Introduction to Research in Forestry and Natural Resources PDF

Introduction to Research in Forestry and Natural Resources 1. Philosophy of science “Re” + “Search” Re = again and again Search = to find out something (investigation) A person observes again and again a phenomena through a collection of data then analysis of data and arrive to a conclusion Franc...

Introduction to Research in Forestry and Natural Resources 1. Philosophy of science “Re” + “Search” Re = again and again Search = to find out something (investigation) A person observes again and again a phenomena through a collection of data then analysis of data and arrive to a conclusion Francis Rummel said that “Research is an endeavour to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an intellectual process that has developed over hundred years, ever changing in purpose and form and always search for the truth.” Research produce knowledge in search for the truth Why do we need to inquire? Aristotle said that, “all men by nature desire to know” This means that a man naturally has an inquisitive nature. This is also the philosophical foundation of research. Importance of Research - A tool for building knowledge and efficient learning - Means to understand various issues - An aid to business success - A way to prove lies and build the truth - Mean to find, gauge, and seize opportunities - A seed to love reading, writing, analyzing, and sharing information - Nourishment and exercise of the mind - Basis for production UP Charter of 2008 UP shall serve as a research university in various fields of expertise and specialization by conducting basic and applied research and development, and promoting research in various colleges and universities, and contributing to the dissemination and application of knowledge. What is science and non-science? - Academe focuses on scientific research There are opposite views of reality as portrayed in the “School of Athens” built by Raphael. Plato believed that what we know as reality are only forms and are only ideas of what is reality. He approaches knowledge through reasoning. While Aristotle(the first scientist) believed that reality is observed through the five senses. The Philosophy of Science What is Science? - Science is a human investigative behavior whose object is the natural world and natural phenomena - Science is a tool developed and used by humans when humans interrogate the natural world - Tool - used to produce a body of knowledge - Systemic inquiry - Focused on the natural world - Part of this understanding includes the explanation and prediction of natural phenomena Who controls knowledge? Medieval Period - The church - Geocentric view - Science doesn’t progress with metaphysics Renaissance Period - “I think therefore I am” by Descartes - Deductive reasoning - Rationalism What is Philosophy? - “Science originated from philosophy” - Philosophy is concerned with questions of essences: what are things at their core? What are things at their most central, fundamental, foundational levels? (Metaphysics) - The goal of a philosopher is the same as the goal of any other investigator: to figure out how things actually are. - Hence, science still needs philosophy to somehow define itself Science Requires Philosophy - To define phenomenon - To find meaning - Science itself is directed at the natural world - Systematic and theoretical evaluation of science’s foundations cannot be accomplished by science itself.  - The philosophy of science allows for critical analysis of the foundations of science, something that is required in order for science to function, but something that science itself cannot achieve on its own. - Without philosophy, science is impossible. What is the Philosophy of Science? - The study of assumptions, foundations, and implications of science Philosophy od Science Theory is about - Ontology: Nature of the world science is investigating - Investigating the character of reality of the world - Epistemology: Nature of the knowledge and how we get knowledge of the world through investigation, what counts as scientific investigation - Inquiry about the knowledge Philosophical Terms in Research Ontology - refers to beliefs about the nature of reality. - What is true? - What exists? - What is real? Philosophies about Reality Realism vs. Relativism Realism - One truth exists (factual truths) - It does not change - Objective measurements - Generalizable Relativism - Constructive - Multiple realities (has a spectrum) - Shaped by a context - “has a standard” - Truth evolves and changes - perspective may change with discipline - Cannot be generalized but may be used in similar contexts Epistemology - examines the relationship between knowledge and the researcher during the discovery  - How we come to know what we know? Ontological beliefs will dictate epistemological beliefs Etic vs. Emic Etic - “from outside” - objective - Realism Emic - “from within” - meaning - relativism - Methodology - the way we go about discovering knowledge in a systematic manner - Refers to philosophies that guide data gathering - How do we discover knowledge - Appropriate methodology is driven by one’s ontological and epistemological beliefs The Philosophical Underpinnings of Research - Ontology, epistemology, and methodology shape the Research paradigm Positivist vs. Alternative approaches in research Paradigm - Set of beliefs that guide research or inquiry - Research or inquiry is guided by a set of beliefs. - Set of beliefs - A way of thinking about the world; basic belief systems based on ontological, epistemological, and methodological assumptions. Types of Research Paradigm Positivism - Ontology: Realism; One reality exists that can be found - one truth - Epistemology: Dualist and objective - dualist: believed that reality has physical and non-physical substances - objectivist: exists independently of human knowledge or perception; things are what they are regardless of what anyone believes - Methodology: Experimental leading to contextualized results - Quantitative Constructivism/Interpretivism - Ontology: Relativism; Realities are constructed - Kant, “It is about causality” - just interpret and understand - multiple realities - no objective knowledge - Epistemology: Interactive/ transactional and subjective with co-created findings - Methodology: Qualitative, interpretative, and logical with a well-described context Positivism: The Researcher as Scientist - i.e. Taxonomist - The Natural Sciences as Model - The Quest for Objective Knowledge - A Deductive or Theory-testing approach - testing of theory - Underpinned by objectivist or realist ontology: facts are facts - Explaining how and why things happen: measurement, correlation, statistical logic, verification - Typical methods: surveys, questionnaires, random sampling Interpretivism: Researcher as Detective - Arises from a Critique of Using the Natural Sciences as a Model for Social Research - The Quest for Subjective Knowledge - Underpinned by a Subjectivist ontology: people are people - observe interaction - Understanding how and why things happen: elucidating meaning - Typical approaches: Ethnographic study; in-depth interviews; analytical approaches Philosophical Worldviews Positivism - world is completely knowable - Determination - has a result in mind - Reductionism - Empirical observation and measurement - Theory verification Post Positivism - falsification - world is not completely knowable - existence of null and alternative hypothesis - Karl Pauper Constructivism - Understanding - Multiple participant meanings - Social and historical construction - Theory generation - an explanation of a certain phenomenon Advocacy/Participatory - Political - science as social enterprise - Empowerment - there is a marginalized group - Collaborative - Change-oriented Pragmatism - mixed method (quan-qual) - reality, theory with context - Consequences of actions - Problem-centered - Pluralistic - Real-world practice-oriented Elements of scientific method Scientific Method - a standardized set of techniques for building scientific knowledge Key Elements of Scientific Method 1. Question - A scientist proposes the problem he wants to solve 2. Hypothesis - A potential answer to the question at hand 3. Experiment - Ordered investigations that are intended to prove or disprove a hypothesis 4. Observation - A statement of knowledge gained through the senses or through the use of scientific equipment 5. Analysis - Comparing the result of the experiment to the prediction posed by the hypothesis 6. Conclusion - A statement whether the original hypothesis was supported or refuted by the observations The scientific method must satisfy four characteristics: Replicability - well documented methods Precision - dealing with risks Falsifiability - critical rationalism - no prior knowledge about stuff - limiting facts Parsimony - arrive at knowledge at a most economical way Research Methodology Research methodology is the philosophy or general principle which will guide your research. When you start to think about your research methodology, you need to think about the differences between qualitative and quantitative research... Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Qualitative Research - explores attitudes, behavior, and experiences through such methods as interviews or focus groups Quantitative Research - based on the measurement of quantity or amount; generates statistics through the use of large-scale survey research, using methods such as questionnaires or structured interviews Qualitative Quantitative Objectives/ Purpose Gain understanding of Quantify data underlying reasons and generalize results from motivations sample to the population of interest provide insights about the measure the incidence of setting of the problem, various views and opinion in the chosen sample generate ideas and hypothesis for later quantitative research uncover prevalent trends in sometimes thought and opinions followed by quali - used to explore some findings further Sample small number large number  non-representative cases cases that represent the respondents are selected to population fulfill a given quota randomly selected non-simple conclusion is based on respondents Data Collection unstructured/ semi-structured structured e.g individual depth questionnaires, telephone interviews or FGD interviews Data Analysis non-statistical statistical - tabulations conclusive and descriptive in nature Outcome exploratory used to recommend a final investigative course of action not conclusive cannot be used to make generalizations develop initial understanding basis for further decision making For a research to qualify as ‘scientific research’, it must obey the canons of the scientific method... Definitions of the research problem and the research constructs Review concepts and theories and research findings Statement of the hypothesis or the research question Description of the research framework in terms of tools, sampling procedure, etc. Collection of relevant data Analysis of the data Discussion of the results and testing of the hypothesis or answer the research questions QUALITATIVE METHOD What is Qualitative Research? - Archival Literature, Anything - A strategy for systematic collection, organization and interpretation of textual material derived from talk or conversation - It is used in the exploration of meanings of natural phenomena as experienced by the individuals themselves, in their natural context (i.e. ethnography: experiencing and immersing yourself in the community to research)  - A means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem - The process of research involves emerging questions and procedures, data typically collected in the participant’s setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of data - Questions can be arranged and improved during data collection - The final written report has a flexible writing structure - Can be written inclusion of personal experience and perspective - Cannot be written loosely Characteristics of Qualitative Research - Natural Setting - Research as key instrument - Multiple sources of data - Inductive data analysis - Participants’ meanings - Emergent design - Theoretical lens - Interpretive - Holistic account What are the Products of Qualitative Research? Recurrent themes or hypotheses Survey instrument measures Taxonomies Conceptual models (or theories) Strategies of Inquiry - Narrative research - Phenomenology - Ethnography - Grounded theory studies - Case study Ethnography A strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time. The process is flexible and typically evolves contextually in response to the lived realities encountered in the field setting. Grounded Theory A strategy of inquiry in which the researcher derives a general abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of the participants.  The process involves multiple stages of data collection and the refinement and interrelationship of categories of information. Case Studies A strategy of inquiry in which the researcher explore in depth a program, even, activity, process, or one or more individual. Cases are bounded by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period of time. Phenomenological A strategy of inquiry in which the research identifies the essence of human experiences about a phenomenon as described by participants. Understanding the lived experiences marks phenomenology as a philosophy as well as a method, and the procedure involves studying a small number of subjects through extensive and prolonged engagement to develop patterns and relationships of meaning. The researchers brackets or sets aside his or her own experiences in order to understand those of the participants in the study. Natural Environment vs. Stimulated Environment Narrative Strategy A strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide stories about their lives. This information is often retold or restored by the researcher into a narrative chronology. The narrative combines views from the participants life with those of the researcher’s life in a collaborative narrative. THE USE OF THEORY A theory is an interrelated set of constructs (or variables) formed into propositions, or hypotheses, that specify the relationship among variables (typically in terms of magnitude or direction). Qualitative theory use: - It is used as a broad explanation for behavior and attitudes, and it may be complete with variables, constructs, and hypotheses. - Researchers increasingly use a theoretical lens or perspective in qualitative research, which provides an overall orienting lens for the study of questions of gender, class and race (or other issues of marginalized group). Review of Related Literature in Qualitative Research Similar to quantitative reports but usually there is less published literature available. May need to review the studies with related or similar subjects, populations, or concepts. May wait to do the literature review until after study, but still need a basic review for justification. Research Tips on Theory Use in a Qualitative Research  Decide if theory is to be used in the qualitative proposal If it is used, then identify how the theory will be used in the study, such as an up-front explanation, as an end point, or as an advocacy lens. Locate the theory in the proposal in a manner consistent with its use. Qualitative Research Questions Ask one or two central questions followed by no more than five to seven sub-questions Relate the central question to the specific qualitative strategy of inquiry Begin the research questions with the words what or how to convene an open and emergent design Focus on a single phenomenon or concept Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of emerging design: - Discover (e.g., grounded theory) - Seek to understand (e.g., ethnography) - Explore a process (e.g., case study) - Describe the experiences (e.g., phenomenology) - Report the stories (e.g., narrative research) Expect the research question to evolve and change during the study Use open-ended questions without reference to the literature or theory unless otherwise indicated by a qualitative strategy of inquiry Specify the participants and the research site of the study Sampling in Qualitative Research Usually a purposive sample (not random) because the researcher is looking for the particular person who can elucidate the phenomena being studied. Inclusion and exclusion criteria – description of what characteristics a person must have to be selected or excluded from the study. Sample size is determined when data saturation occurs, that is when information being shared with the researchers becomes repetitive. Data Collection Procedures Qualitative observations Qualitative interviews Qualitative documents Qualitative audio and visual materials Observations Gather field notes by conducting an observation as a participant. Gather field notes by conducting an observation as an observer. Gather field notes by spending more time as a participant than as an observer. Gather field notes by spending more time as an observer than as a participant. Gather field notes first by observing as an outsider and then moving into the setting and observing as an insider. Fieldnotes: A record of the researcher’s activities in the field includes general observations about the progress of fieldwork, impression of interviewees, summaries of conversations, descriptions of the natural and built environment, and drawings and diagrams of buildings and artifacts. Interviews Conduct an unstructured, open-ended interview and take interview notes Conduct an unstructured, open-ended interview and, audiotape the interview, and transcribe it Conduct a semi-structured interview, audiotape the inverview, and transcribe the interview Conduct a focus group interview, audiotape the interview, and transcribe it Conduct different types of interviews: email, face-to-face, focus group, online focus group, telephone interviews Example: In-depth interview (One-on-one interview); Focus group discussion (FGD) Documents Keep a journal during the research study Have a participant keep a journal diary during the research study Collect personal letters from participants Analyze public documents (e.g., official memos, minutes, records, archival material) Examine autobiographies and biographies Have participants take photographs or video tapes (i.e., photo elicitation) Chart audits Medical records Audio-Visual Materials Examine the physical trace evidence (e.g., footprints in the snow) Videotape or film a social situation or an individual or group Examine photographs or videotapes Collect sounds (e.g., musical sounds, a child’s laughter, car horns honking) Collect email messages Collect cellphone text messages Examine possessions or ritual objects Collect sounds, smells, tastes, or any stimuli of the senses Data Recording Procedures Use a protocol for recording observational data Use an interview protocol for asking questions and recording answers during a qualitative interview Researchers record information from interviews by making hand- written notes, by audiotaping, or by videotaping The recording of documents and visual materials can be based on the researcher’s structure for taking notes Characteristics of Scientific Inquiry Reliability, Validity and Generalizability Qualitative validity – the researcher checks for the accuracy of the findings by employing certain procedures Qualitative reliability – indicates that the researcher’s approach is consistent across different researchers and different projects Qualitative generalization – a term that is used in a limited manner in qualitative research; generalization occurs when qualitative researchers study additional cases and generalize findings to the new cases Reliability Procedures Check transcripts to make sure that they do not contain obvious mistakes made during transcription Make sure there is not a drift in the definition of codes For team research, coordinate the communication among the coders by regular documented meetings and by sharing the analysis Cross-check codes developed by different researchers by comparing results that are independently derived Validity Strategies Triangulate Use member checking to determine accurate (respondent validation) Use rich, thick description to convey findings Clarify the bias the researcher brings to the research Present negative or discrepant information that runs counter to the themes Spend prolonged time in the field Use peer debriefing (external check) to enhance the accuracy of the account Use an external auditor Standards in Qualitative Research Ethics - As with all studies, qualitative researchers must respect the rights of the participants Credibility - Truth of findings as judged by participants and others within the discipline - The researcher returns to the participants to share their interpretation of findings Auditability - Adequacy of information leading the reader from the research question and raw data to the interpretation of findings - You should be able to follow the reasoning of the researcher step-by-step Fittingness - Faithfulness to everyday reality of the participants, described in enough detail so that others in the discipline can evaluate importance - Experience being reported should “ring true” QUANTITATIVE METHOD - Main purpose is to address a specific problem Challenges in Forestry research in developing countries 1. Lack of capacity among scientists to implement research 2. Lack of good facilities including high-technology equipment 3. Insufficient research funds 4. Unavailability of Information 1. Lack of capacity among scientists to implement research Low Income Countries - research is a luxury owing to economic constraints. - There very few number of scientist. - The few existing scientists hold several other jobs. - The country also lack the resources to train scientists to the highest academic level. - There is also very little communication among scientists 2. Lack of good facilities including high-technology equipment Rope-based high-technology equipment - (A) sap flow measurement - (B) Access to vertebrate breeding habitat - (C) Passive recording devices - (D) Malaise trap adapted for deployment at canopy level Applications of Drones, Satellites, etc. in forestry - We collaborate to access high technological equipments II. Contemporary and Emerging Issues in forestry and natural resources 1. Technological - Research in FNR has to do with the application of digital age, computer system, virtual technique and others - Examples: Remote sensing and GIS; Modeling and simulation; Big data and analytics; Mobile applications 3. Insufficient research funds - major impediment to growth, development, and advancement in forestry research, particularly applied research  - Insufficient research funds can significantly impact research outcomes: - Limited scope and scale - THE CONSEQUENCES OF INSUFFICIENT SAMPLE SIZES CAN BE DETRIMENTAL - Reduced quality of research - Shortened research timelines - Ethical compromises - Unsustainability 4. Unavailability of Information - Digital divide - Access to academic journals Grand Challenges: Forests and Global Change 1. Achieving Sustainable Development Big role of research in achieving sustainable development including poverty reduction, protecting and restoring watershed ecosystem, access to sustainable energy, and combating climate change Struggles: - Instability (corruption, political turmoil, conflict between nations, financial crisis) - Poverty - Implementation (e.g., difficulties in restoration, reforestation, funding) 2. Climate change - Carbon Accounting of forest sinks and reservoirs, process emissions and carbon storage in forest products; - Carbon dioxide dynamics of using Forest Bioenergy - Carbon cycle of Tropical Forests; - Global warming, drought and fire 3. Land use and land use change - loss of native habitats - increased wind erosion and dust - spread of invasive species - connections between land use changes and infectious disease - increases the “edge effect” - promotes the interaction among pathogens, vectors, and hosts. - Point source discharges-related problems - Integrated land use planning - Food security 4. Protecting and Restoring Natural Forests - Technology, institutional capacity, and policy-related problems; - Long and complex process, capital-intensive;  - Forests are rarely valued as single entity – they are more usually valued for a wide variety of products and services; - stakeholder engagement, conflicting views; - Uncertain; - Values associated with forests accrue over widely different time-scales; 5. Rise in poverty rates and the global population High demand for food and other land- based products requiring productive landscapes that are managed sustainably Implementation of wide poverty alleviation and rural development measures to improve land-use practices in agroforestry. II. Contemporary and Emerging Issues in forestry and natural resources 2. Legal and ethical Researches follow the rule of law under the present Philippine constitution – Bioprospecting law – Biosafety law RA 9147, July 30, 2001 – “wildlife resources conservation and protection act” – An act providing for the conservation and protection of wildlife resources and their habitats, appropriating funds therefore and for other purposes. PD 1775 - Amendment to the Revised Forestry Code PD 1152 – Philippine Environment Code PD 1067 – The Water Code of the Philippines PD 984 – National Pollution Control Commission PD 979 – Marine Pollution Decree of 1976 Research Techniques in Forest Products Utilization What are the categories of forest products? 1. Wood a. Primary b. Secondary i. Mechanically processed ii. Chemically processed 2. Non-wood a. Fiber and Structural Materials  b. Plants that yield extractive or chemical products c. Plants providing edible fruits and nuts d. Animals and Animal derived products What is the current status of forest products research? Forest Cover Philippine total land area is 30 M ha; forest cover (i.e., natural and man-made forests) is around 23% of the total land area, lower than the global average of 30% and significantly less than Vietnam (47%), Indonesia (49%), and Malaysia (58%). EO 26 NGP – reforestation program (2011) EO 23 - prohibiting the harvesting of timber in natural forests; creation of anti-illegal tasked forces and urged the deployment of more forest guard What are the forest products research gaps? (DOST - PCAARRD) - Insufficient system for the production of quality planting materials - Insufficient information on the identification/optimization of technologies for the control of diseases (such as gall rust, pink canker, stem borer, etc.) - low productivity due to wood effects - lack of new technologies for value-added products - Limited satellite laboratories - Conflicting overlapping policies - Lack of livelihood programs and marketing system Production vs.Consumption - In 2020, the local supply of wood and wood-based products could not meet the 6M cubic meter annual average consumption of the Philippines. - The growing local and export demand is due to the increased use of wood for construction, paper packaging and printing, furniture, cabinet making, and carvings. Trade Decrease in exports, increase in imports ->> high negative impact on economy - Need solution to stop depending on other countries for the wood industry Imports Research Gap: Pulp and Paper production (Processing of the Chips) Exports: Opportunities: Recycled fiber processing; Paper and paperboard manufacture. What are the available forest product technologies at present? Wood Properties and Forest Products Technologies Frank Lloyd “We can use wood if we understand wood” What are the key properties for characterizing forest products? How are they tested? Wood Properties: - Physical - Mechanical - Chemical - Anatomical Wood Modification This involves the action of a chemical, biological or physical agent upon the material resulting in a desired property enhancement during service life of the modified forest products (Hill 2006). Thermal Modification The process of subjecting the wood at elevated temperature invariably performed at temperatures between 180 and 260 °C. It has been known as a process enhancing wood properties by reducing moisture absorption, improving dimensional stability and biological durability (Burmester 1983). Oil Heat Treatment - This process involves immersion of wood in an oil bath at different temperature settings and durations. - The idea of heating up the wood in hot oils was used because most of the heat treatments are carried out at temperatures 180 and 260°C under low oxygen conditions. - It proved to be necessary to maintain the desired temperature in the wood’s core for 2 to 4 hours (Rapp and Sailer 2001). Forest Products Technologies Physical Property Tests: Color. Odor, Hygroscopicity. Dimensional Stability Mechanical Property Tests: Flexural Properties (A) and Toughness (B) using ASTM Standards Biodeterioration Properties: Resistance to Decay Fungi: % Weight Loss after 20 weeks of incubation following ASTM Standards - Resistance to Termites Test: FPRDI Laboratory Method % Weight Loss and Visual Observation: - Test for the decay resistance was performed using an accelerated laboratory test of natural decay resistance of woods following ASTM D 2017- 94. Thermal Modification - With Chemical Impregnation Chemical Properties: Proximate Chemical Analysis - Holocellulose - Alpha-Cellulose - Hemicellulose - Lignin  - Extractives - 1 % NaOH - Cyclohexane-OH - Hot Water - Uses Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) Anatomical Properties: Sample and Slide Preparation - Samples are reduced into chips for fiber maceration - Microtome is used to cut thin slices of different sections Wood Preservation Wood Seasoning Fuel Pellets Alternative biofuel sources that can be utilized because these are more economic and environmentally friendly compared to common non-renewable energies, we are familiar to use with. Many Filipino households still use wood for cooking especially in the rural areas. And the use of charcoal can harm the environment because trees have to be cut down. Wood wastes from sawdust shavings or wood residues, trimmings from old furniture woods, and rice straw and husks were the raw materials used to manufacture the fuel pellets. Other sources for fuel pellets include sugarcane bagasse, corn stover and cobs, and coconut shell and husks. What is the future of forest products research? - “Limitless possibilities” Forest Products Research - Nanotechnology - Wood and Fiber Anatomy - Development of biobased resins/ adhesives/ biopolymers - Valorization of wastes and other plant parts - Advanced wood-based composites and structural products - Wood Seasoning and Preservation - Chemistry and Chemical Processing of Forest Biomass - Forest Products Biotechnology - Bioenergy from Forest Biomass -... “virtually limitless possibilities” RESEARCH METHODS IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Management is very important and critical in the utilization of natural resources.  Management includes planning for future development; implementation of strategies/programs; and monitoring & evaluation (effectiveness and efficiency). Where does research fit in these processes? Research -> Planning, Management, M&E WHY WE DO RESEARCH IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT? Collect baseline data Resource assessment and inventory Human development – managers and other human resources Explain and predict phenomena (natural, events) Assess efficiency and/or effectivity of management Test existing paradigms and theories’ applicability Analysis of problems to come up with solutions TYPES OF STUDIES RELATED TO NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Resources and setting (Inventory, Characterization, Baselining) Land and resource use (Use trends, Capability and Suitability studies) Economic studies (Market analysis, Valuation, Ecosystem services, Feasibility) Conservation studies (Erosion studies, Impact assessment, Management effectiveness) Theoretical and conceptual studies (Framework development, Theory testing) Methods studies (Analysis of tools and techniques) SURVEY RESEARCH HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF NATURAL RESOURCES An area of investigation that attempts to describe, predict, understand and affect human thought and action towards natural environments. Natural resource managers encounter people on a daily basis, form impressions of the public they serve, and they consider these impressions in making decisions. Public involvement activities are ingrained in planning and management of resources. GOALS OF SURVEY RESEARCH Exploratory – used to collect preliminary information; get a feel for the type and range of issues important to people. Descriptive – used to describe the characteristics of the people of interest. Explanatory – used to identify possible causal relationships thereby contributing to understanding. Advantages Useful for describing characteristics of a larger population Uses standardized questions so comparison among groups can be facilitated Large sample size can be obtained in a relatively short period of time Numerous questions can be asked in a single survey Disadvantages  All questions must be understandable to all potential respondents Questionnaires are often not flexible Sometimes seem artificial to respondents May not always provide data that is within the context of social life SURVEY SAMPLING DESIGN Are methods by which members of a population are selected for the study. Probability sampling – random samples of individuals where every member of the populations has a known chance of being included in the sample Non-probability sampling – do not allow researchers to generalize to the population of interest THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN ADMINISTERING SURVEY At the stage of developing the questionnaire: a) Decide what should be included in the questionnaire (Refer to your objectives) b) Select the most appropriate type of survey method (Based on constraints) c) Develop a first draft of the questionnaire d) Ask experts to review the questionnaire and revise accordingly e) Pre-test questionnaire and revise accordingly based on pre-test results and feedback f) Establish procedures for coding responses, entering data and analyzing data g) Administer the improved questionnaire h) Conduct non-response bias checks if the response rate is lower than desired i) Enter and analyze responses j) Report findings DATA PROCESSING Considerable time must be devoted to: a) Carefully entering the data into a computerized database; b) Running preliminary analyses to identify any problems that could influence the results; c) Checking the reliability and validity of the data; and d) Transforming the data to create composite indices of the underlying dimensions SURVEY ANALYSIS Parametric statistics – involves the estimation of at least one parameter. These assume that the samples being compared are drawn from a population with normal distribution. It uses interval or ratio measures. (eg. μ or σ : t, F) Non-parametric statistics – involves the estimation of parameters without assumptions made about the equivalence of units along the scale or about the shape of the distribution of scores in the population. It uses nominal or ordinal scales. (eg. Kruskal-Wallis H test or analysis of variance by ranks) Problems and Issues in Natural Resources Research Common sources of error in the research process 1. Population specification 2. Sampling 3. Instrument/Equipment 4. Measurement Common Errors in Research: Experimental Studies Inadvertently or otherwise treating the experimental and control groups differently, thus leading to biased findings. Using too few cases leading to large sampling errors and insignificant results. Failing to divide the main groups into subgroups in situations where subgroup analysis may produce worthwhile knowledge. Matching the subjects in the experimental and control groups on criteria that have little to do with the variables being studied. Attempting to match control and experimental groups on so many criteria that in the process you lose a large number of subjects who cannot be matched. Observational Studies Not sufficiently training observers and thus obtaining unreliable data. Using an observation procedure that demands too much of the observer. Failing to safeguard against the observer’s disturbing or changing the situation being observed. Attempting to evaluate behavior that occurs so infrequently that reliable data cannot be obtained through observations Interview Studies Not adequately planning the interview or developing the interview guide. Not conducting sufficient practice interviews to acquire needed skills. Failing to establish safeguards against interview bias. Not making provisions for calculating the reliability of the interview data.  Using language in the interview that the respondents won’t understand. Asking for information that the respondents cannot be expected to have. Questionnaire Studies Using a questionnaire to work with problems that lend themselves better to other research techniques. Not giving enough care to the development of the questionnaire and not pretesting it. Asking too many questions, thus making unreasonable demands on the respondents’ time. Overlooking details of format, grammar, printing, and so on that can influence respondents’ first impression. Not checking a sample of non-responding subjects for possible bias in the questionnaire. Content Analysis Studies Selecting content that is easily available but is not an unbiased sample. Selecting some content that is not really related to the research objectives. Failing to determine the reliability of the content-analysis procedures. Using classification categories that are not specific yet comprehensive Relationship (Correlation) Studies Assuming that a correlation between pieces of data is proof of a cause-and-effect relationship. Using a sample in correlational research that differs on so many variables that comparisons of groups are not interpretable. Putting the cart before the horse: trying to build a correlational study around conveniently available data instead of collecting the data needed to do a worthwhile study. Failing to use appropriate disciplinary theory in selecting variables to study.  Selecting variables for correlation that have been found unproductive in previous studies. Using simple correlation techniques in studies where partial correlation or multiple correlation is needed to obtain a clear picture of the way the variables are operating. Failing to develop satisfactory measures to use in correlation studies of complex skills or behavior patterns. Ethical Issues in Research Ethics – set of rules, written and unwritten, that govern our expectations of our own and others’ behavior Research ethics – set of ethics that govern how scientific and other research is performed at research institutions such as universities and how it is disseminated Importance of Research Ethics It promotes the aims of research It supports the values required for collaborative work (mutual respect and fairness) It ensures that researchers are accountable for their actions It preserves public trust in research It supports important social and moral values Aspects of most ethical codes Honesty and Integrity Objectivity Carefulness Openness Respect for Intellectual Property Confidentiality Responsible Publication Legality Animal Care Protection of Human Subjects Honesty and Integrity Should be observed in all stages of the research process (methods, data, results and interpretation) It is better to undersell than over-exaggerate your findings When working with others, always keep to any agreements Act sincerely Objectivity Aim to avoid bias in any aspect of research (study design, data analysis, interpretation and peer review) Minimize inadvertent exclusions of certain groups in your study Disclosure of any personal or financial interests that may affect your research Carefulness Avoiding careless mistakes Review your work carefully and critically to ensure credibility Keep full records of your research When doing a peer review, take time and do it effectively and efficiently Openness Always be prepared to share your data and results Share insights on your experiences during the conduct of research Be open to criticism and new ideas and perspectives Respect for Intellectual Property Never plagiarize (copy other people’s work and try to pass it off as your own) Make the habit of asking permission before using other people’s tools or methods Always acknowledge contributions to your research (If in doubt, acknowledge to avoid plagiarism) Confidentiality Respect anything that is provided in confidence Follow guidelines on protection of sensitive and/or personal information Preserve identities to minimize jeopardizing study participants Responsible Publication Never duplicate someone else’s study without properly following protocols Always publish new work to disseminate new knowledge Minimize “salami” publications and “barangay” publications - co-authors must: a) have substantial contribution to the paper; b) drafted/revised the paper critically for intellectual content; c) involved in the final approval of the paper) Legality Always be aware and strictly follow laws and regulations that govern your work Animal Care Ensure that experiments involving animals are necessary and well designed Respect animal subjects used in the study Well being of animal subjects should be well taken cared of Human Subjects Protection Minimize harm and maximize benefits Respect human rights (including privacy and autonomy) Ethics Committee in an academic institution Most universities have an ethics committee that scrutinizes all research proposals to ensure that they do not raise ethical issues. They consider that what researchers are doing is appropriate and proportionate to the research aims No research should start until granted ethical approval IV. Research proposals in forestry and natural resources 1. Development of a research proposal: identifying research goals and objectives, planning and writing Research Requirements; Introduction: topic, problem statement, objectives Writing a good title, introduction, and objectives A good title - Clarity and precision - Composed of topic, variables, scope, objectives, hypothesis - Include the most important information - May include study design, important keywords - What is discovered in the paper - Have enough details - Simple is better - Fewer words as possible - Eliminate Redundant Words and uninformative phrases - Strengthen Weak Adjectives - Remove Vague Nouns - Eliminate Filler Words - Avoid Jargon - Be specific - No uncommon abbreviations - Should accurately reflect the content of the paper - Ask for peer feedback Types of Title - Descriptive: Provide details  - Declarative: declares the main result and conclusion; commonly used in research that used a lot of parameters - Interrogative: hooks readers; question type Drafting a good title 1. Describe the paper in about three sentences 2. Join the sentences to form a single sentence 3. Removing redundant words adjectives or phrases 4. The final edit of the title INTRODUCTION - Should provide - Context - Research problem - Structure Step by step guide in writing an introduction 1. Understand Your Audience 2. Begin Broadly 3. Provide Context 4. State the Research Problem or Question 5. Highlight Gaps in Knowledge (background) 6. Present the Research Hypothesis/OBJECTIVES 7. Explain the Research Significance 8. Proofread Address the "what," "why," and "how" of your study What: define and describe the research topic or problem you are investigating - What is currently know and what is our understanding of what is currently known. - define the knowledge gap - What is unknown Why: explain the "why" aspect - establish the significance and relevance of your study - Rationale How: briefly explain the methodology and approach you have used or will use to investigate the research problem - Research Approach/Objectives Steps in Writing an Introduction Step 1: Show what is already known Step 2: Show the gap in knowledge or information Step 3: Show how your study will fill in the knowledge gap  - Citing relevant article is important GOALS AND OBJECTIVES Goals - are achievable, long-term, and broad - The statement described in broad terms - What readers will gain from reading the research Objectives - are specific and measurable actions to achieve overall goals - Statements that are expected to achieve - Types of tasks they should exhibit - May be behavioral objectives - Should establish a few objectives only An ideal objective - Has one measurable verb that best describes the task - Conditional on how the task is performed - Established around the major focus of research - Embodies SMART - Specific - Measurable - Attainable - Realistic - Relevant - Time-based - Use Bloom’s Taxonomy to write effective objectives Step-by-step procedure in formulating research objectives 1. Identify the research problem 2. Review the literature 3. Identify the research type 4. Brainstorming 5. Follow the SMART Criteria 6. Prioritization of objectives 7. NO OVERLOADING!!! WRITING THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Review of Related Literature A literature review is a comprehensive overview of prior research regarding a specific topic. The overview shows the reader what is known about a topic, and what is not yet know, thereby setting up the rationale or need for a new investigation, which is what the actual study to which the literature review is attached seeks to do. “The literature in a research study accomplishes several purposes: (a) It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the study being reported (Fraenkel and Wallen 1990)); (b) It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialog in the literature about a topic, filling in gaps and extending prior studies (Marshall and Rossman 1989); and (c) It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study” (Cresswell 1994, pp. 20, 21). ”As an overview, a well-done literature review includes all of the main themes and subthemes found within the general topic chosen for the study. These themes and subthemes are usually interwoven with the methods or findings of the prior research. Also, a literature review sets the stage for and offers readers justifications for the purpose and methods of the original research being reported in a manuscript. Said a bit differently, ”The literature review is where you identify the theories and previous research which have influenced your choice of research topic and the methodology you are choosing to adopt” (Ridley, 2008, p.2)” (Denney and Tweksbury 2013). Why is Review of Literature Important? Literature reviews force a writer to educate him/herself on as much information as possible pertaining to the topic chosen. Literature reviews demonstrate to readers that the author has a firm understanding of the topic By reviewing and reporting on all prior literature, weaknesses and shortcomings of prior literature will become more apparent. The review of literature is important because: It helps you, as the researcher, learn everything you can about your chosen topic. You study the knowledge contributed by other authors/experts about the topic that you will do a research on. As a researcher, you have to show that you understand the topic that you’re doing a research on. You can also spot any weakness or gaps in the previous research, which can help you find areas to improve on. Purpose of the Literature Review It gives readers access to research on a particular topic by selecting high quality articles or studies that are relevant, meaningful, important and valid, and summarizing them into one complete report. It provides an excellent starting point for researchers beginning to do research in a new area by forcing them to summarize, evaluate, and compare original research in that specific area. It ensures that researchers do not duplicate work that has already been done. It can provide clues as to where research is heading or recommend areas on which to focus It highlights key findings It identifies inconsistencies, gaps and contradictions in the literature  It provides a constructive analysis of the methodologies and approaches of other researchers The primary focus of the literature review will be related to the individual concepts of the general research question Literature reviews will have one of the three types of focuses... Integrative - summarizing past research based on overall conclusions of past research - This type of literature review involves summarizing past research on a particular topic or research question - Examining and synthesizing the overall conclusions and findings of multiple studies. - The goal is to provide a comprehensive overview of the existing research and to identify common themes, trends, and gaps in the literature. - An integrative literature review helps researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the current state of knowledge on a topic and to identify areas for further research. Theoretical - identifying and critiquing the ability of different theories to explain a phenomenon - the focus is on evaluating and critiquing the theoretical frameworks and models that have been used to explain a particular phenomenon or research question. - Researchers examine different theories and concepts that have been proposed in the literature and assess their relevance, applicability, and explanatory power. - Theoretical literature reviews help researchers to identify the strengths and weaknesses of existing theories and to develop new theoretical frameworks or models for their own research. Methodological - highlighting different methodological approaches used in past research and the contributions of each type of research - This type of literature review focuses on highlighting the different methodological approaches that have been used in past research on a specific topic. - Researchers examine the research methods, techniques, and procedures that have been employed in previous studies and evaluate their strengths, limitations, and contributions to the field. - Methodological literature reviews help researchers to understand the range of research methods available for studying a particular topic and to make informed decisions about the most appropriate methods to use in their own research. By the end of the literature review, the reader should have a solid understanding of... What is already known about the topic What is not yet known And therefore, a good idea of what exactly the current study is going to examine, and why When conducting a review of literature for a qualitative research study, it is important to consider the following points: 1. Focus on how a research question is shown to be needed to be addressed: - In the literature review, it is essential to highlight the gap in knowledge or the research question that the current study aims to address. - This helps to establish the relevance and importance of the research topic. 2. All-inclusive approach to the general research topic: - The literature review should provide a comprehensive overview of the general research topic, including key concepts, theories, and previous studies related to the topic. This helps to situate the current study within the broader context of existing research. 3. Minor degree of focus on the methods of previous studies: - While it is important to consider the methods used in previous studies, the focus in a literature review for qualitative research should be more on the findings and conclusions of these studies rather than the specific research methods employed. 4. More focus on findings of prior studies: - In a qualitative research literature review, it is crucial to focus on the key findings and conclusions of previous studies related to the research topic. This helps to identify trends, patterns, and gaps in the existing literature that can inform the current study. 5. Discuss whether or not prior quantitative studies have been conducted. If yes, discuss/explain why it is important to use a qualitative approach: - If prior quantitative studies have been conducted on the research topic, it is important to discuss and explain why a qualitative approach is needed. - Qualitative research can provide a deeper understanding of complex phenomena, explore perspectives and experiences, and generate rich, context-specific data that quantitative methods may not capture. - By using a qualitative approach, researchers can gain new insights and perspectives that complement and enhance the findings of quantitative studies. When conducting a review of literature for quantitative research, - it is important to thoroughly examine previous studies to understand what has already been found and concluded in the field. - This involves analyzing the specific variables that were used in these studies and how key variables, especially dependent variables, were operationalized - One key aspect to focus on is the methods used in prior studies. - This includes examining the research design, sampling techniques, data collection methods, and statistical analyses employed in these studies. - It is important to pay attention to any new advances in research methods that may have been used in more recent studies. - Additionally, it is crucial to compare and contrast the findings of different studies to determine commonalities or discrepancies in results. - This can help to identify patterns or trends in the literature and provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge in the field. Outlining the Literature Review 3 purposes: A mechanism for integrating and transforming ideas A mechanism of sequencing those ideas A general plan for the composition - "Writing to Understand" - means that when you first start writing your research or proposal, your main goal is to organize your thoughts and ideas in a way that make sense to you. This is the initial drafting stage where you are trying to make sense of your own work. - Once you have a clear understanding of your own writing, your focus then shifts to - "Writing to be Understood." - This means that you need to revise and edit your work in a way that makes it clear and easy for others to understand. Your goal now is to communicate your ideas effectively to your readers so that they can grasp the purpose and findings of your research or proposal. - Outlining can help you in both Writing to Understand and Writing to be Understood - by providing a roadmap for your writing, helping you organize your thoughts, and ensuring that your ideas are presented in a clear and coherent manner. Creating an Outline 1. Choosing a topic to study 2. Adding evidence to the general topic, leading to a specific focus - Note: All of the evidence needed to produce an adequate literature review will be very rarely found prior to the beginning of the writing process - The outline is a “living” or “fluid” document 3. Place in logical order all the initial subtopics and themes identified for the general topic (sequencing) Sources Sources serve as the building blocks that construct the walls of the entire structure of the literature review Adequate sources not only tell the reader about prior research regarding a topic, they also inform the author of prior research findings Finding and reading the sources is an extended process of developing the themes and subtopics They help expand and elaborate upon the general research topic Types of Sources Scholarly empirical articles, dissertations and books Scholarly, non-empirical articles and essays Textbooks, encyclopedias, and dictionaries Journal articles  Certain nationally and internationally recognized “good” newsmagazines Government publications (gray literature) Where do we find this sources? - Main Library - OpenAthens - CFNR Library It may be easy to find a long list of references for lit review but the challenge is to filter out irrelevant materials. - One way to do this is to read the abstract of each article before deciding if it is useful for your research. - Only download the articles that are relevant to avoid being overwhelmed with too much material. - If you are unable to download an article, you can ask the Library for assistance by sending them an email. They will be happy to help you obtain the material. Keep track of sources... Be organized Note cards Endnote program Other programs like - Endnote - Zotero - Mendeley OUTLINE OF STRUCTURE AND CONTENTS OF THE RRL RRL as an inverted funnel - Starts with broad ideas and progressing to a more specific ones Introduction - Overall general idea is introduced - Briefly discuss why the topic is important - Why more research needs to be conducted - Include a preview of each topic that will be discussed - To provide an overview of what to expect - Sets the stage - Provide context and background information on the topic Body Themes/subtopics placed in sequential order - To provide a clear and logical flow of information The headings should lead to the desired focus of the current research topic - Guide reader on different topics discussed  Introduce the concept, briefly point out the relevance of the concept and discuss what is known about it - Include key findings, theories, research studies - Thorough review of the literature to establish a strong foundation of the current research study Each theme or subsection needs to be ended by connecting it to the topic immediately following the current concept - Build a cohesive argument - Help maintain flow of literature - Demonstrate how each concept contribute to the overall understanding of the topic - By organizing the body of the literature review in this way, the researcher can effectively present and analyze the existing knowledge on the topic, leading to a more comprehensive and insightful research study. Conclusion (How to end the Literature Review?) The end of literature review serves as a bridge to current study It must be a clear and concise summary of what was present in the literature review It is where the weaknesses in findings or the methodology or prior research are explicitly stated - how the current research will address gaps or build upon existing knowledge in the field. - conclusion should be clear, concise, and provide a seamless transition to the next section of the research. Composing the Literature Review Use evidence Be selective Use quotes sparingly Summarize and synthesize Keep your own voice Use caution when paraphrasing - Process of discovering relationships in the literature and developing and connecting your own ideas Conducting a review of related literature - involves identifying connections in existing research and - developing and linking your own ideas. - By identifying gaps in the literature, you can determine the next steps in your research. - As you analyze and assess the articles, you will begin to see how they are interconnected and form a narrative that the authors are presenting, which will help you formulate your own perspective. What’s involved in “Reviewing”? - When reviewing related literature, you first - Read and understand the information presented. - Then, you describe what you have read in your own words. - Next, you summarize the main points of each source. - You also compare and contrast different sources to see how they are similar or different. - After that, you critically evaluate the information by considering its reliability, validity, and relevance to your research topic. - You analyze the data and findings to draw conclusions and identify any gaps in the literature. - Finally, you organize all the information you have gathered in a coherent and logical manner to support your research. The Literature Review is NOT a laundry list of summaries of the works you read!!! - important to show how these sources relate to each other and contribute to your overall understanding of the topic. Tone A successful literature review constructively informs the reader about what has been learned Tell the readers the patterns you are seeing in the literature; do not be too overly critical An indicator of amateurism is an overly negative approach to the previous literature… Criticizing is easy and of little value. Instead, explain how research builds upon previous findings Respect the work of those who labored to create the foundation for your current work Tense Opinion is varied on whether to use the present or past tense when writing about prior research When either tense can communicate equally effectively, opt for the present tense (gives greater sense of immediacy; in concept-centric approach, concepts are always here and now; present tense is terser) Exception: An author’s opinion can change with time. Therefore, when attributing a statement or idea to a person, use the past tense. (Example: “Jones (2011) argued that...”) Transitions – help to connect paragraphs together One of the first researches to investigate this problem is Chen... Smith and Jones counter Chen’s argument... The issue becomes more complex when a third school of thought is considered One researcher who agrees with Chen is... A different approach to this question looks at problem in X... One of the most troublesome problems is addressed by Greene... A problem with this approach is that... A recent study adds this to the mix... A crucial issue that has not been address is Z… You must quote when... Giving the exact wordings of laws, official rulings, and important edicts When citing mathematical, scientific and other formulas When the statement is hypothetical, i.e., subject to confirmation or refutation When the exact words of the writer seem to be absolutely essential When the author’s credibility (and exact words) lend credibility to your paper Summarize... To avoid unnecessary details when the main point of a passage is all you need To know that you understand what the source is saying To give your audience a general introduction to the source To refresh the reader’s memory if they have already read the source NECESSARY SKILLS!!! Library/online search skills Deciding the coverage of the review - Small or large literature regarding the topic - Criteria for coverage: topicality, comprehensiveness, breadth, exclusion, relevance, currency, availability and authority Critical Reading Able to incorporate the selected readings into a coherent, integrated and meaningful account - Summarizing, analyzing, synthesizing, evaluating - Summary, synopsis, or recap is - a shorter version of the original. - Such a simplification highlights the major points from the much longer subject, such as a text, speech, film, or event. - The purpose is to help the audience get the gist in a short period of time. - Analysis is - the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts - to gain a better understanding of it. - Synthesis - solves the conflict between the thesis and antithesis by reconciling their common truths, and forming a new proposition." - Evaluation is - systematic determination of merit, worth, and significance of something or someone - Using criteria against a set of standards." Theoretical and Conceptual Framework Theory  - is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying among variables, - sets out the interrelations among a set of variables (constructs), and in so doing, presents a systematic view of the phenomena described by the variable - with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena; specifying which variables are related to which variables and how they are related, thus enabling the researcher to predict from certain variables to certain other variables Concept A general idea which stands for a class of objects (Dey 1993) Generalizable properties or characteristics associated with objects, events or people (Bhattacherjee 2012) A generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors (Goode & Hatt 1952; Kumar 1999; Das 2000) Theoretical framework A theoretical framework comprises the theories expressed by experts in the field into which you plan to research, which you draw upon to provide a theoretical coat hanger for your data analysis and interpretation of results. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study (Swanson 2013) It is not a summary of your own thoughts about your research or thesis. Rather, it is a synthesis of the thoughts of giants in your field of research, as they relate to your proposed research or thesis, as you understand those theories, and how you will use those theories to understand your data Reason for developing theoretical frameworks - to have a scholarly foundation for all your sense-making of the meaning contained in your data - provides a structure - for what to look for in the data, - for how you think of what you see in the data fits together, and - helps you to discuss your findings more clearly, in light of what existing theories say. - It helps you to make connections between the abstract and concrete elements you observe in your data. - For example, the theoretical framework helps you to raise questions such as, what do leaders in this field theorise about my research question? What existing theoretical ideas can I use to investigate and to understand my research problem? According to the theories, what should I be looking for in the data to answer my research question? Thus, the theoretical ramework helps you to substantiate your argumentation. It helps you to justify what you say about the findings and recommendations. Conceptual framework An argument - about why the topic one wishes to study matters, and - why the means proposed to study it are appropriate and rigorous (Ravitch and Riggan 2017) An explanation, either graphically or in narrative form, of the main things to be studied – the key factors, variables, or constructs—and the presumed relationships among them (Miles et al. 2014) A conceptual framework is essential in research as - it provides a roadmap for the study, helping to clarify the importance of the topic being studied and the appropriateness of the chosen methods. Furthermore, defining the key factors, variables, or constructs to be studied and illustrating the presumed relationships among them is crucial in developing a conceptual framework. - This helps to clarify the focus of the study, identify the key elements that will be examined, and outline the expected relationships between these elements. A well-developed conceptual framework is - essential for guiding the research process, - ensuring that the study is rigorous and relevant, and - providing a clear structure for analyzing and interpreting the data. - helps to frame the research question, clarify the study's importance, - establish the theoretical foundation for the study. Theoretical Framework - researcher-constructed structure explaining the concepts and premises, from the theory or theories that ground the study, that scaffold the study. - It answers the question: “How does this theory shape the study?” Conceptual Framework - researcher-constructed, logically developed argument justifying the need for the research study. - It shapes the study design and guides its development. - It answers questions of ”Why is this research important?” and ”How does it contribute new knowledge?” Theoretical Framework Conceptual Framework Blueprint - for inquiry, guide on which to build Model - shows what is intended to study - To support the study - Provide a structure on how to approach the thesis  Based on existing theory that is already Based on concepts that provide for the main tested and validated variables in a research inquiry Provide broad guideline or a general set of Relate to specific ideas used in the study idea Presented in a shape of a model Researcher’s own constructed model - Showcase relationships of variables Needs to be well-developed, designed and Need not to be widely accepted, for being widely accepted - researchers’ own answer to the research problem they defined Provides a direction for approaching the Offers a model that demonstrates how the unknown research in a specific discipline research inquiry is to be conducted logically Comprises of the theories appeared to be Comprises of the key interlinked concepts, interlined with propositions of the study - elaborating the existing relationship between the variable - how the researchers claim to respond to the research problem Rationale Choice Theory Rational choice theory states that individuals use rational calculations to make rational choices and achieve outcomes that are aligned with their own personal objectives. These results are also associated with maximizing an individual’s self-interest. Using rational choice theory is expected to result in outcomes that provide people with the greatest benefit and satisfaction, given the limited option they have available. Tips and Techniques in Writing the Methodology METHODOLOGY - “A philosophical stance of worldview that underlies and informs style of research” (Sapsford, 2006, p.175) - The way we go about discovering knowledge in a systematic way - Refers to epistemologies that guide data gathering - How do we discover knowledge - Appropriate methodology is driven by one’s ontological and epistemological beliefs Methodology vs. Method Methodology – philosophical stance (how you see the world); justification for the choice of method Methods - means by which you attempt to answer the question Typical Contents of Methodology Research design - Refers to the overall strategy that you - choosen to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring effectively addressing the research problem; - it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. Case study design - in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive comparative study. Descriptive design – helps provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why. Experimental design – a blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur. Exploratory design – conducted about a research problem when there are few or no earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome. Mixed method design – represents more of an approach to examining a research problem than a methodology Location of the Study - Describe the geographic location where the study will take place - Justify the choice of the study site - Specify project area, sample area - Put maps Samples & Sampling - Describes the source and number of subjects you will be using (in a proposal) - The subjects may be informants or participants in the research, organizations or events, documents - Objects/subjects in experiments (treatment groups, control groups) Steps in Sample Design 1. Type of universe Sampling unit 2. Source list (sampling frame) 3. Size of sample 4. Parameters of interest 5. Budgetary constraint 6. Sampling procedure Sampling Method - Probability Samples: Systematic, Cluster, Simple Random, Stratified - Non-probability: Convenience sampling, Judgement, Quota sampling, Snowball Variables - A variable is something that changes. - Independent variable – variable which the researcher would like to measure (the cause); often denoted by x - Dependent variable – the effect (or assumed effect); often denoted by y - Controlled variable Operationalization - Operationalization is to take a fuzzy concept (conceptual variables), and try to measure it by specific observations. Research Instrument - Fact finding strategies - Tools for data collection - The generic term that researchers use for a measurement device (survey, test, questionnaire, checklist, scorecard, ready-to-use instruments, standardized test, observation, reading, etc.) Usability, Validity & Reliability - Usability refers to the ease with which the instrument can be administered, interpreted by the participant, and scored/ interpreted by the researcher. - Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and performs as it is designed to perform. - Reliability can be thought of as consistency. Does the instrument consistently measure what it is intended to measure? Data Collection - Description of how you will do the data collection - Example: Actual steps taken to contact research participants, obtain their= cooperation, and administer your instruments - Usually based in standard measures Data Analysis - Data analysis is the process of transforming raw data into usable information. - Data analysis for qualitative research involves identifying common responses within the response and critically analyzing them (thematic). - Quantitative data analysis involves critical analysis and interpretation of figures, and attempts to fine rationale behind the emergence of main findings (statistical). Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research questions Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research Failure to cite landmark studies Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other researchers Failure to stay focused on the research question Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues Too much rambling – going “all over the map” without a clear sense of direction Too many citation lapses and incorrect references Too long or too short Failure to follow a citation style (APA, Chicago, ALA, Harvard) Sloppy writing