Developmental Psychology Notes PDF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY **Psychology** is about people: their thoughts, feelings and behaviour **Developmental psychology** is concerned with exploring development and change in thoughts, feelings and behaviour across the lifespan. **Developmen**t -- is a series of progressive, **sequencial** ch...

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY **Psychology** is about people: their thoughts, feelings and behaviour **Developmental psychology** is concerned with exploring development and change in thoughts, feelings and behaviour across the lifespan. **Developmen**t -- is a series of progressive, **sequencial** changes that occur over a period of time. It may refer to bothe **quantitative and qualitative changes.** **Growth** -- is an increase in physical dimensions as size, height, weight, etc. Factors in Development 1\. **Heredity** - the passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another. 2\. **Environment** - the natural world, as a whole or in a particular geographical area, especially as affected by human activity. **"Nature vs Nurture"** debate involves whether human behavior is determined by the environment, either prenatal or during a person\'s life, or by a person\'s genes. **Nature** is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. **Nurture** is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception e.g. the product of exposure, experience and learning on an individual. Life Span **Life span approach** - deals with the study of individual development (ontogenesis) from conception into old age. A core assumption of life span psychology is that development is not completed at adulthood (maturity). Rather, ontogenesis extends across the entire life course and lifelong adaptive processes are involved. A further premise is that the concept of development can be used to organize the evidence about lifelong adaptive processes, although it is necessary to reformulate the traditional concept of development. 1. Stages of Development in the Life span 2. Infancy (0-2 months) 3. Babyhood (2 months -- 2 years) 4. Childhood a.Early childhood (2 years -- 6 years) b.Late childhood (6 years -- 12 years) 5. Adolescence/ Puberty (12 -- 18 years) 6. Early Adulthood (18 years -- 40 years) 7. Middle Adulthood (40 years -- 60 years) 8. Old age -- (60 years and above) Study of Developmental Psychology Charles Darwin documented his son Doddy's behavior in **\"A Biographical Sketch of an Infant,\"** adding reflections on the reasons behind the behavior, pioneering early child development studies. In 1891, G. Stanley Hall published **\"Notes on the Study of Infants,\"** marking the start of systematic research on infancy and childhood by questioning children to understand their thoughts. 1.It enables us to find out what is normal. Developmental psychology provides data on typical behaviors, thoughts, and feelings for specific populations at specific times. 2\. Establish norms for development within a particular culture. We can examine how events and different family structures, such as nuclear, single-parent, and extended families, influence child development. 3\. Enables us to assess the truth about a range of common assertions/misconceptions about people. Leave her to cry -- if you pick her up you'll only spoil her. "Children need their mothers more than anyone; a father can never provide the special care that a mother can." "There is no substitute for stable family life; children from broken homes are bound to suffer." "Boys are more boisterous and aggressive than girls: it's in their nature." **Developmental psychology has a key role to play if we are to understand ourselves and others better.** **Methods in the Study of Development** **Longitudinal studies** assess individuals over time, **cross-sectional studies** compare different age groups at a single moment. For example, learning ability can be tested across ages, but both methods face limitations, as historical events and personal experiences may affect results more than age itself. **Experiments in psychology** The essence of the experimental method is that the **psychologists can investigate how some aspect of behaviour is changed by a given factor which is thought to influence it**. Experiments allow us to infer a **cause and effect relationship.** **Developmental Theories** Developmental theories **systematically explain how humans grow** from infancy to old age, detailing various changes throughout life. Stage theories specifically categorize child development into distinct stages marked by qualitative behavioral differences, offering different perspectives on psychological and physical growth over the lifespan.. Principles of Development - Though progress towards development is most certainly happening all the time, the changes that occur are generally gradual in nature. - Each stage is often marked by attainment of a milestone event (such as learning to have object permanence, to walk or talk, or to take responsibility for one\'s actions). - Due to a phenomena known as **\"sensitive periods\",** certain kinds of development can only take place during certain times of life. When development is interrupted during a sensitive period, the normal development that occurs at that time does not occur. - Progress through the developmental stages cannot be forced, but instead needs to occur at its own pace. - Not all people grow and change at the same rate. \\ **Psychosexual Theories -- Sigmund Freud** These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents **the fixation of libido** (roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the body. **Psychosocial stages -- Erik Erikson** - Each stage in Erikson\'s theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a ***conflict* t**hat serves as a turning point in development - Each stage in Erikson\'s theory is concerned with **becoming competent in an area of life**. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ***ego strength or ego quality***. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development.  **Cognitive Development -- Jean Piaget** Jean Piaget\'s theory of cognitive development suggests that **children move through four different stages of mental development**. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. - ** Schema**: Categories of knowledge that encompass both mental and physical actions, aiding in understanding the world. -  **Assimilation**: The process of integrating new information into existing schemas, often modifying it to fit preexisting beliefs. -  **Accommodation**: Altering existing schemas or creating new ones based on new information or experiences. -  **Equilibration**: Balancing assimilation and accommodation, allowing children to progress through cognitive development stages. **STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT** Human **development progresses through distinct, orderly stages that are interconnected and vary among individuals,** contributing to uniqueness. - **Cephalo-caudal principle**: Development occurs from head to foot, with changes first seen in the head, then trunk, and finally legs. - **Proximodistal principle**: Development advances from the center of the body outward to the extremities. **Developmental tasks** evelopmental tasks are societal expectations placed on individuals. Meeting these standards leads to happiness, while failing to do so can cause frustration and difficulties in future stages. **PRENATAL STAGES** **Prenatal development** sets the stage for future psychological development, as the brain undergoes significant changes that continue into early childhood. **Germinal Stage** The germinal stage begins at **conception** when the **sperm and egg unite**, forming a **zygote** that travels to the uterus, where it undergoes cell division, creating placenta and embryo cells, before the blastocyst implants in the uterine wall to nourish the embryo. **Embryonic Stage** By the third week, the mass of cells becomes an **embryo**, forming **basic organs and developing knees and elbows by the eighth week**, while establishing brain and nervous system structures by the end of this period **Fetal Stage-** At nine weeks, the embryo becomes a **fetus**, entering a long stage of growth and development marked by body part formation and sex organ differentiation by the end of the third month, with further growth during the second trimester. ESSENTIALS IN PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT **1. NUTRITION** **2. MATERNAL STRESS** **3. ATTITUDE OF SIGNIFICANT OTHERS ** **STAGES OF POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT** **Psychology of People at Different Ages from Infancy to Old Age:** Developmental psychology **focuses on scientifically understanding age-related changes** in experience and behavior across the entire lifespan, primarily emphasizing children\'s development. 1. **Infancy: birth to 2 weeks** **2. Babyhood: 2 weeks to 2 years** - Babyhood shapes behavior and emotions, with adult personality issues often linked to negative childhood experiences. - Foundation age- beginnings of personality and behavioral patterns - Morality (teaching what is right from wrong) - Teeth begins to erupt - Muscular and nervous system develops - Communication begins Essentials of Babyhood: 1\. Opportunity to practice 2\. Good model to copy 3\. Guidance and supervision 2. Childhood: 2 years to 12 years By the second year, the child's muscular and nervous systems are well-developed, leading to increased mobility and exploration of the environment, though judgment develops slowly and guidance is needed. Gang age- children form same-gender play groups where acceptance is valued, and members engage in unique code languages, jokes, and riddles. Childhood The older child becomes proficient in self-help skills (eating, dressing), social skills (helping, sharing responsibilities), and school skills (reading, writing, arithmetic, drawing) as they develop. \- Key developmental stages include questioning, preschool, troublesome, exploring, imitative, gang age (social development), creative age (intellectual maturation), and misdemeanors (petty crimes).. Adolescence: 12-18 years old Adolescence is a transitional stage between childhood and adulthood, marked by physical and psychological development, confusion, and the process of relinquishing childhood behaviors to master adult tasks \- a time of both disorientation and discovery "Pubertas" -- meaning sexually mature, person becomes reproductively functional. \- "Storm and stress" -- time of heightened emotionality \- Menarche (first menstruation) for girls, Spermarche (nocturnal emissions) for boys \- Growth spurt period -- sudden increase in height or weight. \- Latchkey problems -- active social life result to breaking curfews 5\. Early adulthood: 18 to 40 years old \- \"*young adulthood*\" - Early adults in college seek like-minded peers, while those in the workforce explore career paths and social associations for their personal lives. - 1\. Settling down age -- marriage and career - 2\. Time of value change -- setting priorities - 3\. Vocational and career choices -- economic stability - 4\. Reproductive age -- parenting responsibilities - 5\. Marital and In-law problems --adjustment to married life 6\. Middle age: 40 -- 60 years old -experience many physical changes that signal that the person is aging. commonly called the middle age spread. -Middle adults adapt to evolving relationships with children and aging parents while engaging in community involvement and career development. MIDDLE AGE CRISIS - individuals experience hormonal declines, leading to feelings of unattractiveness and moodiness, prompting a reassessment of life priorities. - 1\. Dangerous age -- degenerative changes begin, illnesses, even death - 2\. Stressful time -- sending children to school, marital adjustments, separation, death of spouse - 3\. Time of achievements -- professional titles, properties, financial stability   7\. Old age: 60 years old and above -senescence, , in human beings, the final stage of the normal life span -period of decline in physical strength and social participation. It is not welcomed unlike other phases of life - Degenerative physical and mental changes continue - Resentment and depression continues (paranoia) - Retirement age -- time of reaping the benefits of work and investments - Rejuvination -- reversing the effects of aging - Religiousity begins   DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES (ALREADY IN THE FIRST PPT) PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT -refers to the physical and biological changes that occur in humans between birth and adolescence. The child's physical abilities grow in a directional pattern from large muscle groups to small muscles, from head to toe, and from the center of the body to the extremities.  *Cephalocaudal --* Head to toe *Proximodistal* - Center going outward -includes children\'s *physical growth. as well as their increasing ability to control the muscles of their bodies. follows a predictable pattern, but each child grows at his or her own rate. Active play helps children develop their motor skills. * -can be incorporated into every Area of Learning, Key points  Development of gross and fine motor skills transforms a dependent newborn into an independent toddler in about three years.  Gross motor skills involve coordination of large muscle groups for movements like balancing, running, and jumping.  Fine motor skills involve coordination of small muscle movements, typically with hands and eyes.  Children achieve various physical development milestones, including walking, drawing, and self-feeding, in their early years Developmental Milestones \- reflect a child\'s physical abilities at various ages, influenced by factors like genetics, nutrition, body build, and culture, but timing may vary among children. Children's physical development occurs rapidly during the first few years of life as they develop both gross and fine motor skills. From birth to 2 years, children undergo rapid growth and changes in body proportions, developing motor skills like lifting their heads, rolling, creeping, crawling, standing, and eventually walking. From ages 2 to 6, children lose their babyish appearance, develop mature body proportions, and exhibit high energy levels, with boys typically more active than girls; by school age, they show steady growth, lose primary teeth, refine muscle use, and engage in structured play that enhances their physical development. What is puberty? -Puberty signifies the transition from childhood to adolescence, involving significant physical, emotional, and social changes, including growth and sexual organ development. When does puberty start? - Puberty starts when changes in your child's brain cause sex hormones to start being released in girls' ovaries and boys' testes. - This usually happens around 10-11 years for girls and around 11-13 years for boys. - But it's normal for the start of puberty to range from 8-13 years in girls and 9-14 years in boys. Every child is different.  Brain: Teenage brain changes enhance behavior, social skills, self-control, and decision-making, continuing into the mid-20s.  Bones, organs, and body systems: Organs grow stronger, lung performance improves, and bones thicken and increase in volume.  Clumsiness: Rapid growth during puberty can disrupt balance and coordination, leading to increased clumsiness and a higher likelihood of injury. -Physical strength: Muscles grow stronger, enhancing coordination and motor skills. -weight: Teens gain weight and need more nutritious food for energy and bone growth. -Sleep patterns: Kids stay up later and need more sleep during puberty. -Sweat: New sweat glands develop, leading to body odor; hygiene becomes important.  Skin and hair: Increased oil production can lead to acne; hair may become oilier.  Teeth: Second molars appear at 13; wisdom teeth may emerge from 14 to 25; dental care is essential. Factors affecting physical develop­ment - Heredity - Nutrition - Immunization at proper time saves the child from various diseases - Proper ventilation: - Endocrine gland - Prenatal period - Family - Sex difference - Intelligence - Socio-economic status LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT - CRYING - COOING AND BABBLING - GESTURES - EMOTIONAL EXPRESSIONS DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE - Increase in comprehension. Babyhood- tone of voice, facial expression. Early childhood- normally child is able to most what is said. - Building vocabulary. a. General Vocabulary b. Special vocabulary -Early Childhood: Vocabulary expands rapidly due to teaching and curiosity about word meanings. \- Late Childhood: Vocabulary increases significantly, with individual differences influenced by intelligence and available opportunities. - Mastering pronunciation. -Babyhood: Babies learn to pronounce words mainly through imitation, resulting in \"baby talk\" due to mispronunciations. -Early Childhood: Pronunciation improves rapidly based on the correctness and guidance of models. -Late Childhood: Pronunciation errors are rare, though new words may still be mispronounced. - Combining words into sentences  Babyhood: Babies typically use one-word sentences, consisting of a noun or verb, often accompanied by a gesture.  Early Childhood: Sentence formation follows a definite pattern. - FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT - PHYSICAL HEALTH - INTELLIGENCE - SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS - SEX DIFFERENCE - FAMILY RELATIONSHIP - OPPORTUNITIES TO SPEAK - MOTIVATION & GUIDANCE - MULTIPLE BIRTH - BILINGUALISM - PHYSICAL & MENTAL DEVELOPMENT