a similar intensity, velocity or impact -- early silk and luxury trade circuits.** **Thick globalization** - **Extensive reach of global networks is matched with high intensity (magnitude), high velocity and high impact propensity across al domains or facets of social life from the economic to the cultural -- contemporary globalization.** **Diffused globalization** - **No historical equivalent. Low impact propensity, high extensity, high intensity, high velocity.** **Distinctive patterns of stratification and models of interactions** **Different historical epochs (modes of interaction)** - **Imperial or coercive** - **Cooperative** - **Competitive** - **Conflictual** **Instruments of power: military and economic.**  **Governance?** - **Globalization has disrupted the neat correspondence between national territory, sovereignty, political space and the democratic political community.** - **State power and political authority shift** - **Circumscribed territories- sovereignty -- actual capacity to rule changed.** HC3 Globalizing Worlds: development, post-development, degrowth =============================================================== *Extension -- stretch -- social relations -- Americas* *Intensification, velocity -- low* *Impact -- high (decisional, institutional, distributive, structural)* *Stratification -- new hierarchies -- unevenness* *Modes of interaction: coercive/imperial* *And instruments of power: economic and militair* [Globalization not the same as homogenization] ### Development For different currents of social thought -- ''development became'' central. **After second world war -- Truman's point four program** - January 20^th^, 1949 -- inaugural speech - The fourth point declared that the united states must: *''embark on a bold new program for marking the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas''* **International system -- foreign aid, development assistance** - Foreign aid- development and military assistance - Development cooperation Main lesson: [how does the idea of development give areas the same improvement ideas as others?] - International organizations (UN, World Bank, IMF) - Bilateral government agencies - Policies -- idea/discourses, reconstruction. Development assistance -- take/off/growth ### Crisis of development - 980s -- debt crisis and structural adjustment programme(s) - End of the 1980s -- 1990s crisis (env. Post-modern, post colonial critiques) - Millenium development goals (2000s) - SDGs (2015) **A decolonial look at development** - Since 1949 ''the age of development'' - Truman inauguration speech -- ''undeveloped areas'' - Cognitive base for both interventionism and self-pity - ''developed'' -- top of the social evolutionary scale - ''all people of the planet are moving along one single track toward some state of maturity, exemplified by the nations 'running in front'' - Catching-up - Industrialism, consumerism, nature exploitation, social polarization within countries. ### Critique of development -- Wolfgang Sachs ''From the start, development's idden agend was nothing else than the westernization of the world'' - Loss of diversity, monocultures. - Market, state, and science -- universalizing powers - Admen, experts, educators. ### Critique of development - Gustavo Esteva Truman -- the use of the word 'underdeveloped' changed the meaning of development: ''A new perception of one's own self, and of the other, was suddenly created'' Connotation for development -- escape from the undignified condition called underdevelopment **Post-development** - To deepen and widen agenda for research, dialogue, and action. - Variety of world-views and practices - Ecologically wise and socially just world - What, how, who, for whom, and why - Matrix of alternatives - From universe to pluriverse ### Post-development -- deconstructing development - What constitutes the idea of development - Chrono-politicaly -- time is linear -- back&forth - Actors: experts of governments, multinational banks, corporations **Post-development -- sustainable survival goals** - Human emancipation within nature (not cultural relativism) - A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability... - Instead of fear of the future calls for resistance - Human rights - Ecological principles (rights of nature) - Cosmopololitican localism, solidarity (Wolfgang Sachs 2018) **Finding pluriversal paths** - Linking ancestral and contemporary knowledge - No theory is imune to questioning - Terrain of politics **Post development** - Ecological wisdom, integrity and resilience - Social well-being and justice **Degrowth** - Term was relaunched by environmental activists in 2001 - Challenges the hegemony of economic growth - Downscaling of production and consumption in industrialized societies. - Living simply and in common - Transition to convivial societies - Living simply and in common, alternatives, diversity and pluralism Afbeelding met tekst, schermopname, Lettertype, ontwerp Automatisch gegenereerde beschrijving ### Post development and regrowth - Arturo escobar (2015) He is not sure if all the development is the best for the world. Radical questioning of the core assumptions of growth and 'economism'. Vision of alternatives... - North and South, resisting the narrative ''the north needs to degrow, the south needs 'development'. - Growth and the economy should be subordinated to buen vivir (living well) and the rights of nature, not the other way around. To sum up Degrowth and Post-development. (escobar) -------------------------------------------------- +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Common** | **Differences** | +===================================+===================================+ | Relation between ecology and | Degrowth is a social movement -- | | social justice | | | | Post development operates thourgh | | | and with social movements | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Markets and policy reforms by | Degrowth: reseach is important | | themselves will not acomplish the | part of movement. - Post | | transitions/transformation needed | development has non-academic | | | practices | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Localism | Degrowth: political articulated | | | subject. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Confront overlapping challenges. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | For degrowth subversion of its | | | meaning thorugh green ec | | | onomy/post-growth | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Week 3: global production and consumption ========================================= **Global industrial food system (Clapp 2023)** Industrial approach to agriculture -- deep roots and long history, agricultural evolutions Main changes -- features of the global system -- early to middle part of the nineteenth century World´s insecure countries still under [colonial] rule Concentration at the field, country and global market levels began, staple crop production Food aid and green revolution **Global industrial food system: national-level concentration** (Clapp 2023) Expansion of the international grain trade and associated foods (meat, dairy) Intensification of grain production for export -- change in regulations (examples, end of Corn Laws in Britain 1846, and Navigation Acts 1849) towards freer trade in grains Specialization for exports and expropriation of Indigenous lands (grasslands) New transportation modes and infrastructure **Global industrial food system: global level agribusiness concentration** - Trade in stable crops increased from the mid-nineteenth century onwards. - Financialized commodity markets - Emergence of small group of powerful grain-trading firms - Technological changes grain storage, handling and transportation. **Global industrial food system: global level agribusiness concentration (clapp 2023)** - Sophisticated and financialized trade - Separation food futures trade from physical markets - Small number investors of large influence over markets - Nearly impossible to tell the difference between hedging and speculative activities. **Global food system -- politics** - Concentration -- multilevel - Concentration -- few crops - Concentration -- actors - Stratification -- hierarchies and unevenness - Power -- discourses - Governance? [Globalization -- production and consumption -- Food and agro-industrial system] - Global south -- source of agricultural and mineral resources -- globalizaed trade - Commodities -- commodity chains (spread across national borders but deeply integrated) - Global value chains -- how value is added at each stage but also where is value added, and how costs and benefits are spread across the value chain. ### Food as a global industrial value-chain (corporate power) Agro-industrial production \> traders \> processing \> distribution-consumption ### Green revolution as a process of corporate concentration and consolidiationg monocultures - Development aid/assistance and food aid - Corporate concentration, seed industry, chemical industry - Developing seeds and chemical technologies together. ### Economic globalization -- interconnectedness and power concentration Seeds and agrochemicals - Result = from rapid and extensive merges of the 1990s and early 200s = 6 firms control approximately 75% of the agricultural inputs market by 2009. - Agricultural chemicals = top 4 firms share more than doubled from 29% to 62% - Model of farming based on monoculture planting = genetically engineerd seeds and associated agro chemicals. [10 biggest transnational corporations -- food and beverage. ] Afbeelding met tekst, schermopname, kaart, diagram Automatisch gegenereerde beschrijving **Vulnerability and socioenvironmental consequences** - Food crisis (1973-1974 (oil-crisis), 2007-2012 (financial crisis), 2020-2023 (COVID-19 and war in Ukraine) - High vulnerability to world shocks - Food insecurity -- risks - **Climate change** - Biodiversity loss - Pollution - Hunger -- food insecurity **Governance?** Globalization has disrupted the neat correspondence between national territory, sovereignty, political space and the democartic political Community State power and political authority shift Circumscribed territories soverereignty -- actual capacity to rule changed **Governance -- politics -- power** Who: states, inter-state, corporations, civil society, NGOs, grassroot organizations, professional associations, movements Active agents who create, influence, change structures and rules to solve problems, change outcomes, to transform life conditions How -- agenda setting, creation of rules, institutions, implementation of rules, policies, adjudicating. Diverse actors should stand up, polycentric, overarching values, norms and rules. **The Amazon** two visions: 1\. Developmentalism (industrial agriculture, mining, projects) 2\. Socioenvironmentalism (resistance and looking for alternatives) Sociobiodiversity Sociambientalism \> resistance movement The politics of waste (from global to local) ============================================ Waste has a lot of direct and indirect links with the SDGs **Perspectives on wase** - Env. Perspective: pollutant, danger on ecosystem - Human rights perspective: causing health issues - Trade: valuable material, ''good'' or international service trade Why is there an increasing in global waste? - Population growth - Economic growth - Products are designed to break down (phones etc.) [Waste as a commodity in international trade] It is nowadays much cheaper to export waste to cheaper regulations countries. Empty containers from china get filled with waste and go back. ### Harvey's (2007) Spatial Fix *◍ Consumption \> produces garbage/waste \> local disposal system reach capacity (+ high prices for national transport) \> pot. Crisis situation \> Spatial fix = (cheaply) shipping garbage to other places* *◍ Waste becomes a commodity that is traded internationally* - *Municipal solid waste* - *Hazardous waste* **Who benefits from the waste?\ **Beneficial for all countries involved \> hazardous waste constitutes 'raw' material inputs industrial and manufactoring *processes* \> benificial for ''developing'' countries with little natural resources. Critique: waste is often badly recycled in exporting countries (e.g. plastic) and structures for reusing are lacking in importing countries - Mainly beneficial for global north - Pollution Haven countries may 'voluntarily' reduce environmental regulations to attract direct foreign investments \> However, not relocation of production, but export of negative externalities \> [negative local consequences] Underlying this dynamic is: ### Theory of ecologically unequal exchange (Bunker 1985) Main message of the reading: ◍ global political--economic factors, especially the structure of international trade, shape the unequal distribution of environmental harms and human development ◍ "core nations" (global north) centralise resources and wealth from all across the planet and thereby diversify and protect themselves from economic booms and busts ◍ "extractive peripheries" (global south) of the developing world (which supply resources) fail to gain benefits of social development ◍ "ecological debt" or "climate debt" --the pollutions and other externalities of productions are burdened on the global south, ◍ global north owes the global south because of resource plundering, environmental damages and the free occupation of environmental space to deposit wastes, such as greenhouse gases, ◍ Examples: deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss, water pollutions, waste **Toxic colonialism (Pratt,2011)** - Process by which ''underdeveloped states are used as inexpensive alternatives for the export of disposal of hazardous waste pollution by developed states'' - Maintaining global inequality through unfair trade systems - Colonialism: economic dependence, exploitation of labout, cultural inequality. [International responses to waste trade] Basel convention (1989): - Globally binding rules on the admissibility, authorisation and control of exports of hazardous waste. - 1995: Basel ban Amendment. **Bomako convention (91') \> focused on African countries** ### Difficulties waste trade Lack of clear, uniform definitions of waste Issue of lack of punishment Lack of international coordination/ ability to monitor Illegal shipments Netherlands imports waste for energy (waste-burning). - Circular economy? - Eu's E-waste to stay in EU? ### Agbogbloshie, Ghana The worlds largest e-waste site. - Reminds us that making is a cycle. How UK oil company **Trafigura** tried to cover up African pollution disaster **Lawsuits** Lawsuits sometimes successful like in the case of Trafigura. Sometimes less successful e.g. Metalclad vs Mexico (1993) \> company was protected by NAFTA: protect international companies and their investments from local corruption vs. rights of local communities to protect against env. hazards. ### Waste as political leverage **Communities living on or close to waste dumps often marginalised groups.** **Dumps provide resources to build housing etc.** **[Oaxaca Mexico]** - **Poor management on land fill \> informal settlements blocked access to dump \> stopped garbage collection \> negotiation with protestors \> received: electricity, medical center and community center.** **So global waste can fight back.** **Pollution to justify green eviction** **Dehli, india, 2002** - **River highly polluted due to untreated waste from middle class residential houses.** - **Informal settlement near river, contributed only 0.5% of the fluent discharge** **Political institution said that they were the problem, and they all were displaced.** - **Anti-poor env. discourse in Dehli = 'bourgeois environmentalism'** - **Environment more about 'green aesthetics' and less ecological welfare or human health** - **Image of a 'civilized city' / slum free. But it is [more about the image than about the welfare of ecosystem nor humans. ]** - **Shopping mall framed as ''clean and green'' \>\>\> what about livelihoods??** Summary: Politics of waste -------------------------- **◍ Global scale: legal (and illegal) waste trade** **○ Unequal ecological exchange: "Global South" imports the negative externalities (=waste) of the "Global North" for foreign investments and "resources" ◊ changing because of emergence of circular economy?** **◍ Local scale \> Lawsuits against global imports** **○ Waste as a political leverage ○ Waste/pollution as an excuse for eviction (anti-poor environmental discourse)** **◍ Concepts: Spatial Fix, Unequal Ecological Exchange, Ecological Debt, Toxic colonialism, Pollution Haven, Anti-Poor Environmental Discourse, Green eviction** W4 (1): urbanisation and inequality =================================== World is getting urbanised A lot of people living in urban areas. *By 2050: 50% in slums* [But what are 'slums?] - According to the UN-Habitat (2003), a 'slum' household is defined as a group of individuals living under the same roof lacking one or more of the following conditions: access to improved water, sanitation, sufficient living area, and durability of housing Existing definitions often reinforce negative stereotypes 'Slum' settlements are [anything but homogenous] 'Slum' is often a relative term and cannot be defined with absolute measures **Complexity of gender and poverty** ### Woman poverty Being a woman or man has particular power implications. - Poverty is measured in myriad ways - Poverty is relational and differs... [Feminism of poverty] - Women are the majority of the world's poor - Women's disproportionate share of poverty is rising relative to men's - The changing face of poverty is linked to the feminization of female household **Slums are not physically limited, more political/economical factors** **Myth of marginality** Afbeelding met tekst, schermopname, kleding, buitenshuis Automatisch gegenereerde beschrijving Contrary to the popular view of the urban poor characterized by social disorganization and radical politics, slum residents are: Socially well -organised and cohesive, Culturally optimistic with aspirations for their children's education and their housing, Economically hard-working, and Politically neither apathetic nor radical ### Concluding remarks - One in 8 people live in informal or 'slum' settlements worldwide - Slum is a relative, complex and multi-demensional concept that is often loaded with negative meanings, so demands caution in its use. - All urban poor do not live in informal settlements in the global South and North, and slum settlements are not homogenous. - Informal settlements are not marginal but represent well-organised economic and political spaces. - Without concerted action at all levels, poverty and inequality could become the face of the future of cities. - Multi-scalar and multidimensional approach is key to an inclusive urban future W4 (2): Informal economy ======================== **Defining informal economy** - All economic activities by workers and economic units that are -- in law or practice -- not covered by formal arrangements - Informal workers often lack job security, health and safety protection and they are excluded from additional employment benefits and have limited possibility to unionise. - Between the Western understanding of employment and unemployment in the formal sector, [the informal economy presents an opportunity for securing income] *In fact, formal capitalist economy is dependent on the informal sector and the former benefits from the existence and the low labour cost of the latter.* **Impact of colonisation** Slave trade and indentured labourers - The triangular route was highly lucrative for the slave trade - Colonized populations were brought into newly established labour markets to work as minors, labourers and servants. **From colonialisation to neo liberalisation** Following independence, many industries in formal colonies were nationalised but then as global recession set in, many were again privatised. This led to rise of neoliberalism which influenced the trends of globalization by promoting economic liberalization, privatization and deregulationto enhance the role of the private sector in the economy and society. This resulted in diminishing the power of progressive social forces and increasing the leverage of competitive fractions of capital and powerful capitalist states. **Domestic work** Women largely take responsibility for doing domestic work which often remains unpaid. Such work limits women's mobility and often restricts them to the privacy of home far more than their male counterparts. These practices further entrench gendered divisions and inequality. - 1 in 6 women does not have capacity to be independent in the Netherlands. - Number of women in top jobs is still quite low. **Working together** Main Activities: 1\. Organizing women for collective action and cooperative solutions 2\. Capacity Building and Asset Building 3\. Advocacy and alliances ### Concluding remarks - **Informal and formal economies are often overlapping people making a living across both these spheres** - **Ways of making a living are contingent on the history of colonialism and capitalism** - **Informal economies are not synonymous with criminality or thug** - **The inequalities of work are influenced by differencest hat surface existing uneven power relations.** - **Finally, its curcial to take into consideration the agency of individual to operate and exist within the broader structures and processes that shapes their lives.** Week 5: Global Climate politics (I) =================================== IPCC (international panel on climate change): Only research on climate change UNFCCC (united nations framework convention on climate change): report on climate change and make policy [Other actors:] - Governmental actors - NGOs - Businesses *From global leaders to local leaders* UNFCC: 1. Update national climate change mitigation and adaption programs 2. Participate in climate research 3. Compile an inventory of their greenhouse gas emissions and submit reports **COP**: conference of the parties: convention's authority/governing body. Annex I: industrialized coutnries and economies in transition, including EU Non-Annex I: mostly low-income developing countries Least-developed countires (LDCs), 49 parties with limited capacity to adapt ot the effects of climate change. Small island states (SIS) **Principle of common but differentiated responsibiilites** - Reflects historically responsibility of "developed" countries (GHG emissions) ◊ contribution to the problem - Recognizes that "developed" countries have greater capacity to address the effects of climate change - Recognizes 'developing countries'' right of economic development ◊ reflects states' ability to respond - Distinguish Annex 1, and non-Annex 1 countries based on GHG emissions and wealth per capita, however not systematically applied **Precautionary principle** - Even if it is scientific not completely proven, it is not an excuse to take action. **Paris 2015 -- big breakthrough?** NDC: nationally determined contributions : elk land kiest zn eigen doelen, en het maakt niet uit of ze het niet halen. Naming and Shaming (want ze moeten het wel reporten) So paris was a start, but.. the **emission gap** remains. - Even the promises are not enough to make the goals ### Current debates on reducing emissions If you kill 50% of the population the estimation is that it would only reduce 8%. **Actual reducing emissions:** - Degrowth? - Regulating population/births (unethical, not really effecitve) - Energy transition and new technologies - Ofsetting emissions (purchase carbon credits (REDD+) **Geoengineering: technofix** - Solar radiation management (reflecting sun's rays back into space) - Carbon dioxide removal, e.g. BECCS (Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage) [Zitten nogal veel haken en ogen aan (governance challenge, env. Risks, regional climate risk, could reduce urgency for climate mitigation). ] - It does not effect root causes. - Who funds this? Potential opportunities - Potential effectiveness in stabilising temp/ large scale carbon sequestration - Complementary to mitigation -- energy production - Might have postiive effects for communities **Some terms:** Carbon-neutrality = state of net zero (carbon) emission: balance between emitting co2 and removing co2 from atmosphere (offsetting) Vs. Climate neutral: including all greenhouse gases. (not only carbon) ### Energy transition -- sovacool et al. 2021 (maria is fan van sovacool dus nog even goed lezen) Downsides? - Implementation problems - Destruction of coal-based industry \> see-disscussion on 'just transitions' in sovacool et al. - Unequal ecological exchange: - Negative consequences in rsource extracting countries - Dumping of e-waste in global south [Ways forward -- policy recommendations for 'fair' low-carbon transitions. Wordt een tentamenvraag ] Policy recommendations for fair low-carbon transition: 1. Prioritize inclusivity and community engagement 2. Compensation for displacement 3. Enforce safeguards (protect human rights) 4. Promote economic diversification in affected areas (encourage growth local industries) 5. Design inclusive financial mechanisms 6. Foster flexibility and adoptability in policy implementation 7. Emphasize fair distribution of benefits and burdens 8. Enhance transparency/ accountability in low-carbon initiatives 9. Strengthen international cooperation for a global just transition **The controversy of 'decoupling'** - CO2 emissions are coupled with economic growth/GDP growth; unclear wheter decoupling is possible. - Relative: decoupling: rate at which emissions increase is lower than the rate at which GDP decreases **Degrowth paradigm** Yes, increasing consume correlates with increase happiness in society. (up to certain threshold until no correlation anymore) - At one point it does not matter if you get more money or less, therefore: [we can reduce consumption and still be happy] - Circular economy, redistribute wealth, expansion of public services such as public transport. \> rethink how cities are planned. Scaling-down structures to break unequal ecological exchange *focus on energy commons, participatory forms of governance putting communal wealth sharing and community property rights at the centre (see Buen Vivir) (Gudynas, 2011; Kallis, et al. 2015; Perkins, 2019)* Rap up ------ - Terminology: UNFCC, IPCC, COP, annex-1, non-annex 1, NDC, common-but-differentiated. - Concepts: beneficiary-pays, polluter-pays, ability-to-pay, decarbonization divide, sacrifice zones. - Climate justice - Achieving the goals of the Paris agreements, debates on: population control, geoengineering, energy transition, degrowth? Week 5 (II) REDD+ ================= **What is REDD+** - Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and foresting conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. - Developed under UNFCCC The + was added in Cop13 in Bali: Fostering conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks (UNFCCC, 2007) Forests are important for economy, levelihoods and climate. Discourse: Forests are vital for storing carbon, mitigating climate change. IPCC: deforestation accounts for 17-20% of global carbon emissions **Other REDD+ developments at global level:** Cancun safeguards: environmental and social standards established to cater to non-carbon goals in COP16 (UNFCCC, 2010) Warsaw Framework for REDD+ (WFR) in COP19 (UNFCCC, 2013) provides overarching guidance for REDD+ implementation. A national strategy to implement REDD+ incorporates modalities for addressing drivers of deforestation, national forest monitoring systems, forest reference levels, and the Cancun safeguards Criteria for paying for emission reduction Paris Agreement recognizes REDD+ as an important tool in addressing climate change, establishing guidelines and commitments to finance REDD+ (UNFCCC, 2015) Carbon crediting - Redd+ is a market-based-mechanism: carbon-crediting - Carbon crediting allows agents such as companies, governments to generate, sell, or buy carbon creits to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. **Two kinds of carbon markets** 1. [Compliance markets] (government-regulated): agents are given limits of what they can emit. 2. [Voluntary markets] (companies and other agents): companies and other agnes voluntary purchase carbon credits to offset their emissions. **Impacts of REDD+** [Institutional impact] - Recentralization of forest management - More power to big actors like state agents etc. - Exlcusion of local people - Little communities receive little of misleading information [Environmental impact] - Biodiversity impact: risk of monoculture that reduce biodiversity - Increased REDD+ areas could clear orginal biodiversity; solution: plant indigenous species. [Socio-cultural impact] - Loss of traditional knowlegde and practice [Livelihood impact] - Farmers and local prefer agroforestry (trees on farms) **Safeguards** Environmental and social safeguards to cater to non-carbon goals and cover injustices Examples: Cancun, World Bank, Green Climate Fund, national regulations Respect for the knowledge and rights of indigenous and local communities, considering international treaties and conventions. Full and effective participation of relevant stakeholders, and Indigenous and local communities REDD+ programs are consistent with the conservation of natural forests and biodiversity. Actions to address the risks and reversals, and to reduce the displacement of emissions Week 5 (III) ============ What are indigenous peoples? - Historical commuinity with pre-colonial and/or pre-settler societies - Distinct social, econoimc or political systems - Distinct language, culture and ''beliefs'' \> ontologies - Non-dominant groups of society - Strong link to territories and surrounding natural resources; - Self -- identification and accepted by communtiy  Social relations with what we call nature. **Historical ecology** - Practically all env. on earth have been affected by human beings. - 138 domesticated plants in the Amazon. ### Amerinidan perspectivism [Western world]: one nature \> many cultures [Amazonian world]: many natures, many bodies \> one single culture **Carbon credits** - Consumers don't want to change lifestyle. How does REDD+ projects influence the forest people's lives? Remunartion for the avoided carbon emissions \> avoided deforestation - Tricky: - REDD+ zorgt voor dividing communities. - Land conflicts arise (contracts in english) Afbeelding met tekst, schermopname, software, Webpagina Automatisch gegenereerde beschrijving WEEK 5 BELANGRIJKE ONDERWERPEN: -------------------------------  W6: Health and Conflict from a global perspective ================================================= 1: conflict in a globalising world (conflict, violence and gender) ------------------------------------------------------------------ According to Oxford dictionary, **conflict is:** \- A serious disagreement or argument, typically a protracted one. \- A prolonged armed struggle \- A state of mind in which a person experiences a clash of opposing feelings or needs. \- A serious incompatibility between two or more opinions, principles, or interests **War is when it is [declared], or when at least 50k troops have been deployed.** **Correlates of War: "Sustained combat, involving organized armed forces, resulting in a minimum of 1,000 battle-related fatalities"** **Uppsala Conflict Data Program:" The use of armed force" & of "battle-related deaths in one calendar year" (25 = minor, 1,000 = war)**  **Conflict in ukraine/russia is actually more of an old war.** ### Conflict or political violence Krause (2016) =\> **need for broader approach** to studying conflict: 1\) Most lethal violence does [not occur in conflict zones] 2\) Majority of states most affected by [lethal violence are not at war ] 3\) Lethal violence in some non-conflict settings [higher] than in war zones 4\) Much of this violence is [organized], non-random, and political ⇒ More holistic approach to political violence is needed ⇒ Also looking at indirect conflict-related deaths, ⇒ Connections between macro/political and micro/private **What is voilence?** Johan Galtung (1969): Direct violence: physical, personal (visible) Structural violence: indirect, anonymous (invisible) Can you think of forms of structural violence in the Netherlands? **Global dimensions of conflict: causes/drivers** - Economic - Identity/religion - Politics - Climate change? **Global dimensions of conflict: dynamics and consequences** - Proxy wars - Alliances - Cross-national armed groups - Migration ### Decolonising conflict studies Reflecting on where our way of analysing conflicts originated Which are the foundational texts? Which perspectives do we take and/or ignore? [How has colonialism impacted conflicts? ] Wars of independence Soldiers from colonies fighting for West Influence on social, economic and political structures Western involvement with former colonies Financial consequences of (de)colonization Wars financed through slave trade and colonialism - Rwanda, Haïti **Conflict and gender: voilence** Increased attention to sexual violence - Physical, social, psychological consequences Link conflict-related gendered violence and domestic violence - Continuum of violence Risks of 'sexual violence hype' 'Womenandchildren **Conflict and gender: roles** Krause (2016): most violence is committed by men between the ages of fourteen and twenty-nine \- What does this tell us about masculinities? \- What do global structures have to do with it? \- Women only victims and peacebuilders? 2: global health -- Past, present and future look ------------------------------------------------- **Goals:** 1\. Describe what global health entails and list some of its cross-border aspects 2\. Mention some of the main actors and historical key moments, and explain how they have been relevant for global health 3\. List and reflect on some of the main global health issues nowadays and the challenges they impose on governments, NGOs and individual citizens **Gapminder** [**Gapminder Tools**](https://www.gapminder.org/tools/#%24chart-type=bubbles&url=v2) Life expectancy as a function of GDP per capita over time -- by country and by continent Child mortality as a function of fertility (babies per woman) -- by country and by continent UN Goals -- world knowledge test: [Important stuff most people get wrong (gapminder.org)](https://upgrader.gapminder.org/t/sdg-world-un-goals/) ### World Health Organisation Founded in 1948, afster establishment of UN in 1945 **Milestones, a.o.** International Health Regulations (IHR): legally binding (1969) plague, cholera, yellow fever Eradication of small-pox (1980) Produces reference materials and develops standard procedures: International Classification of Disease (ICD) Essential Medicines List (1977) Global Surveillance, in particular of notifiable diseases Coordinating responses to disease outbreaks, and health emergencies Global Health Observatory (database) Head Quarters in Geneva; 6 Regional offices; WHO-country offices, supporting national Ministries of Health Global health initiatives = GHI **Diversification of global health actors:**  ### Actors and policies [Globally ] - WHO -- since 1948 - Other UN agencies: UNICEF, UNFPA, WTO, UNESCO,... - World Bank & IMF -- economic structural adjustment, WDR 1993 turning point - Global Fund to fight Aids (HIV), Tuberculosis and Malaria -- and other agencies - Many I-NGOs [National level: ] - Ministry of Health in the lead (ideally): national health policy, national health strategy (typically 5-years; with financing plan) - Ministry of Finance - Other ministries... Education, Agriculture, Infrastructure & Traffic Regulation [Subnational level: ] - Local governments: provinces, municipalities - NGOs, incl church-related (faith-based) organisations - Private-for-profit parties (services, medicines, supplies) **Key moments in global health history** [Most important:] - World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health (by World Bank) - WTO, World Trade Organisation (1995): TRIPS (intellectual property rights) - Millennium Development Goals (MDG, 2000) - Universal Health Coverage (2012), UN declaration on UHC (2019) - UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 2015) **Cross-border aspects of global health** - Pandemiscs, diseases - Global burden of disease But also - Health workforce migration - Medical tourism Tragedy of global health: persistence of health inequities = uneven distribution of disease, both across countries and within countries. **Health inequities: operationalisation** Health outcome [parameters]: Health resources: \* [annual health spending per capita] [Determinants]: physical -- social -- commercial **Universal health coverage** (UHC) - 3 dimensions/axes of the UOHC cube ### Transformation Tropical medicine International health Global health Planetary health *Emerged as part of larger political and historical processes, in which WHO found its dominant role challenged and began to reposition itself within a shifting set of power alliances (Brown et al, 2011)* **Decolonisation**: refers to the elimination of the colonial experience and its legacy. Particularly in the health sector -... (partly) a matter of eliminating the white supremacy mindset in medicine and in global health education ◊ Binagwaho et al (2022) **Barriers**: - Limited domestic funding for health in many LMIC - Donor dependence; unpredictability of donor funding (Apeagyei et al, 2024) - (to a certain extent) History of development cooperation. ### Global health issues Health not always seen as public good Privatisation, technological innovations, commercial determinants of health, climate change (env. pollution) Afbeelding met tekst, schermopname, Lettertype, cirkel Automatisch gegenereerde beschrijving - Trade and investment liberalization - Deregulation, 'financialization' ### ### Future Hard choices to be made within the health sector (also in high-income countries), in view of ageing, rapid development of innovations, and limited budgets. Which health technologies (medicines, diagnostics,...) to include in the standard national health insurance benefit package? \> Requires (among others): 1\. Evidence-informed priority setting and resource allocation, and 2\. Political and public understanding and support Both the impact of climate change on health and the contribution of healthcare to environmental pollution W7 Rural-urban interconnection -- wrap up/outlook ================================================= **Globalizing in rural areas** - Social security, zekerheid van medische hulp, kans op uitkering enz. - Production thinking - Employment thinking - Poverty-line thinking **Defening levelihoods**... - Associated concepts: capability (access to assets and at what costs they come), equity, sustainabliblity DFID 'support sheet' [Friedmann's whole economy model] ### Social security Why relevant in global south? Why do we care? - Some reasons: Dealing with stress and shocks -- urban and rural domains (income fluctuations/loss, crop failures, housing security, health) Coverage by state mechanisms is often limited, leading to extreme situations of families needing to first secure financial means before their family member is operated in hopistal. (In Accra it is 12 months prepay for home) - The ILO (international laboour organisation) defines social security as follows: *Social security is the protection that a society provides to individuals and households to ensure access to health care and to guarantee income security, particularly in cases of old age, unemployment, sickness etc.* - Only 4,3% in Africa. [Four broad categories of social security] 1. The state (through social security programmes and scoail insurance schemeas as well as specific policy measures like transfers and subsidies) 2. Market-based systems (...) 3. Member-based organisation (NGOs, cooperatives, etc.) 4. Private households (family members provide social security on basis of norms/values) Beyond economics.. aspirations: a hope or ambition of achieving something. ### Mobility and translocality: tackling rural-urban dichotomies Translocalitly: is a variety of enduring, open, and non-linear processes which produce close interrelations between different places and people. (these interrelations are shaped through dynamic migration and networks) [How does the mobilitly paradigm link to 'development'?] **Case study** Post-apartheid south-africa Important to look behind the stereotypes: the rural landscape General decline of agricultural output. Connection between urban and rural \> direct communication lines between communities and big cities. Conclusions: mediating places and spaces ---------------------------------------- Rurality, connectivity & development What development is relevant? **Development approach (1):** [Focus on systems or actors?] - If the latter, focus on economic rationales such as thoce direcltly linked to levelihoods? Or also take on board perceptions of people and even apparent randomness in behaviour, as attached to things like the search for an own idendity,... **Development approach (2)** [Scaling up or down?] -.. -.. [Space versus place: the groundedness of networks] -.. -.. Wrap up block 1 =============== **Concepts to analyze and critical reflect on global-local processes and their consequences** - Globalisation (thin/thick, extension, intensifications, etc.) - Rated concepts: sacrifie zones, pollution haven, unequal ecological exchange; intesectionality, levelihoods framework; informal economy, market-based mechanisms.. - Critical reflections dominant and emerging discourses: development, post-development, pluriverse, degrowth, gender, third world/global south/majority world **Key themes** 1. Climate change 2. Production and consumption 3. Global urban world 4. Global health 5. Conflict 6. Rural urban (interconnected because of money/migration). All of these topics are interrelated with one another. **Societal debates on redistributing wealth and power** Global reparations movement (Carribean reparation comission) - Lobbying for influence of colonialism etc. Debt cancellation Review voting rights, IMF, World Bank, etc. Global tax systems Participatory approaches such as budgeting, learning and action when engaging with local communities Rights of nature Climate litigation - Governments or multinationals are being sued on basis that they are polluting/contributing to climate change. ### Exam - Literatuur belangrijke punten kennen/ hoorcolleges concepten etc. - 30 points of multiple-choice questions, fill-in questions, matching questions. - 20 points of open questions Content: -... E**xamples -- multiple choice** **...** **Examples -- fill in questions** **Fill in questions:** **..** **Matching questions:** **..** **Examples -- open questions** **Bijv 2 grote vragen voor allebei 10 punten** - **Lees de vragen goed/ gebruik empirische voorbeelden/ uitgebreid antwoorden.**