Psyc 253 - Cognitive Psychology & Sensation/Perception (PDF)

Psyc 253 What is Cognitive Psychology? Learning Objectives Describe the scope of cognitive psychology Explain the foundations of cognitive psychology Identify limitations on information processing Describe Neisser’s perceptual cycle and give a concrete example Describe the development of...

Psyc 253 What is Cognitive Psychology? Learning Objectives Describe the scope of cognitive psychology Explain the foundations of cognitive psychology Identify limitations on information processing Describe Neisser’s perceptual cycle and give a concrete example Describe the development of cognitive psychology from structuralism/functionalism, behaviourism, and humanism. Give context from real-world events Describe common themes in cognitive psychology Differentiate between cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience What is Cognitive Psychology? A field of psychology dedicated to researching and understanding how people think Memory Attention Problem solving Language Intelligence Higher level perceptual processes Interaction of thought with emotion Foundations of Cognitive Psychology The world contains information Humans select, process, interpret, and respond to that information These processes are active and the results differ from situation to situation and person to person unique Information theory – the more unusual or improbable an event, the more information it gives us Limitations on Information Processing We cannot possibly interpret all of the information present in the world N Time Capacity E Complexity Interference Neisser’s Perceptual Cycle Structuralism and Functionalism Focus on the mind Behaviourism Focus on objectivity Humanism Focus on the whole person Cognitive psychology Return to the mind, with the tools/perspectives of neuroscience, linguistics, computer science, etc. Common Themes Warm or in going more we Studying situations where things go “wrong” a Not all processes are conscious Past experience, expectations, and other ongoing processes affect how we select, process, and interpret information Cognitive Psychology vs. Cognitive Neuroscience Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Neuroscience Focus on how the mind works Focus more on how biological processes influence thoughts, information processing, memory, learning, emotions, etc. Little emphasis on the physical Much more emphasis on the physical structure or function of the brain structure and function of the brain Usually human subjects, sometimes and nervous system with neuroimaging Often animal subjects or neuroimaging  Psyc 253 Chapter 1 – Sensation and Perception Learning Objectives Explain signal detection theory, including the possible decision outcomes, criterion, and liberal/conservative bias Describe visual search tasks including feature search and conjunctive search tasks Describe Ganzfeld experiments and what they tell us about sensory adaptation 3 Signal Detection Theory Detection of stimuli involves decision and sensory processes 4 Signal Detection Signal – Useful, relevant information Noise – Irrelevant or false information doesn't have to be sound 5 Criterion When the presence/absence of the signal is unclear, how likely are you to say it is present? Noise Signal Hit C.R. Miss F.A. 7 8 Liberal vs. Conservative Bias Liberal – more likely to say “yes, signal present” Conservative – more likely to say “no, signal absent” 9 Visual Search Visual Search Feature search – one-dimensional Conjunctive search – multi-dimensional Ganzfeld Experiments Study sensory adaptation Originally intended to study ESP, but that didn’t work Sensory receptors are sensitive to change In a constant visual field, eventually perception fades to gray Some people experience hallucinations Vision 13 Learning Objectives Describe how the different structures of the eye contribute to vision Describe the role of photoreceptors and how they are distributed on the retina Describe how information travels from the eye to the visual cortex Describe the what and where pathways, including where the are, what they do, and what happens when they are disrupted or damaged 14 15 16 Photoreceptors [ Rods Sensitive to light/dark Cones Sensitive to colour Ganglion cells Sensitive to blue wavelengths 17 80. What vs. Where? What? Ventral stream Occipital lobe to the temporal lobe Where? Dorsal stream Occipital lobe to the parietal lobe Damage to the Dorsal Stream Optic ataxia: person can’t use visuospatial information to guide their movements Hemispatial/contralateral neglect: where the patient is unaware of the contralesional half of space Akinetopsia: inability to perceive motion. Apraxia: inability to produce discretionary or volitional movement in the absence of muscular disorders.  · ect Damage to the Ventral Stream ODS Apperceptive visual agnosia - impaired object recognition. Associative visual agnosia - impaired object identification. Colour Vision Learning Objectives Describe how the different properties of light contribute to colour vision Explain how trichromatic theory and opponent process theory contribute to colour vision Describe different types of colour blindness and how they alter visual perception Visible Light Spectrum 24 Colour Mixing Subtractive Some wavelengths of light are removed Paint, printer ink Additive Wavelengths of light are added Lights 25 Trichromatic Theory 3 types of receptors Red, green, blue Most evidence about colour blindness fits well 26 27 Problems with Trichromatic Theory Two problems with trichromatic theory Afterimages appear in complementary colours We need more than 3 colours to describe the world 28 Opponent Process Theory Receptors make antagonistic responses to 3 pairs of colours 29 30 31 Colour Blindness Low or no ability to perceive one (or more) colours About 8% of men,.4% of women Anomalous Trichromat Reduced sensitivity to one of the 3 Dichromat No sensitivity to one of the 3 Monochromat (Achromatopsia) No colour Cerebral Achromatopsia No problem with the eye – processing in the brain is impaired 32 33 Perceiving the World 34 Learning Objectives Define perceptual set and inattentional blindness Describe top-down and bottom-up processing Describe 3 theories of bottom-up processing and how they fit with visual perception Describe the Navon task and what it tells us about visual perception Explain feature integration theory Describe feature cells and how they were initially identified Using feature integration theory, explain what happens in visual search experiments Describe feature cells and how they were initially identified Describe how faces are perceived and what we know about the fusiform face area 35 Visual Perception Seeing is not believing! Perceptual Set Inattentional Blindness 37 Bottom-Up Processing Recognize Stimulus Combine features into complex forms Features of Stimulus 38 Theories of Bottom-Up Processing Theory of Direct Perception (Gibson) – the environment usually provides enough context to interpret everything we are seeing We don’t need higher level cognitive processes to understand and interpret Template theories – we have stored templates for patterns we might encounter Match the pattern we’re seeing to a template to identify objects and interpret what we see Feature matching theories – we identify objects by matching them to sets of features stored in memory Inexact, fuzzy matches Navon Task Objects made up of global and local features Navon Task When local features are tightly organized: Identification of global features is not slowed by incongruent local features Identification of local features is slowed by incongruent global features Global precedence When local features are loosely organized Identification of global features is slowed by incongruent local features Identification of local features is not slowed by incongruent global features Local precedence How is information processed? 42 Feature Analysis 43 Feature Detectors Neurons that respond selectively to very specific features of more complex stimuli Orientation Movement Edges Colour 44 Feature Integration Theory Preattentive Stage – feature detectors gather information about various features Colours Shape Movement Focused attention stage – combining features of an object requires attention. Combined features are then compared to memory to identify objects Feature vs. Conjunctive Search Feature search can be done in preattentive stage Conjunctive search requires focused attention stage Top-Down Processing Perceptual Hypothesis (Expectation) Select Features to Analyze Recognize Stimulus 47 Which is Better? Neither! Bottom-Up Processing Helps us recognize new or unfamiliar objects Examining in detail Top-Down Processing Reducing workload Quick judgments about vague stimuli 48 Face Detection Specialized cells in the visual cortex respond to faces Adaptive value Prosopagnosia 49 Auditory Localization 50 Learning Objectives Describe how sounds are localized, both with lateral and median cues 51 Lateral Localization Interaural time differences Interaural level differences 52 Median Localization Monaural cues 53  Psyc 253 Week 5 – Forgetting, Memory & the Brain Memory and the Brain – Important Structures 2 Learning Objectives Describe the process of long-term potentiation Describe the role of the basal ganglia, cerebellum, hippocampus, and the amygdala in memory and learning Describe the role of the parietal, temporal, and frontal lobes in memory Describe the role of glutamate, GABA, dopamine, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine in memory 3 Basal Ganglia Habits Motor skill learning 4 The Cerebellum Cerebellum Fine muscle movement Balance Motor skill learning Procedural learning Pons Cerebellum Medulla 5 Hippocampus Consolidation of memories Lim 6 Amygdala Basic emotional responses Fear, happiness, etc. Emotional learning Memory consolidation 7 Learning and the Hippocampus 8 Learning and the Brain Conditioning SM, WC, and RH SM had bilateral amygdala damage WC had hippocampal damage but an intact amygdala RH had damage to both the hippocampus and the amygdala 9 Normal controls – no damage Bilateral amygdala damage Hippocampal damage Damage to both the hippocampus and the amygdala 10 Parietal Lobes Sensory processing Spatial location Working memory 11 Temporal Lobes Auditory processing Storage of long-term memories 12 Frontal Lobe Frontal Lobe Selection of memories Prefrontal Cortex Higher-order functions Executive control Planning Reasoning Working memory Problem solving Inhibition Task flexibility 13 Hebb “neurons that fire together, wire together” Cell assemblies Neurons fire Synaptic Strengthened together Changes Connection 14 Long-Term Potentiation Synaptic transmission becomes more effective following a cell’s recent activation What does this mean? When an axon is repeatedly stimulated, the signals of neurons on the other side of the axon increase Transmission becomes more efficient Supports the idea that neurons that fire together wire together 15 Neurotransmitters Glutamate – formation of new synapses, LTP GABA – new memory formation Norepinephrine – memory consolidation Dopamine – positive reinforcement (conditioning) operant Acetylcholine – encoding new information 16 Neuroscience of WM 17 Learning Objectives Describe the evidence that phonological loop activity and visuo- spatial activity are concentrated in different hemispheres Describe the relative concentrations of object and spatial memory in the dorsal and ventral areas of the brain Describe the brain regions involved in the central executive Describe the characteristic symptoms of dysexecutive syndrome 18 Review of Working Memory Double Dissociations Phonological impairment vs. visual (object) impairment Phonological impairment vs. spatial impairment Visual (object) vs. spatial impairment 20 The Phonological Loop A – Phonological storage B – Articulatory rehearsal Left Hemisphere 21 Visual and Verbal WM– Smith et al. Verbal Memory Spatial Memory Shown 4 letters Shown probe letter Was probe letter in the set? 22 Visual and Verbal WM – Smith et al. Verbal Memory Spatial Memory Similar to previous study Activity in LEFT hemisphere 23 Combined Data – Object and Spatial WM Pink = objects Blue = spatial 24 Central Executive When subjects with frontal lobe damage complete a dual-task procedure, performance suffers more than normal healthy controls Reverse Digit Span Reverse Digit Span Visual Tracking Visual Tracking 25 Dysexecutive Syndrome tot ↳ Damage to frontal lobes From Lobe Cognitive symptoms Short attention span Inability to use previously learned information in new situations L our Impaired reasoning Poor dual-task performance au he Confabulation Emotional symptoms Extremes/fluctuations Frustration & aggression S or involv Behavioural symptoms on guit Lack of social skills Utilization behaviours Perseveration & 0 or 26 Why do we forget? 27 Learning Objectives Define trace decay and interference Describe the Peterson task and what the Petersons concluded based on their research Describe the study conducted by Waugh and Norman Define proactive interference Describe what proactive interference is and when it occurs Compare the evidence for trace decay with the evidence for interference Describe the serial position curve 28 Why do we forget? Trace Decay Interference CAT CAT CAT CAT CAT ??? Other information interferes with your Memory fades over time ability to recall target information 29 The Peterson Task Study: Count Recall: Backwards XRQ by 3 from: 49 XRQ When a distractor task is introduced following a study item, memory for the item is diminished 30  Peterson & Peterson concluded that forgetting is due to trace decay 31 What causes forgetting in STM? Trace Decay? Subjects remember less with longer delays Interference? Forgetting builds up over trials i.e., subjects more likely to remember words from trial 1 than 4 32 Interference Waugh and Norman 5196351428627394 Presented at 2 rates If decay, slower presentation should result in more forgetting If interference, presentation rate shouldn’t matter 5196351428627394 5 1 9 6 3 5 1 4 2 8 6 2 7 3 9 4 33  1.2 1 Proportion correct 0.8 0.6 4 per second 0.4 1 per second 0.2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Number of Interfering Items 34 Proactive Interference Forgetting of information due to interference from items presented or learned before the item to be remembered 1 Proportion correct 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Trial 35 Similarity and Proactive Interference Items which are more similar interfere more Category Word Birds Robin Eagle Owl Utensils Fork Spoon Knife When the category is changed, subjects are “released” from proactive interference Recall improves 36 Release from Proactive Interference From Loess (1968). Copyright © Elsevier. Reproduced with permission. 37 Trace Decay vs. Interference Trace Decay Evidence Interference Evidence Peterson & Peterson Forgetting builds up over trials Longer retention interval = poorer Waugh & Norman recall More interfering items = poorer recall Presentation rate does not affect recall Item similarity reduces recall Changing categories releases from interference and increases recall 38 Free Recall in tem Ask participants to recall studied items in any order order Recall probability for a given item declines as list length increases The absolute number of items recalled increases with list length & Results in Serial Position Curve say An 39  Serial Position Curve Recency Recency Recency Primacy 40 Primacy and Recency Effects Primacy effect Tendency for the first few items in the list to be recalled better Depends primarily on long term memory Recency effect Tendency for the last few items in a list to be well recalled Originally thought to be due to a temporary short-term store where items were held Disappears with a 20 second backward counting task Challenge – what about longer term recency effects? 41 Long-Term Recency Effect Tendency for the last few items to be well recalled under conditions of long-term memory Challenges idea that recency effect is due to a short-term store Recency effect may reflect retrieval strategy Most recent events easiest to distinguish between and recall 42 Semantic and Episodic Memory Dissociations 43 Learning Objectives Define retrograde and anterograde amnesia Discuss the evidence from amnesia that episodic & semantic memory are separate systems 44 45 Semantic and Episodic Dissociations Subjects with anterograde amnesia that results in episodic impairments often have trouble forming new semantic memories But other patients do not show semantic deficits Patients with retrograde amnesia often have a selective deficit in either episodic or semantic memory Retrograde Onset of Anterograde Amnesia Amnesia Amnesia 46 Episodic Semantic Memory Memory 47 Episodic Semantic Memory Memory 48 Episodic Semantic Memory Memory 49 Psyc 253 Chapter 4 – Memory Sensory Memory Iconic and echoic memory 2 Learning Objectives Define sensory memory and identify its features Differentiate between stimulus persistence and information persistence Describe the partial recall technique and what it revealed about sensory memory Describe the capacity of iconic memory, and the evidence that supports it Describe the suffix effect and what it tells us about echoic sensory memory 3 What is Sensory Memory? Very brief perceptual store Stimulus information is stored for a very brief time Most studied – iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) Features Weak relationship with attention Modality specific High degree of detail Extremely brief duration 5 Properties of Sensory Memory Stimulus Persistence Information Persistence The stimulus appears to be Information can be extracted present for a brief period from the stimulus even when it’s no longer present 6 Sperling and Iconic Memory Sperling showed subjects a 3x4 array of letters for 50 ms Subjects could report about 4-5 correctly (25-30%) What if we focus on one line? 7 Partial Recall This technique is referred to as partial recall Subjects are able to recall much more if the cue is presented immediately Cues reference physical characteristics Those that reference nonphysical characteristics (i.e., vowels), don’t work 9 Capacity of Iconic Memory Sperling - short, but lots of information 12 Number Correct (out of 12) 10 8 6 Partial Report 4 Whole Report 2 0 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Cue Delay (seconds) 12 Anorthoscopic Perception Seeing more than is there 13 Anorthoscopic Perception Object is reconstructed based on iconic memory Slower presentation = elongated shape 14 Echoic Memory We also have a sensory store for auditory information 15 Suffix Effect What happens if the to-be-reported information is followed by something? 16 Short Term Memory 17 Learning Objectives Define short-term memory Compare the capacity of STM to that of iconic sensory memory Describe the memory span task State Miller’s Magic Number and the evidence that it doesn’t always apply Define chunking and give an example Explain what the Conrad and Hull study tells us about STM 18 What is STM? Common use vs. psychological use STM – the capacity to store small amounts of information over brief intervals 19 Capacity of STM How many items can we remember? What constitutes an item? How long do items stay in short-term memory? 20 How many items can we remember? Memory span measures require two things: Remembering the items Remembering the order Memory span or digit span task Read the numbers, then close your eyes and try to recall in order. 21 The Magic Number Miller, 1956 Memory capacity determined by number of chunks we can store 7 +/- 2 90% of adults Variety of paradigms 23 Maybe not so magical Does the amount of information in a “chunk” matter? Simon Subjects study lists 1, 2, or 3 syllable words or two- or eight- word phrases The amount subjects can remember varies The longer the chunk, the fewer chunks are recalled 24 Visual or auditory? Conrad and Hull visually presented strings of consonants to subjects Subjects replaced letters with similar sounding letters CMPLQTO VDT FRK 25 Implicit Memory 26 Learning Objectives Define implicit memory and summarize the difference between implicit and explicit memory Describe how classical conditioning is an example of implicit memory Describe three ways to prime a subject with stimuli Describe two ways to test priming and the typical results as compared to explicit tests of memory Summarize the two theoretical approaches to implicit and explicit memory. What does each approach say about the nature of the difference between the two types of memory? 27 28 What is Implicit Memory? Explicit/declarative memory – can explicitly, overtly remember the information retrieved Implicit/nondeclarative memory – cannot explicitly remember. Evidence comes from change in behaviour 29 Examples of Implicit Memory Classical conditioning Priming Procedural learning Learning artificial grammars 30 Classical Conditioning 31 Priming Presenting an item influences later processing/perception/recall Presenting briefly (subliminally) Repetition Priming Presenting degraded stimuli 32 Testing Priming Stem Completion Present STAMP, ask subjects to fill in ST_ _ _ Fragment Completion Present ELEPHANT, ask subjects to fill in _L_P_A_T 33  0.7 Recognition 0.6 Fragment Completion Response Probability 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1 hour 7 days Retention Interval 34 Procedural Learning Skills, procedures, etc. Think about riding a bicycle… can you explain the steps? 35 Artificial Grammar Learning 36 Accounts of Implicit Memory Different systems approach Implicit and explicit memory are separate systems People with amnesia often have a selective deficit in one or the other Long-term Memory Explicit Implicit Memory Memory 37 Processing Approach to Implicit Memory Implicit and explicit memory are not separate systems They are the result of task requirements that bring out one or the other Explicit Implicit Perceptual Perceptual identification ??? Word fragment completion Meaning-based Free recall (conceptual, Recognition ??? semantic) 38 Episodic and Semantic Memory 39 Learning Objectives Define semantic and episodic memory Correctly differentiate between examples of episodic and semantic memories Describe Endel Tulving’s differentiation between episodic and semantic memory Describe the study by Carmichael et al. and what it tells us about bias in episodic memory, especially at encoding and retrieval Describe Paivio's Dual-coding hypothesis and what it tells us about episodic memory and meaning Describe Craik & Lockhart’s Levels of Processing approach to memory and the challenges with the approach Describe the basic premise behind Transfer Appropriate Processing and what it tells us about LoP Describe the study conducted by Clayton & Dickinson and what it tells us about episodic memory in non-human animals 40 41 Episodic vs. Semantic Memory Endel Tulving Episodic Memory Allows you to access specific events located at a particular point in time “Mental time travel” Semantic memory Generalized knowledge of the world May arise through the consolidation of numerous episodic memories 42 Separate Systems? Impaired episodic memory in amnesiac patients is usually associated with poor acquisition of new information Conway Testing after a short delay results in remembering as episodes Testing after a long delay results in remembering separate from event 44 Levels of Processing Craik and Lockhart The more deeply information is processed, the better the retention 45 Limitations of LoP How do we determine depth? Unlikely that processing is serial Visual Phonology Semantics Visual Phonology Semantics 46 Transfer-Appropriate Processing 0.9 Retention is best when encoding 0.8 matches retrieval 0.7 Morris et al. 0.6 “The __ had a silver engine” 0.5 “__ rhymes with legal” Sentence 0.4 Rhyme 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Sentence Rhyme 47 TAP as Explanation for LoP? Possible that study-test conditions match better in semantic encoding condition Craik and Tulving Study - Subjects have to judge whether “car” fits into “the __ ran into the post” Test – Recognize “car” in a list What if test required shallower features? Deep processing advantage disappears in a test that requires shallow processing Rhyme recognition test 48 Why is Deeper Coding Better? Generally, deeper coding shows an advantage More elaborate code, which is easier to retrieve 49 Episodic Memory in Animals Clayton & Dickinson Pigeons can remember the time at which food was hidden Mealworms vs. peanuts 50 Semantic Memory Storage 51 Learning Objectives Describe Loftus' study with paired categories and initial letters and what it tells us about how we organize information Describe Collins & Quillian's Hierarchical Network Model, the predictions that the model makes, and the evidence that the model is not correct Discuss Collins & Loftus' Spreading Activation Model and the evidence for it 52 How are concepts stored? Computers Photograph Video camera 53 Computer File Metaphor First letter is a more effective cue than any other letter Why? 54 Loftus Loftus showed subjects a paired category and initial letter fruit – p p – fruit Subjects faster when category presented first Experience mattered 55 Loftus, cont’d Developmental psychologist – P P – Developmental psychologist 56  Psychologists Developmental Social Cognitive Piaget Eriksen Milgram Alport Bjork Eysenck 57  Psychologists Piaget Milgram Bjork Eriksen Alport Eysenck 58  What do Loftus’ findings tell us about how we organize information? 59 Models of Semantic Memory Collins & Quillian – Hierarchical Network Collins & Loftus – Spreading Activation 60 Hierarchical Network Model – Collins and Quillian Prediction – faster to verify sentences when distance is smaller 61 Problems with Hierarchical Network Model Familiarity vs. hierarchical distance Conrad 1400 Level High Low 1300 of S frequency frequency 1200 RT (msec) 1100 1 A shark can A salmon has move a mouth 1000 900 2 A bird can A fish has move eyes 800 0 1 2 3 An animal An animal Levels between S&P can move has ears Low Frequency High Frequency 62 Problems with Hierarchical Network Model Typicality A canary is a bird vs. A penguin is a bird 63 Spreading Activation Model – Collins and Loftus Logically organized hierarchies too rigid Need a flexible system that is based on semantic distance 64 RED 65 Spreading Activation Model - Evidence McNamara Jumbled word preceded by a semantically related word or unrelated word Faster to solve jumbled word when preceded by semantically related word Schacter et al. Brain activation similar when subjects falsely recognized missing word and when correctly identified a word that was present 66 Psyc 253 Week 6 - Learning Learning 2 Learning Objectives Define learning Describe Ebbinghaus’ learning and forgetting curves Define and give examples of habituation and sensitization 3 What is Learning? Any relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience Semantic information Skills Conditioning Phobias 4 Ebbinghaus 5 Ebbinghaus 6 Habituation Decrease in response after repeated presentations 7 Habituation & Infant Studies 8 Sensitization Increase in response after repeated presentations 9 Classical Conditioning 10 Learning Objectives Define classical conditioning and describe Pavlov’s role in its development Define the NS, UCS, UCR, CS, and CR Correctly identify the NS, UCS, UCR, CS, and CR in a sample problem Describe 4 schedules of classical conditioning Explain how contingency, salience, and contiguity influence the rate of classical conditioning Describe latent inhibition Explain extinction and spontaneous recovery Describe stimulus generalization and discrimination Explain blocking 11 Pavlov 12 13 14 15 16 Acquisition Contiguity Contingency Preexposure of US Preexposure of CS Latent inhibition Salience 17 Types of Conditioning Forward NS UCS Trace NS UCS Simultaneous NS UCS Backward NS UCS 18 Extinction 19 Spontaneous Recovery 20 Stimulus Generalization Another stimulus (other than the CS or a UCS) elicits the CR Similarity Panic disorder 21 Stimulus Discrimination Do not respond to new stimuli in same way as CS 22 Blocking First, a CS is paired with a US Then, a second CS is added – compound CS Two CSs are tested separately – there is a lack of conditioned response to the second CS Theories and Applications Of Classical Conditioning Learning Objectives Describe the stimulus substitution theory of classical conditioning and explain its shortcomings Describe the Rescorla Wagner model of classical conditioning and explain its pros and cons Describe the role of classical conditioning in hunger, behavioural therapies, and drug responses Stimulus-Substitution Pavlov believed that you were not learning a new behaviour – just applying an old behaviour to a new stimulus CS substitutes for the US But the CS and CR aren’t always exactly the same Pavlov – composition of saliva different Rescorla-Wagner Model Learning occurs because the CS is predictive of the US Degree of learning is determined by how predictive the CS is of the US What this model does well: Explains learning with one US and CS The amount of learning depends on things other than just the CS and US What this model doesn’t do well: Doesn’t explain the role of attention Doesn’t explain blocking (multiple CS) Doesn’t explain latent inhibition – nothing should have been learned before conditioning, because there was no change in strength of association Conditioned Hunger Signals that predict a meal can increase feelings of hunger Increase of digestive juices in stomach Hormonal changes in the bloodstream Behavioural Therapies Aversion therapy Systematic desensitization Counterconditioning Flooding Conditioned Drug Responses Mimics the effects of the drug Caffeine Compensatory response Offsets the response May contribute to drug tolerance Operant Conditioning 31 Learning Objectives Describe the difference between classical and operant conditioning Describe Skinner’s role in developing operant conditioning Define and provide examples of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment Describe avoidance and escape as consequences of negative reinforcement Explain the possible negative consequences of relying on punishment to change behaviour 32 Learning Objectives Describe primary and secondary reinforcers and give examples. Describe the Premack principle Describe the schedules of reinforcement, including the likelihood of extinction and how quickly subjects learn Explain shaping and chaining, including what they are used for and how they are accomplished Discuss 4 factors that influence the rate of conditioning 33 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Classical Through association, a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus and elicits the same response Operant Through association, a behaviour becomes more or less probable based on its consequences 34 Skinner Operant chamber or Skinner Box Loudspeaker & lights Response lever Food dispenser Electrified grid 35 Reinforcement and Punishment Reinforcement Punishment Positive Negative 36 Punishment Side-Effects Escape Avoidance 37 Primary and Secondary Reinforcers Primary Biological needs Secondary Acquired through conditioning Premack Principle 38 The Rate of Conditioning Satiety Immediacy Contingency Size 39 Applications of Operant Conditioning Learning Objectives Describe how operant conditioning is related to addiction and to video games and gambling Addiction Addictive drugs are rewarding Positive reinforcement - many are agonists for dopamine and other neurotransmitters Negative reinforcement – distance from difficult situations or unpleasant feelings Stimuli associated with drug use also become rewarding because they are associated with the positive reinforcement from using the drug Video Games and Gambling Both video games and gambling use a variable ratio schedule that keep you playing Role of Cognition Learning Objectives Describe the evidence for cognitive processes in conditioning Is Conditioning Cognitive? Mechanistic view – conditioning is a low-level process that does not involve higher order cognition Cognitive view – conditioning does, at least sometimes, involve higher order cognition Evidence for Cognition in Conditioning Informed pairing: telling participants about CS-US relationships or reinforcement contingencies changes behaviour Informed unpairing: after conditioning, extinction can occur if participants are told the contingencies no longer apply Instructed extinction: after conditioning, participants can stop producing the learned response if they’re told not to Awareness of contingency: when we are aware of the contingencies we are more likely to produce the behaviours Response expectancies: participants’ response expectancies can be manipulated by the instructions they are given Reinforcement expectancy: responses are correlated with information given about intensity of reinforcers, or about the meaning/purpose of ambiguous stimuli/reinforcers Observational Learning 48 Learning Objectives Define observational learning Describe the role of Bandura in the development of social cognitive theory Explain the 4 basic processes of observational learning Describe social cognitive theory and the three factors that determine whether observational learning will occur 49 Observational Learning Learning through observing a model, rather than direct experience Albert Bandura Conditioning can happen through observation 50 Basic Processes Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation 51 Acquisition vs. Production Reinforcement influences production more than acquisition 52 Bobo Doll Study Children who watched the adult beat up the doll were much more likely to beat it up themselves 53 Social Cognitive Theory We learn by observing others Social environment Cognition 54 Social Cognitive Theory Triadic Reciprocal Causation Personal - Self- efficacy, identification Environmental – Behavioural – situational outcome influences expectancies 55 Media Violence Correlation between media violence and aggressive behaviour Physiological desensitization and adaptation 56  PSYC 253 Week 7 – Factors that Influence Learning  LEARNING AND CONSCIOUSNESS 2 Learning Objectives Summarize the role of sleep in learning Describe the effect of anaesthesia on learning 3 Sleep and Learning Evidence suggests we cannot learn while we sleep BUT sleep helps consolidate learning When rats learn their way through a maze, place cells in the hippocampus are activated When rats are sleeping deeply, the same cells are activated, suggesting transfer or consolidation is occurring When humans are deprived of sleep, memory for recently learned information decreases 4 Anesthesia and Learning Anesthesia has 3 components: Painkiller Anesthetic Muscle relaxant Some patients report explicit recall of events while under light anesthesia Evidence for learning while under anesthesia from implicit tasks 5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING 6 Learning Objectives Explain the total time hypothesis and what it predicts about learning Describe distributed practice and how it influences learning Explain the Baddeley & Longman Postmen study and explain what it tell us about creating a study/learning schedule Describe the generation effect and how it influences learning Explain the conflicting predictions of distributed practice vs. rapid generation in terms of learning rates Describe the method of expanding retrieval Describe the testing effect and the conditions required for testing to have a positive influence on learning Explain what the Nilsson study tells us about the relationship between motivation and learning Rate of Learning Ebbinghaus What is the relationship between time spent learning and how much we remember Total Time Hypothesis 8 Distributed Practice You can get a good deal from rehearsal if it just has the proper dispersal. You would be an a** to do it en masse; Your remembering would turn out much worsal - Ulrich Neisser 11 Distributed Practice Baddeley & Longman – Postmen study - 1x1 = 1 session of 1 hour per day - 2x1 = 2 sessions of 1 hour per day - 1x2 = 1 session of 2 hours per day - 2x2 = 2 sessions of 2 hours per day 12 Postmen Study Subjects in the 1x1 group took the fewest hours to learn the list But took more days 11 weeks vs. 4 weeks for the 2x2 group 13 The Generation Effect Memory is generally better for items that are generated than for those that are merely read How could you recruit the generation effect to improve your long-term retention? Milkshake flavours: chocolate: vanilla Milkshake flavours: chocolate: v_____ 14 The Generation Effect Eich & Metcalfe 0.35 0.3 Proportion Correct 0.25 0.2 0.15 Generated 0.1 Read 0.05 0 HH HS SH SS Study State/Test State 15 Distributed Practice or Rapid Generation? Conflicting implications Distributed practice – longer gaps between practice and testing sessions should be better Generation effect – shorter gaps should increase ability to generate answer, leading to better long-term retention 17 Expanding Retrieval Gradually increasing practice-test interval Study Test Study Test Study Test Study Test Study Test Study Test 18 Expanding Retrieval Gradually increasing the interval between studying and testing combines the benefits of distributed practice and the generation effect 19 Testing 20 Feedback What might be the danger of testing without feedback? 21 Feedback If errors are made and not corrected, they can persist Does feedback need to be immediate? 22 Motivation Nilsson What is the influence of motivation on learning? 3 groups No pressure/outside motivation No motivating instructions during study, then told there was a big cash prize for best performance Told at the beginning about the cash prize 23 Motivation Attention Better Motivation and Time Learning 25  PSYC 253 Week 6 – Categories & Concepts Psyc 253 Embodied Cognition Embodied Cognition 2 Learning Objectives Define embodied cognition Describe goal-derived categories and give an example Define graded structure, as it refers to goal-derived categories Describe how goals influence similarity judgments for items Describe sensory-functional theory and what it says about how we categorize living vs. non-living things 3 Embodied Cognition Our brains are situated within our bodies Cognition facilitates interactions with the environment Concepts link our goals and the environmental possibilities Goal-Derived Categories Ad hoc or goal-derived categories – invented for a specific purpose on a specific occasion Graded Structure Goal-derived categories have a graded structure But how do we determine how typical something is? Important factor – how relevant the item is to the goal Ratneshwar et al. Salience of health goals Judge how similar two foods are Product Pair Pair Type Surface Situational Goal Resemblance Granola bar – Candy bar S High “things people might carry along to eat in their cars” Granola bar – Fruit yogurt P Low “things people might carry along to eat in their cars” Frozen yogurt – ice cream S High “things people might eat in the afternoon sundae on a hot day” Frozen yogurt – plain P Low “things people might eat in the afternoon popcorn on a hot day” Apple – orange P High “things people might eat as snacks when in a hurry” Apple-donut S Low “things people might eat as snacks when in a hurry” S pairs – both appropriate for situational goal, first appropriate for personal goal P pairs – both appropriate for personal goal, first appropriate for situational goal  S pairs – both appropriate for situational goal, first appropriate for personal goal P pairs – both appropriate for personal goal, first appropriate for situational goal Sensory-Functional Theories Patients with various disorders or patterns of brain damage have been observed to have specific impairments in identifying living vs. non-living things Sensory-Functional Theories Living things tend to be categorized by their sensory features Non-living things tend to be categorized by their functional features CATEGORIES & CONCEPTS 2 Learning Objectives Define the terms category, concept, prototype, exemplar, and typicality Describe 3 types of concepts and give examples of each Describe the Bruner card task and how it is used to study category learning Explain what necessary and jointly sufficient features are in terms of concepts Describe selection and reception tasks and the strategies that are used within them Describe the procedure and findings of artificial grammar learning tasks and what they tell us about complex category learning Explain Rosch’s principles of categories and how they influence how we categorize objects Describe how vertical and horizontal levels are used to organize objects into concepts Describe what is meant by fuzzy boundaries in categories Describe how typicality is used to judge category membership, and how it influences category learning and cognition Explain how prototype theory and exemplar theory explain category learning. Which has more support? 3 This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA Categories and Concepts Category – a group of ideas or objects that are treated as equivalent in some way and share common properties Concept – a mental representation of a category Allows us to extend what we know about an object to other members of the same category Types of Concepts Conjunctive Simple conjunction of two or more attributes e.g., task difficulty and urgency Disjunctive Defined by two or more possible sets of attributes e.g., strike in baseball Relational Defined by the relationship between attributes e.g., marriage Bruner Card task Defining Categories Traditionally categories were thought to be well-defined Necessary features Jointly sufficient features  What are the necessary features of the category “sport”? Concept Formation Selection task Conservative focusing Focus gambling Concept Formation Reception Task Wholist strategy Partist strategy Complex Category Learning Prototypicality Exemplar – a member of a category Prototype – a member of a category that is seen as particularly representative of that category This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA Rosch’s Principles Cognitive economy Perceived world structure This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY Organization of Concepts Vertical structure Superordinate, basic, subordinate levels This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY Organization of Concepts Horizontal level Fuzzy Categories Category membership in the real world can be fuzzy Typicality We judge category membership based on closeness to the prototypical member of that category Typical items are: Judged as category members more often Categorized faster Learned first Easier to abstract the category from Understood more when referenced in writing Said first Source of Typicality Frequency Family resemblance Have the features that are frequent in the category Do not have features that are frequent in other categories How do we represent categories? Prototype Theory We have a summary description of the category, made up of weighted features e.g., bird wings vs. flying How do we represent categories? Exemplar theory We do NOT have a summary description of the category – we have to remember each exemplar Judge category membership based on comparison to previously encountered exemplars Effect of close similarity Summary Improves recall of complex Does not improve recall of material complex material Generation effect Cramming (massed practice) Distributed practice Excessive repetition Testing Motivation alone Motivation -> Attention and time Expanding retrieval Predictability Feedback 26