Geo Notes PDF

**[A Geographer\'s View - August 23, 2024]** \- What? (what do we see?) \- Where? (where do we see it?) \- Why? (why is it there?) \- Human-environment relationship is an important THEME \- How we interact with physical space \- Transformation of SPACE over TIME \- Maps are a geographer\'s mo...

**[A Geographer\'s View - August 23, 2024]** \- What? (what do we see?) \- Where? (where do we see it?) \- Why? (why is it there?) \- Human-environment relationship is an important THEME \- How we interact with physical space \- Transformation of SPACE over TIME \- Maps are a geographer\'s most important tool **Spheres:** \- Atmosphere (air, gases) \- Hydrosphere (water, energy production) \- Geosphere (sail, sediments, rocks, agriculture) \- Biosphere (all life on Earth, use of plant and animal life, urbanization) **[Introduction to Geography continued - Maps, themes, perspectives - August 27, 2024]** Human Environment Interactions: \- How humans affect the environment **AND** how the environment affects us, over space and time \- In the past we adapted **within the limits** of the physical environment and our interactions were small scale, low intensity \- Indigenous peoples - the relationship with the land is **still small scale** and based on **reciprocity**, sharing, giving back, taking only what is needed \- Today we **modify the environment** to suit our needs, and our interactions are large scale, high intensity \- The western way is **not** reciprocal \- Technological advancements have allowed societies to advance but not for the best in some instances **What is Geography in a nutshell?** Physical Geography: \- Study of the **patterns** and **processes** in the world\'s physical environment \- Mountains, deserts, forests etc. \- What do we see, where and why? - the significance **Human Geography:** \- Study of the world\'s **peoples**, **communities**, and **cultures** \- Development level (low, medium, high) \- Employment, housing, religion, income, wealth etc. \- What do we see, where and why? - how is it explained? **Recap: Earth\'s sphere\'s** \- Earth\'s spheres are independent parts of the same system \- The **FOUR** spheres interact with each other \- A change in one, causes a change in another \- Example: Volcano - part of geosphere, impacts biosphere\... **HOW**? \- Example: Agriculture - part of geosphere and biosphere, impacts hydrosphere, impacts atmosphere\... **HOW**? \- Events - the interactions (human or natural) **A Geographer\'s Tool - The Map** \- Maps allow us to see **spatial information** more easily \- Maps can be mental, paper, or digital \- Maps are always used by Geographer\'s to represent information related to land and people \- We are all heavily influenced by what we have seen/observed and by what is presented to us - unconsciously we have absorbed and image of the world we live in **Maps we see today** \- They not only represent the world\'s surface, but they also shape HOW we see it \- They are **ONE** representation of the world \- The earliest maps were drawn on the ground, on bark, on stone, in the snow etc. Showing landmarks/features \- The first paper world maps were prepared to allow exploitation & control on the world, its land, and people (based on European dominance) \- Today's digital maps allow us to see the massive transformation of the natural world at multiple scales \- Today's global positioning systems (google maps etc.) have disconnected us from our space **Cartograms, another type of map** - **Cartograms**, where geographic size (or area) is altered **proportionally** to the information being presented **Type and timing of patterns** - **Dispersed**: spread out - **Concentrated**: dense (close together) - **Nucleated**: small clusters - **Linear**: straight line - **Peripheral**: circle - **Radial** - **Grid** - **Timing**: long term, short term, increasing, decreasing, irregular, predictable, static **Map Elements:** \- **A title**: that clearly states what is being shown \- **A legend**: using color or symbols to show features and information \- **Directionality**: a North arrow to show geographic north \- **Scale**: a representation by a ratio of the distance on the map to the actual distance on the Earth\'s surface \- **Geographic grid**: important lines of latitude and longitude **A Geographer\'s Perspective:** \- **Patterns** help us to find and explain **processes** \- Patterns are a property of spatial distribution \- Processes leave patterns that may change over time \- Patterns can be observed, some are scale dependent \- Most avalanches in Canada occur in the West - why? \- Most cities occur next to water bodies - why? \- Distinct kinds of maps are used to visually represent physical and human features on the land \- Choropleth Map (uses color) \- Proportional symbols \- Cartograms (use area representing size of indicator) **[Introduction to Geography continued - Geographic Grid & Earth\'s seasons - August 30, 2024]** **The geographic grid:** \- Lines of **latitude (parallels)** and **longitude (meridians)** Five important lines of latitude: \- Equator 0 degrees -Tropic of Cancer 23.5 degrees N -Tropic of Capricorn 23.5 degrees S \- Artic Circle 66.5 degrees N \- Antarctic Circle 66.5 degrees S \- Help us to know **absolute location** \- **Where we are physically located** \- Important for understanding our relationship with the sun \- Important for explaining differences in temperature and daylight length around the world - **seasons** **Description of Earth** \- **Equator**: divides Earth into North and South \- **Prime Meridian**: divides earth into East and West **Lines of latitude** \- Help us to organize the world into climate and life **regions** **FIVE regions:** \- Tropics 0 - 23.5 degrees N & S \- Subtropics 23.5 - 38 degrees N & S (temperate) \- Mid latitude 38 - 50 degrees N & S (temperate) \- High latitude 50 - 66.5 degrees N & S (temperate) \- Polar 66.5 - 90 N & S \- little red dot: solar point **Earth\'s obliquity (tilt)** \- The latitude at which the Sun is directly overhead varies by latitude \- The point at which the Sun is directly overhead is the **subsolar point** \- It moves from 23.5 degrees S (Tropic of Capricorn) on Dec 21 to 23.5 degrees N (Tropic of Cancer) on June 21 \- **Angle of incidence** is the deviation from \"straight on\" or 90 degrees \- The place receiving \"straight on\" solar energy are hot all year around (example: in the Tropics) **Angle of incidence** \- Due to the Earth\'s obliquity, the latitude at which the sun is directly overhead varies continuously throughout the year. Sun\'s angle of incidence varies (angle at which it is completely overhead at 90 degrees) \- The angle that the sun reaches in the sky above the horizon changes between 90 to 66.5 degrees at the tropics between 0 and 23.5 degrees at the Poles **[Weather, Climate & Climate Change - September 3, 2024]** - **Weather**: the atmospheric conditions at a specific place at specific points in time - **Example**: it's raining, snowing, it's hot, cold, it's humid - **Climate**: the average pattern of weather over a period of months, years, decades, or longer in a specific place - **Example**: tropical climate -- hot, wet, sometimes dry - **Climate change**: long term shifts in temperatures & weather patterns **Atmospheric Gradient** - Have an equator to pole gradient - There is a difference in **temperature density & pressure of the air -- so it MOVES** - The moving air is the WIND = "air that is in motion" - Winds are modified by Earth's rotation & presence of land & water changes their characteristics (wet, dry, hot, cold) - This movement of air drives the **weather we experience around the world** - Air moves both vertically and horizontally - Moves vertically in response to heating from the surface -- convective heating, or is forced over mountains - Moves horizontally in response to pressure differences **Inter tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) - thermal equator** - **Thermal equator**: it is dynamic, moves through 47 degrees of latitude in the tropics - Water evaporates here and the warmed air rises (because it is less dense as it gets warm) - Evaporated water **condenses** as the air cools - **Example**: clouds are formed & rainfall starts - The **tropics** weather & climate is mostly rainy (wet) and hot - ITCZ is characterized by extensive clouds & by heavy rainfall - The worlds **RAINFOREST** thrives here **Climate types (A -- E)** - **A** = humid, wet & wet/dry - **B** = dry, hot - **C** = humid, warm (mild winter) - **D** = humid, cold (severe winter) - **E** = polar - **H** = highland **[Introduction to Earth's Weather & Climate Continued -- September 6, 2024 ]** - **Convection**: a process in which heat energy is transported by the motion of a fluid - Such motion is generated in the atmosphere when heated from the ground surface - The atmosphere transports this heat by convection (heat from the ground mixes in the air above it) - This process moves heat around the world from areas of excess to areas of deficit, DRIVING ALL WEATHER **Convergence (convent winds)** - Heating in the tropics (primarily oceans) - Heats the overlying air - Also, evaporation takes place - Air will rise due to this **convective heating** - Creates **LP** in the tropics - This rising air is replaced by air moving in from **HP** areas (example: from the subtropics) - Merging of air masses moving inwards is called convergence - This rising air & air rushing in to replace it, creates the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) (example: convergent winds) Divergence (divergent winds) - Top of the troposphere **Divergence (divergent winds)** - Top of the troposphere, 12 -- 15 km up at the tropics there is a thermal barrier -- the **tropopause** - Air rising hits this "barrier" then diverges - The movement of air outward is divergence - This "poleward" moving air subsides at the subtropics (approximately 30°N, 30°S) - Replaces the air moving towards the Equator at the surface - Example: Ethiopia -- wet & dry - The ITCZ migration creates distinctly wet and distinctly dry seasons at the borders of the tropics & subtropics regions - As it moves in -- wet as it moves out dry - The distribution of the world's rainforest & deserts is explained by the Hadley cells so it\'s an important atmospheric process - The hadley cell is changing due to climate change -- the STHP is expanding more north & more south (it\'s related to deserts) so that is important for southern Europe for instance and otherwise wetter areas of Africa. Deserts will expand **[Introduction to Earth's weather, climate & climate change]** **Weather & climate, cultural knowledge & western technology** - Oral history - traditional knowledge (TK), **thousands of years old** - Indigenous weather knowledge (IWK) - Indigenous peoples have translated the weather, seasons, and climate for their entire existence **Physical factors that are important** - Moon phase(s) & shape - Animals (fur) - Clouds & shapes - Birds (returning) - Sky color (red) - Westerners -- disconnected from the land -- we ask Siri or Alexa - **Question**: how do you know its fall, spring, summer? - European use of animals to predict weather is centuries old - Hedgehog to predict spring - Now a groundhog -- length of winter can be "predicted" - "Red sky at night Shepard/sailor delight" \... is a saying we still have - Usually implies a calm day the next day - **HP air from the west:** good weather is coming, blue light scattered due to dust particles concentrating in higher air pressure, but we knew that because the sky was red at night **Global surface winds -- the winds** **Hadley cells** - Air rises at the thermal equator (ITCZ), descends at the subtropics (STHP) - Creates predictable surface winds **tropical easterlies** - Air moving back to the equator (ITCZ) from the STHP - NE trades, SE trades - The **westerlies**: air moving to the mid/high latitudes from the STHP - Air moving from the poles to mid/high latitudes are the **polar easterlies** **Deflection of air by the Coriolis force** - Coriolis force is an apparent force on a moving fluid on a rotating sphere - Fluid (air) moving in the northern hemisphere is deflected RIGHT - Fluid (air) moving in the southern hemisphere is deflected LEFT Mid & high latitudes - Warmer "poleward" moving air meets "equator" moving colder air - Warmer air rises over colder air - Frontal uplift **Our weather and climate** - Moderate (maritime, west coasts -- westerly winds bring moisture to land) - Or is more severe (continental interior of land) & is humid all year, precipitation in all seasons (rain, snow). Westerly winds bring the moisture (if any) - Here we experience 3 -- 4 days of clear sky, 3 -- 4 days pf precipitation - Summer & winter **Important geo concepts** - Heat from the sun mostly evaporates water -- heat transfer when that water condenses - Land and water heat up & cool down differently - Land heats & cools faster -- continental locations (our D's) have wide range of temperatures from summer to winter - Warm air rises, as it becomes less dense & it can hold more water vapor than cold air - Air moves from HP to LP globally and locally - today **[Earth's climate and climate change -- September 13, 2024]** **Climate patterns** - Uses monthly and annual values of **temperatures & precipitation** - A -- humid, tropical, hot - B -- dry, hot - C -- humid, warm, mild winter - D -- humid, cold, severe winter - E -- dry, cold - All except B are defined by temp - B is defined by dryness - From tropical to poles - First letter = main group, tropical to polar - Second letter = precipitation & when it is dry, summer (s), winter (w) or none (f) - Third letter = temperature, hot to colder a -- d - Example: Csa climate western side of continents - Question: what will climate patterns of the future look like? - Since climate = life -- what will that look like? **Hadley cell & polar front** - **Both are changing with the changing climate** - **Hadley cell** expansion (STHP = DRY, HOT) - agricultural land = drought - **Polar front** (jet stream) - **Migrating further north** -- extension of tropical heat more north -- since the PF brings colder air down to us - **Sitting in place for longer** -- extending DRY conditions across North America - Dry = drought, fire risk - Polar front -- creates the boundary for the mix of air in mid/high latitudes. Bringing precipitation (warm air goes up) followed by dry conditions (polar HP air rushes back in) **Climate change: A "wicked" problem** - Enormously complex societal problem - No single right answer - No clear finish line - Multiple stakeholders - Conflicting priorities - No central authority empowered to solve it - Requires sustainable solutions from every corner of industry, level of government, academic research, foundations, individuals etc. - Will require traditional knowledge (TK) & "scientific" knowledge **[Climate & climate change -- September 17, 2024]** **Recap: ways that air goes up** - Orographic uplift - over a mountain - Convergence - example at the ITCZ - Convective heating -- example tropics - Frontal uplift -- at the polar front **Recap: ways that air changes temperature** - When it moves **horizontally** over land or water (humidity of it also changes) - Air coming in from more warm, humid location brings that heat & moisture (example: coastal locations air comes in from over water) - When it moves **vertically** it cools or warms by adiabatic processes (expanding, compressing) - The heat transfer is ONLY due to the CONDENSATION of water (which releases heat) after it has been evaporated (requires heat) **The Earth's past & present** - Past 3.5 billion years has maintained an environment capable of supporting life - Earth has been warmer and colder than now - **Atmospheric greenhouse gas** concentrations have varied dramatically - These changes occurred SLOWLY over **hundreds of thousands of years** - Now the changes in greenhouse gas concentrations are rapid, & occurring over **decades** Mid/high latitude weather & climate -- What do we experience & why? - **Mid latitude cyclones (MLC)** - Followed by **mid latitude anticyclones (MLAC)** - Alternate precipitation days & clear sky days - Driven by the **polar front (PF)** is the boundary of the high velocity wind at height in the troposphere -- **Polar Jet Stream** - Driven by the **Hadley cell** -- the **Westerlies** - The westerlies meet the **polar easterlies** - Climate = the average pattern for weather over a period of months, years, decades, or longer in a specific place - Earth has experienced great variability & change over time in its climate - Earth has two main states - Glacial: where there is ice on continents - Interglacial: there is no ice except at the poles - Climate change = significant difference(s) in average weather patterns **[Climate change -- September 20, 2024]** **Why is climate change a "wicked" problem?** - Earth response is **non -- linear** - **Feedback loops** can amplify or diminish Solutions on a local, regional, national scale? - **Indigenous knowledge** - Indigenous peoples have observed, gathered knowledge, adapted to climate change for thousands of years Technological "fix" - AI -- driven photosynthesis for example Era of **adaption** - Build **resilience** (land, life) - Reduce **vulnerability** (land, life) **The Anthropocene = "Human" era** - Last "glacial" period reached a maximum 20,000 years ago (ice covered continents including us) - From approximately 10,000 years to present earth has been slowly warming "interglacial" - Last 200 years our activities have transformed earth's surface & intensified the warming - Humans are now considered a major driving force of change -- **Anthropocene** **Climate change** - Is a natural process & has been around since Earth formed - It is a part of Earth's climate system - Warmer, then colder, warmer, then colder over hundreds of thousands of years **Climate change is due to:** - The atmosphere - The **greenhouse effect** - Presence of **greenhouse gases** (mostly carbon based) - The **carbon cycle** (sources and sinks) **Greenhouse effect** - The greenhouse effect keeps Earth warm - Due to greenhouse gases (gases that interact with Earth's infrared radiation - Important in determining a planet's temperature - Earth, without the atmosphere would be 33°C colder (approximately: -18°C) - With the atmosphere we are approximately 15°C **Greenhouse gases** - H2O (water), N2O, CH4, CO2 - Why do these gases contribute and not others? - Because they interact with Earth's IR radiation - They are "triatomic" & can bend & vibrate - Nitrogen cannot bend or vibrate, it is "diatomic", it is not a greenhouse gas **Carbon cycle** - Cycles over many timescales - **Stores** -- land, water, air, life - **Transfers** -- is not destroyed but moves through the different stores at different rates - Long term -- rocks, soils, sediments - Short term -- photosynthesis & respiration, life **Feedback loops -- positive** - Less snow & ice = reduced albedo (reflectance) POSITIVE LOOP - Permafrost thawing in the Artic = more greenhouse gases released POSITIVE LOOP - Fires release more greenhouse gases POSITIVE LOOP - A (sea ice): artic warming leads to melting sea ice, which leads to further warming because water **has lower albedo (reflectance) than ice** - B (permafrost): increasing temperatures lead to permafrost thawing, which produces CO2 and methane emissions, which in turn leads to further increasing temperatures - C (wildfire): rising temperatures lead to increasing fire frequency or severity causing increasing CO2 emissions, loss of sequestration, and changes in albedo, which causes more warming **Feedback loops -- negative** - Earth has maintained its climate & life for 3+ billion years - Clouds reflect more sun & increase reflectivity NEGATIVE LOOP - Earth releases more heat to cool itself down NEGATIVE LOOP - Slowdown of the north Atlantic current NEGATIVE LOOP - As ice melts, this changes the salinity (& temperature) of seawater -- becomes less dense -- then it DOES NOT SINK - Heat does not transfer to Europe (via Gulf Stream) - DEEP FREEZE **Next 80 years** - Without substantial change and/or technological advancements it is predicted we will reach up to a 6 -- 8°C rise in global temperature by 2100 **CO2 & temperature** - As one goes up, so does the other **How do we adapt?** - We cannot "solve" climate change - We cannot "solve" climate change with the same mindset that created it - Colonialism, capitalism, Anthropocentric, profit driven, disregard, non-sustainability, over -- resource use etc - We need to move forward by: - Reconnecting: with the land & all life on Earth - Collectively: adjust decisions & behaviors - Reduce vulnerability: in the world's most impacted persons & locations (people & land) - Build resilience: in vulnerable persons & location (people & land) **Indigenous TK for climate adaptations** - Clam gardens, BC - 4000+ years old IK - Environmental modification in harmony with the naturally presenting environment conditions - NW pacific coast **TK climate solutions** - Boreal forest, QC - Broad back forest -- conservation on the last remaining intact boreal forest in QC - Creating networks of connected lands for caribou migration **Addressing climate change: geography** **Global, regional, local actions** - **Indigenous knowledge** & technologies (IK, TK) - **Energy efficiency** -- retrofit buildings to save energy, heating, efficient appliances - Sustainable land management: **reforestation** & **afforestation**, sustainable **agricultural practices (crop rotation, multi -- cropping, mulching etc)** - Consume less, buy less, reuse, refurbish things - Carbon capture & storage in the ground or under the ocean - Renewable energy (wind, solar) - Improve agricultural practices to retain soil properties - Reconnect to the land & life that sustains us **[Life on Earth - September 24, 2024]** **Biogeochemical Cycles** - Biogeochemical cycles are recycling processes - Supply essential substances to the biosphere - Sustains all life - Disruption of a cycle disrupts the life that depends on it **Ecosystems** - A community of interacting organisms & their physical environment - Non -- living matter & energy (light, heat & nutrients) - Composed of producers (primary), consumers (primary, secondary, tertiary), decomposers **Climatographs** - Tropics: tropical rainforest - Subtropics: semi -- dry desert - High latitudes: boreal or taiga - Biomes are described by latitude, as well as climate factors (temperature, precipitation) **Board notes** - Are connected - Groupings of organisms (plants & animals) that are specifically **adapted** - **Biogeochemical cycles** provide essential elements -- recycling process -- on which all life depends - **Ecosystems** that are similar are grouped - Largest grouping is a **biome** - From the tropics to the poles - Also, west to east patterns What is a biome - A grouping of similar **ecosystems** of plants & animals & their **adaptations** - A major geographical area of ecologically similar communities of plants, animals & soil organisms - **Climate & vegetation** are the **visible characteristics** - Defined based on: - **Plants structures** (trees, shrubs, and grasses) - **Leaf types** (such as broad leaf and needle leaf) - **Plant spacing** (forest, woodland, savanna) - **Climate** (temperature, rainfall) - described by a climatographic **Climatograph -- a geographer's tool** - Climate & graph = climatograph - Two axes - X axis: calendar months - Y axis: precipitation shows as **bars** and second y axis is temperature shows as a **line** - Give information on monthly precipitation & temperature - Give information on "location" (example: relative to tropics & poles, near coast or inland) - Gives indirect information on conditions for life & how it is **adapted** to live there - Tropics: Tropical rainforest - Subtropics: Semi dry dessert - High latitudes: Boreal or taiga **[Patterns of life -- September 27,2024]** **North from equator** - Tropical rainforest biome, **tropical grassland** biome, **desert** biome, **chaparral** biome, **temperate deciduous (or mixed)** forest biome, **coniferous** (or boreal or taiga) forest biome, **tundra** biome **West to east: Canada** - West coast -- humid, warm -- **temperate evergreen forest** biome - Interior -- semi -- dry, warm -- **temperate grassland** biome (temperate) - East -- humid, cool -- **temperate deciduous (or mixed)** forest biome **Major biomes & climate** **Question**: why do we see what we see climate = life, how if life adapted? **Tropical rainforest,** adapted to climate conditions (heat, humidity all year) - no needs to lose its leaves -- max sunlight all the time, tall canopy to get max light, high competition to be tallest, biggest, most leaves **Temperate deciduous (or mixed) forest,** adapted to conditions HERE -- cold winters -- has to lose its leaves to conserve energy & water loss in the snow months, sends its energy belowground to preserve over the winter, sends it back in spring (example: maple syrup **Human -- dominated systems** - Human activity has affected every part of the global biosphere (agriculture, deforestation etc) - **Biodiversity** & **biogeochemical cycles** have been drastically altered - Biodiversity is NUMBER of species & their ABUNDANCE - We need to preserve **50%** of land area & ocean area to rebuild **biodiversity** & build **resilience** to resist "shocks" from climate change **Importance of life** - **Ecosystems** depends on combined contribution & interactions of organisms and loss of any species can prevent optimal operation - An ecosystem with a **high level of biodiversity** is **more resilient** to "shocks" - Biodiversity provides us with food, materials, medicines, inspiration & so much more - Mechanisms that regulate the air we breathe, the quality of our water, and our climate is all done by LIFE, beginning with primary producers **Human interactions** - **Habit destruction**: industrial growth, urban development, agriculture, resource acquisition (example: rainforest deforestation, city expansion) - **Over harvesting/hunting**: (example: over -- fishing to near levels of extinction of some species, they are not able to grow to adult size to reproduce such as cod) - **Introducing pollutants**: (example: carbon dioxide into atmosphere -- climate change, acid rain from nitrogen & Sulphur compounds from industry, biomagnification of toxins, accumulation of plastics in food chains - **Introducing "exotic" species** (new predators or ones without predator): (example: gypsy moth into USA from Asia -- no natural predator so it thrives, zebra mussel into great lakes, Dutch elm disease into Canada from Europe) **Relevance of biomes** **Food & industrial materials** - **Tropical rainforests** produce bananas, coffee, cocoa, & rubber (tires, shoes, medical equipment) - **Temperate forests** produce apples, pears, nuts, maple syrup, wool, wood (paper, furniture, construction) - **Deserts** produce dates, figs, & melons, materials (sand, clay for cement) - **Grasslands** produce wheat, rice, corn, oats, millet, rye, sorghum, cotton, flax, hemp (textiles) - 1 billion people rely on grassland for food