Philippines Recommends for Dairy Cattle Production 1981 PDF

The Philippines Recommends I for Dairy Cattle Production 1981  Disclaimer Trade names cited in this publication are used solely for providing specific information and do not endorse products named nor imply criticism of similar ones not mentioned. Men­ tion of...

The Philippines Recommends I for Dairy Cattle Production 1981  Disclaimer Trade names cited in this publication are used solely for providing specific information and do not endorse products named nor imply criticism of similar ones not mentioned. Men­ tion of a trade name does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by the Philippine Council for Agricul­ ture and Resources Research. The Philippines Recommends ior Dairy Cattle Production 1981 Published by: Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research Los Banos, Laguna March, 1981  Foreword The present status of the Philippine dairy industry leaves much to be desired. The industry is notably underdeveloped with nearly all of the domestic consumption supplied by imports. It is known that a Filipino family's financial status is mostly gaged by how much milk the household consumes. The high prices commanded by dairy products makes them virtually beyond the means of the low-income group. The fact that, outside of the Magnolia dairy farm, the main bulk of some one percent Philippine milk production is contributed by back­ yard dairy farmers underscores the need to package technology aimed at these small farm groups. Hence, PCARR published this volume with the hope that it can achieve not only the original intention of helping advance a family enterprise but also of promoting commercial farming. Establishing a solid foundation for a highly viable dairy industry through the small farm owner is a long-range goal worth achieving through research. 111  Contents Foreword iii Acknowledgment xi Technical Committee xii Introduction 1 Starting the Dairy Enterprise 3 Farm location 3 Choice of breed 3 Selection and Culling of Dairy Cattle 7 Selection of milking animals 7 Selection of bulls 8 Culling 8 Breeding and Reproduction 9 Reproductive physiology of dairy cattle 9 Breeding practices for dairy heifers/cows 10 Breeding practices for dairy sires 10 Mating sy tem 10 Artificial insemination 11 Pregnancy diagnosis 12 Feeds and Feeding 13 Feed resources 13 Feed formulation 16 Feeding guides 19 Forage and Pasture Management for Dairy Cattle 24 Pasture establishment and grazing management 24 Herd Management 28 Management of calves 28 Management of growing herd 32 Management of breeding heifers 32 Management of pregnant herd 32 Management of milking herd 33 Management of dry cows 34 Management of breeding sire 34 V  Management of replacement stock 35 Use of herd records 35 Waste management 35 Housing and Equipment 42 Dairy calves 42 Growing dairy cattle 46 Milking herd 47 Dairy bull 48 Milking parlor 48 Other production facilities 49 Dairy Herd Health Program 50 Internal and external parasite control 51 Control of genital diseases 52 Control of mastitis 52 Milk Production 63 Milking method 63 Milk cooling storage 67 Production of quality milk 70 Determination of milk quality at farm level 71 Milk Processing and Packaging 73 Pasteurization 73 Other dairy products in the farm 76 Marketing 85 Milk and milk products 86 Dairy beef 86 Marketing channel 87 References 88 Definition of Terms 90 Appendices Appendix I. Acclimatization practices for temperate breeds of dairy cattle 95 Appendix 2. Dairy hull unified score card 98 Appendix 2a. Dairy cow unified score card 100 Appendix 3. Nutrient requirements of dairy cattle 102 Appendix 4. Sample rations 114 vi Appendix 5. Dairy Industry Development Act of 1979 1 17 Tables Per capita consumption per year of milk and dairy products by income groups 2 2 Popular breeds of dairy cattle in the Philippines S 3 Common diseases of dairy cattle 53 4 Common parastic diseases of dairy cattle 61 5 Comparative gross composition of cow, carabao, buffalo and goat's milk 73 Forms Daily production record 37 2 Daily report 38 3 Monthly production and breeding record 39 4 Concentrate and roughage consumption record 40 5 Record for increases and decreases of dairy animals 4 1 Figures Pure Holstein Freisian cows and Red Sindhi cross 4 2 Milk animal with dairy type conformation 7 3 Upgraded offspring 10 4 A. I. using semen of dairy bull 1 1 vii  5 Quality forage for dairy ration 13 6 Trench silo and mechanized chopper for silage making 13 7 Rice straw or other crop residue for diet of mature dairy cattle 14 8 Concentrate and mineral feeding for dairy nutrition 1 S 9 A pasture slightly elevated, fertile and with available water supply 24 IO Para grass 25 11 Grazing in improved pasture should be rotated 26 12 The calf allowed to stay with dam for 3 days or separated immediately at birth provided the calf has suckled the first milk 29 13 A sample system of numbering calves by eamotching 29 14 A calf identified by earnotch 29 15 Hot iron dehorning 31 16 Separate heifers from bulls before sexual maturity 32 17 A cow about to calve 33 18 Observe silence during milking 33 19 Inclined floor to facilitate flushing of manure and urine 36 20 Simple and inexpensive housing for dairy cattle 43 viii 20A Details of elevated calf stall 44 20B Details of stanchion 44 21 Backyard dairy housing 45 22 Semi-commercial dairy housing 45 23 Loose-type housing 45 24 Calf barn for day-old calves 45 25 Elevated individual confinement of calves 45 26 Calves confined in groups of uniform size or ages 46 27 A clean, well bedded and well ventilated resting shed 4 7 28 Clean water available all the time 48 29 Commercial type of milking parlor at Magnolia Dairy Farm 49 30 Tandem type of milking parlor at the Magnolia Dairy Farm 49 31 Hand milking process 63 32 Proper procedure in hand milking 64 33 Machine milking 67 34 Procedure in machine milking 68 35 Attaching teat cups properly 69 36 Plastic containers for small volume of milk collected 70 37 Milk drums 70 IX  38 Milk receiving area of the UPLB-DTRI milk collection program 71 39 Milk and milk products 74 40 Double boiler method 75 41 Cheese vat and the batch pasteurizer at the background 79 42 Cheese ripening room 80 43 Milk collection program assuring ready market 85 44 DT RI milk collection station in Lipa City 86 45 Milk collection plant in Sta. Maria, Bulacan 87 46 Supermarkets as outlets for dairy products 87 X  Acknowledgment The Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research acknowledges the cooperation and assistance of the former director of DTRI, Dr. Leopoldo S. Castillo, Chancellor Emil Q. Javier of UP Los Banos, Director Salvador H. Escudero, of BAI and President Amado Campos of CLSU for granting their respective staff members permission to serve as members of the technical committee of the Philippines Recommends for Dairy Cattle Production. Acknowledgment is also due the farm manager of the Magnolia DairyFarm, Mr. Graciano Espinueva, for his assistance during our visit to the farm, and Mr. Severino Flores for provid­ ing some pictures on dairying. PCAR R also acknowledges the Ministry of Agriculture for their cooperation and assistance in the printing of this publication. Appreciation is also due the staff of the Applied Communication Division and the Livestock Research Division of PCARR, for their untiring effort in the preparation of this publication. xi  Dairy Cattle Production Technical Committee Dr. Primitivo M. Baluyut Chairman Chairman Department of Zootechnics College of Veterinary Medicine University of the Philippines Systems Diliman, Quezon City Mr. Manuel H. Baula Instructor Member Central Luzon State University Munoz, Nueva Ecija Dr. Clara L. Davide Assistant Professor Member Dairy Training and Research Institute UP at Los Banos College, Laguna Mr. Graciano F. Espinueva, Jr. Farm Manager Member Magnolia Dairy Farm Alfonso, Cavite Dr. Alfonso N. Eusebio Director Member (ex-officio) Livestock Research Division Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research Los Banos, Laguna Mr. Jesus B. de Guzman Chief Member Dairy Development Division Bureau of Animal Industry Sta. Mesa, Metro Manila Dr. Vicente G. Momoiigan Associate Professor and Chairman Member Department of Animal Science UP at Los Banos-College of Agriculture College, Laguna X 11 Mr. Pedro Ocampo Training Specialist Member Milk Collection Program Dairy Training and Research Institute UP at Los Banos College, Laguna Dr. Antonio L. Ordoveza Associate Professor Member Dairy Training and Research Institute UP at Los Banos College, Laguna Mr. Bienvenido B. Ramin Associate Professor Member Dairy Training and Research Institute UP at Los Banos College, Laguna Mr. Manuel L. Rocha Chief Member Marketing Unit Bureau of Animal Industry Sta. Mesa, Metro Manila Mr. Edwin C. Villar Subject Matter Specialist Member Livestock Research Division Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research Los Banos, Laguna xiii  Introduction On March 2 1, 1979, the Dairy Industry Development Act of 1979 was signed into law. This affirmed the long felt need to develop the Philippine dairy industry. The law provides for measures to increase local milk production, reduce dependence on imports and eventually, develop an indigenous dairy industry. The Philippines needs to develop its dairy farm industry. Local milk production constitutes less than 5 percent of total domestic con­ sumption. Hence, there is a need to import the commodity to meet local demand. In 1977, the cost of imported milk and other dairy pro­ ducts amounted to almost $82 million. Through the years, the cost of imports have been high and heavily drained the country's dollar reserves. Closely related to the milk industry, is nutrition. Milk is a nutri­ tious food. Surveys show that the Philippines has a serious malnutri­ tion problem. Eighty percent of pre-school children suffers from vary­ ing degrees of malnutrition. Milk, certainly, has an important bearing on this problem. Food consumption surveys also show that the average per capita consumption of milk and milk produch is only 78 percent of the re­ commended amount of 90 gms/day or 32.85 kg/year. Actual consump­ tion is 25.68 kgs. Also, the amount of milk consumed is directly related to incomes. The lower the income, the lesser is the milk consumed. In fact, the lowest income bracket ('f 400/capita/year) consumed only about 35 percent of the recommended amount. (Table 1). Low milk production, high cost of imports, dependency on other countries for the local milk needs, and sub-standard consumption poses serious problems. These can be minimized through development of dairy industry. There are potentials in terms of animals, land, climate and tech­ nology which could be tapped. From the total population of 1.8 mil­ lion cattle, 2.9 million carabaos and 1.2 million goats, enough can be tapped primarily as breeding base for an intensive dairy upgrading. Underutilized and marginal lands can be utilized for fodder production. The climate generally favors production of fodder and other crops, the residues, and by-products of which can be harnessed as feeds.  Technology has been generated through the years by colleges and other institutions. There are existing milk collection systems by the Bureau of Animal Industry, the Dairy Training and Research Insti­ tute and some private individuals/agencies. Adoptors of dairy pro­ duction exist. Most significantly, perhaps, the political will to develop the industry has now been marshalled as symbolized by the approval of the Dairy Law. Hence, the prospects for development are bright. This manual is more oriented towards the needs of backyard dairy farmers. However, general principles mentioned here are also applicable to large scale dairy farming. Table 1. Per Capita Consumption Per Year of Mille and Dairy Products by Income Groups (in kg) 1 Per Capita Income Weighted Item Average Less than ,400- ,800- r1,so Consumption 2 '400 799 l,499 & Over Evaporated 1.36 2.99 5.47 8.08 3.97 Condensed 2.35 3.22 3.77 3.16 3.15 Powdered 0.12 0.27 0.69 1.59 0.59 Fresh 0.15 0.22 0.39 0.48 0.26 Others 3 0.18 0.34 0.79 1.91 0.61 Total Dairy Products 4.16 7.05 11.11 15.22 8.58 Total in Mille Equivalent 11.17 19.16 32.64 52.67 25.68 1 Per capita consumption per year was derived from the Income and Food Consump­ tion Survey. (Summary of 15 Economic S urveys from A ug ust-September, 1972 to June, 1976), _ Special Studies Division, Department of Agriculture. 2 Represents the weighted average of the four income groups. 3 Includes cheese, butter, ice cream and margarine. 2  Starting the Dairy Enterprise Farm Location The more important considerations in the selection of a site for dairying are: 1. Markets - Farmers must be assured of a market that can absorb milk or dairy products at a reasonable price. 2. Technology and support system - Technology support through extension education, veterinary services, breeding services, etc. should be available particularly for backyard producers who may have to rely on government technicians/agencies for this kind of support. 3. Accessibility of production inputs - Production inputs like con­ centrate feeds, and veterinary drugs must be available at reason­ able price. 4. Feeds - The farm should be located in an area where fodder crops can be economically produced. Areas planted to coconut, perennial crops or marginally utilized land can be used for fodder production. It is advantageous if crop residues and farm by-products which can be used as feed e.g. sugarcane tops, com stover, rice straw, etc. are available. Choice of Breed The major considerations in the choice of a breed are its dairy merits and adaptability to conditions in a given area. Some temperate breeds of dairy cattle have been raised success­ fully in the Philippines with proper management and nutrition. These are the Holstein Freisian, Jersey and Brown Swiss. 3  Tropical breeds which have done well in the country are: Sahiwal, Red Sindhi and Tharpark.ar. The tropical breeds are more adapted to local conditions, these are generally dual purpose (i.e. both for meat and milk). Hence they produce less milk. than the temperate breeds. Dairy cattle requires a "comfort zone"for optimum production. This explains why temperate breed cattle do not perform as well in the Philippines as in. their country of origin. For temperate cattle, this zone ranges from -I lo I0°C a.nd JO to 27°C on tropical cattle. At temperatures higher than these, the thermoregulating mechanisms begin to fail causing drops in productive processes. Crossbreds and grades are recommended for use in more areas in the Philippines due to their higher adaptation capability to local tempe ratures. Purebreds must be managed in higher altitudes wJth lower tern perature and provided with better care and plane of nutrition. However, the personal preference of producers must be taken inio account. Breeds of dairy cattle perfonning favorably in the country are descn'bed in Table 2. Fig. I. Pure Holstein frcisian cows and Red Sindhi cross 4  Table 2. Popular Breeds of Dairy Cattle in the Philippines Average Mature Average Breed Color/Description Weight (Kg) Daily Mille Average Lactation Source Male Female Production Butterfat Period (Kg) (%) (days) Holstein Black and white or 818 568 22 3.6 300 Campbell and Freisian may vary from white Marshall ( I 97 5) with few black spots Smith and Van to almost all black Uleck (197 4) Quiet and docile Jersey Light fawn to black 636 431 13 5.2 300- Campbell and and from white- 365 Marshall (197 5) spotted to solid Smith and Van in marking Uleck (1974) Muzzle and tongue are usually black or lead colored Nervous and sensi- tive disposition Brown Light fawn to 909 591 17 4.0 300- Campbell and Swiss almost black 365 Marshall (197 5) Smith and Van Muzzle and stripe Uleck ( 1974) along the back are light in color V, Nose, tongue, switch and horn tips are  Table 2. Continued °' Average Mature Average Breed Color/Description Weight (Kg) Daily Mille Average Lactation Source Male Female Production Butterfat Period (Kg) (%) (days) Quiet and docile Sahiwal Reddish brown with 540 370 8 4.9 300 Joshi and Phillips or without white (1953) markings McDonnel (1972) Body is heavy symmetrical with loose skin. Neck is short and lean while the dewlap is large and heavy Hump is massive in males and frequently fall to one side Tharparkar White and gray; along 540 385 6* 4.3-6 268 Joshi and Phillips backbone there is light (1953) gray stripe McDonnel (1972) color deepens when pregnant Red Sindhi Red varying from dark 415 310 6* 4.9 275 Joshi and Phillips red to dun yellow; some (1953) specks of white McDonnel (1972) observed but no white patches seen *Production excludes milk suckled by calf. Selection and Culling of Dairy Cattle Selection of Milking Animal11 The selection of animals may be based on records of animal itself, its ancestors (pedigree), its family and an evaluation of the animal's physical appearance. Based on available records, emphas.is in the selection should be on traits such as milk yield, mothering ability and growth rates. In the absence of records, selection should be based on "educated judgement" or a physical evaluation of the animal. A good milk animal should have the d airy type confom1ation (Fig. 2), in good health, be free from abnormalities, and have good dairy temperament. Major qualities are large and well developed udder and uniform size and fu-nctional teats. Fig. 2. Milk animal with dairy type conformation 7 Selection of Bulls Small dairy farmers need not raise their own dairy bulls since they keep few animals and have limited resources for feeding and maintain­ ing animals. Instead, they should use artificial insemination for breed­ ing. Should a bull be chosen, use these guidelines : Consult records on ancestry, relatives and actual performance. Evaluate the bull physically taking into account the over­ all body conformation and constitution, disposition, abnormalities and/or health. Culling Culling should be done to maintain a herd of high production efficiency. It should be based on the records of production, health, physical fitness and over-all performance of the animals. Reasons for culling are: 1. Low milk yields - In a commercial dairy farm a daily production of 8 kg or below may be enough reason for culling depending on the economic assessment of the farm's performance For backyard farms, lower production may be tolerated since inputs like labor and feeds are relatively lower. The major criterion is whether or not, the animal is "paying for itself." 2. Problem breeders - Cows that do not settle, require many services before conception, and shy breeders should also be culled. 3. Poor dairy temperament - Animals that are vicious or hard to manage should not be kept. 4. Animals with vices like sucking self or mates, fence breaking and others. 5. Health abnormalities - Cows infected with contagious abortion, tuberculosis, and other incurable diseases and those with anatomical defects, e.g. blind and inverted teats should be culled. 8  Breeding and Reproduction Reproductive Physiology of Dairy Cattle Estrus cycle. Norm ally, estrus in cattle occurs at a cycle of 17 to 23 days or an average of 21 days. During estrus the cow produces the egg cell or the ovum which is formed into the embryo when proper­ ly fertilized by the sperm cell. Upon fertilization, the estrus cycle stops. Estrus period. Estrus or heat period lasts for about 8 to 30 hours or an average of 19 hours. A heifer will start to show signs of heat at the age of about 6 to 8 months. Cows manife t heat 22 to 51 days after calving. However in some instances there are also animals that manifest heat as early as two weeks after calving. The usual signs of heat or estrus: * 1. Restlessness. The animal will remain standing even if its herdmates are lying down resting. Or, the animal keeps moving about and occasionally bellows. 2. Clear mucus discharge from the cervix, soiling the tail and surrounding areas. 3. Swelling of the vulva. 4. Mounting other animals not in heat and allows itself to be mounted. 5. Frequent urination. Ovulation or the release of egg takes place 7 to 12 hours after the end of the standing heat period. Since the egg ren:iain fertile for only about six hours and because sperm may require about six hours in the reproductive tract to develop the capacity to fertilize an egg, insemination made after ovulation usually result in low fertility. Gestation period. The gestation period of dairy cattle ranges from 260 to 296 or an average of 283 days. * All signs may not be necessarily exhibited when the animal is in heat. 9 Breeding Practices for Dairy Heifers/Cows It is b·est to breed heifers 18 to 20 months old or weighing 220 to 250 kg. For milking cows, should be bred 60 days after calving depending on the condition of the animal. A general guide is to breed them on the second hea t aft-er calving. Ample time should be given for the uterus to return to its normal state. · Generally, breeding should b e done whenever heat is observed or whenever the cow accepts the bull. Insemination could be made twice a day. Keep animals in heat away frem the rest of the herd whether they are bred or not Breeding Practices for Dairy Sires Use buUs for breeding when they are 18 months old or a weight of 280 kg whichever comes first. By this time they have fully attained their sexual and physical maturity. At the recommended.age or weight for breeding, limit the fre-. quency of service to two trmes per week. A t the age of 3 years. the bull may be used five times a week. Size difference should be considered before breeding. An over sized bull should not be allowed to serve a small heifer or cow. Mating System In any system of breeding the objectiv.e is to improve the over­ all perfoananee of the offspring. In deciding on a breeding system the dairy farmer has several options: I. Purebreeding. Mating of animals of the same breed. Example: Holstein to·Holstein; Jersey to Jersey·. fig. 3.Upgradtd o£fspring 10  Inbreeding. Mating of animals more closely related than the average of the population from which they came. Purpose of inbreed­ ing is to increase the probability that the offspring will inheri.t the out­ standing characteristics from sire t-o dam. There is n risk, here. since undesirable characteristics have chances of being perpetuated. 2. Grading up. System of mating in which a purebred sire of a given breed is mated to a na.tive or grade female. Example: Batangas cow bred to a Jersey bull. This system of mating enables the offspring to inherit the desired productive traits of the improved breeds such as increased milk production or growth rate. 3. Crossbreeding. Mating of two animals which -arc members of dif­ ferent breeds. Example: Holstein to Jersey Artificial IDBemination The use of A.I. as part of the breeding management is a popular practice. However, some problems arising from the widespread prac­ tice of AJ. are lack of A.I. technician, correct timing and breeding. A.L offers several advantages: I. Obtaining top quality semen is much cheaper than maintain­ ing a bull. 2. Eliminates injuries to small cows or female when mated to large bulls. 3. Extends the use of a good proven sire. 4. Effective means of controlling venereal diseases. Fig. 4. A-1 using semeo of dairy bull 11  Usually, the semen and A. I. service are available at Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) p rovincial veterinary offices or breeding sub­ centers. BAI centers undertaking A.I. in cattle/bu ffaloes are: I. Sta. Maria Dairy Project, Sta. Maria Bulacan 2. Office o f the Provincial Vet., Lingayen, Pangasinan 3. Office of the Provincial Vet., La Trinidad, Benguet 4. Office of the Provincial Vet., Maasin, Southern Leyte 5. BAI Regional Office, lloilo City 6. National Artificial Breeding Center (N ABC) Ala bang, Metro Manila 7. Office of the Provincial Vet. , San Fernando, La Union 8. Office of the Provincial Vet. , Roxas City 9. Tanauan Breeding Center, Tanauan, Batangas 10. Labo Breeding Center, Camarines Norte 11. Cebu Artificial Breeding Center, Cebu City 12. Office of the Provincial Vet. , Bohol 1 3. Office o f the Provincial Vet. , Isabela 14. Office of the Provincial Vet. , Cagayan 1 5. Bustos Sub-Center, Bulacan 16. Office of the Provincial Ve t., Cabanatuan City 17. Office of the Prov incial Vet. , San Fernando, Pampanga 1 8. Zambales Breeding Station, Candelaria, Zam bales 19. Victoria Artificial Breeding Center, Tarlac Pregnancy Diagnosis The general signs of pregnancy are: cessation of estrus, enlarge­ ment of the abdomen and increase in live weight. However, in some animals pregnancy is difficult to determine by external signs especially during the early stages. Rectal palpation is a recommended method for determining preg­ nancy. However, it should be done only by an experienced technician. Rectal palpation should be done 2 to 3 months after b reed ing. By this time the uterus has extended beyond the pelvic b rim. It is still possible to encircle diameter of uterus with hand. The size of the pregnant horn of the uterus is dist inctly larger than non-pregnant horn by about 4 to 8 fingers wide. 12  Feeds and Feeding Feed Resources Roughage Pastures and forages. Pastures and forages are the most important and economical feeds for dairy cattle. Good quality grasses and legumes provide all the nu1rien1s for optimal growth of dairy cattle. reproduc­ tion and economic milk production. Pasti.1res and forages need to e managed properly and ulilized as feeds for dairy cattle al the recommended growth stages 10 oblai:n maximum nutrients. Otherwise, il will be necessary to supplement dairy cattle rations wi_th concentrate feeds. Fig. S. Quality forage for dairy nuion fig. 6. Trench-silo and mccha.nixed chopper for silage makin& 13  Silage. Silage is an important roughage for dairy cattle especially when pastures and forages are insufficient and have low nutritional value. Dairy cattle can be fed mainly on good quality silage for optimal growt.h and nrilk production. Some of the ensiling materials are: corn (whole plant with or without ears) corn stover, sorghum (with or without grain), sugarcane tops, cassJva leaves, napier and other improved grasses. Grass/legume hay and/or crop residue hay.and straw. These rough­ ages arc important for calves since these promote early development of the rumen a.nd prevent the occurrence of pot bellies due to heavy intake of high moisture pastures and roughages. !-lay and straw are used as maintenance feed for mature dairy cattle. When feeding these roughages it must be supplemented with more nutritious roughages or with high energy aod high protein con­ centrates. Fig. 7 Rice straw or Olher crop residue for diel of malure dairy cattle Concentrate feedstuffs Concentrates are also classified as energy concentrates, protein concentrates, mineral and vitamin supplements, and non-nutritive feed additives.. Energy concentrates. These are feedstuffs with high starch and/ or sugar, fats and oil con1ent. These feedstuffs should contain between 60 to 80 percent total digestible nutrients (TON). Examples are yellow corn. corn bran, sorghum, cassava, -animal fats and vegetable oil. rice bran. rice middlings and others. 14  Protein concentrates. These feedstu rrs contain between 12 to 60 percent crude protein. These are especiaUy needed by lactating cows, growing calves, and breeding bulls in heavy service. These include soybean oil meal, copra meal, corn _gluten feed and meal, rice bran, com bran, leaf meals, fish meal, meat and bone meal, skimmilk and butter milk. The chicken manure o- r dried poultry waste is also another source o f protein. This can be used ar a level not more than 50 percent of the total ration for fatteners and growers. Its use for milking animals is still being verified. Fig. 8. Concentrates and mineral reeding for dairy nutrition Trace mineral supplement. This is given in powder or crystals mixed wilh U1e concentrate or a rrace mineralized salt blocks which the animal licks at will. Other sources of calcium are ground limestone or oyster shell. Dicalcium phosphate, monosodium phosphate, and de­ nourinat d rock phosphate arc good sources of phosphorous. Vitamin -upplernent. These supplies the fat-soluble vitamin A, D, E and K. The water-soluble vitamins like B and C arc synthesized by the body of the animal. The only time water-soluble vitamins are needed by the animals is when the rumen of young calves are not yet func­ rional. Diet of dairy cattle must be supplemented with vitamins A. D and E when fed with low-quality rations such as rice stnw, native rou ghages or poor quality pastures. Pregnant cows and breeding bulls also ne.cd vitamins A, D and E in their diets. Non-nutritive additives. These are sometimes needed by dairy cattle for specific physiological : purpose. This group of additives includes antibiotics (for disease and growth promotant);_ hormones 15  ( for reproductive problems and growth stimulant) ; antioxidant (mixed in feed to avoid rancidity) and enzymes (to improve digestibility ). Milk from animals treated with antibiotics, hormones and other drugs and chemicals is discarded in 4 to 7 day s depending on the particular drug used. Discarded milk can be fed to calves. Non-protein-nitrogen Urea. It is an important source of non-protein nitrogen for dairy cattle. This may be incorporated in the concentrate mix at the rate of I to 2 percent. Urea must be mixed thoroughly in feed to prevent toxicity. Feed Formulation The following example illustrates the step-by-step procedure for calculating rations on an individual cow basis. Weight of mature milking cow - 400 kg Production (daily) = 8 kg ( 3. 5% butterfat, early pregnancy) I. Estimate the daily nutrient requirement of the cow using the tables in Appendix 3. TON Total Ca p Vitamin A (kg) Cru de (g) (g ) ( 1 000 LU.) Protein (g) Maintenance (400 kg bodyweight) 3. 1 5 373 15 13 30 Milk production ( 3. 5% bu tterfat/ kilogram milk) (. 304) ( 8 2 ) (2.6) ( l.75) For 8 kg milk 2.43 656 20.8 1 4.0 Total nu trients needed 5.58 1 02 9 35.8 1 7.0 16 2. Select forages to be fed on cut and carry basis and determine the nutrient content of the forage OM TON Crude Crude Ca p (%) ( %) Protein Fiber (%) (%) (%) (%) Napier grass, 60 1 4.1 7.1 4 I. I5 4.72 0.07 0.06 days regrowth Centrosema, leaf and vine 24.2 1 1.8 5.0 8.26 0.24 0.07 3. Determine the amount of forage consumption Normal consumption of dry matter of good quality forage is 2.0 to 2.5 % of body weight. Weight of cow = 400 kg X.02 8.0 kg dry matter from forage Apportion that 75% OM would come from Napie r grass and 2 5% OM from Centrosema 8 x. 7 5 = 6 kg OM from Napier 8 x.25 = 2 kg OM from Centrosema Determine amounts of Napier and Centrosema to fe ed _i_JDM needed).1 41 ( OM Napier) = 42.5 kg Napier 2 ( OM needed). 240 kg ( OM Centrosemat 8.2 kg Centrosema 4. Determine the amount of nutrients supplied by the forages by multiplying the amount of forage to be fed by its nutrient com- position TON CP Ca p (kg) (g) (g) (g) Napier grass, 42.5 kg 3.03 488.75 29.75 25.50 Centrosema, 8. 2 kg.97 41 0.0 1 9.7 5.74 50.7 4.00 898.7 5 49.45 31.24 17 5. Determine the amount o f nutrients t o b e supplied b y concentrate supplements TON CP Ca p (kg) (g) (g) (g) Total requirements of milking cow 5.6 1 ,029 35.8 17 Nutrients from forages 4.0 898.7 49.4 3 1.2 Ad ditional nu trients needed 1.6 1 30.3 Note that the forages alone satisfy all the requirements for calcium and phosphorous. 6. Decide on appropriate concentrate or supplement to use to meet the additional nutrients needed. However, based on the compu­ tation, since only a small amount of protein is n eede d ( 1 30.3 g), a low protein supplement such as rice bran (C P = 1 1.4%; TDN = 6 5. 4%) can be used. 1 30. 3 g (additio nal protein needed ) = 1 , 1 43 g o r 1. 1 4 k g rice bran. 1 1 4 (CP of rice bran) To meet the additional protein required, round up to 1. 2 kg the amount of rice bran needed. Since there is still a need for 1.2 kg, TON, the 1.2 kg rice bran will only supply 0.70 kg. TON ( 1. 2 x. 6 54) this amount will not meet the additional TON needed of 1. 6 kg ( 1. 6 -. 7 8 =. 8 2). An energy supplement such as molasses (CP = 0.7 1 6 ; TON = 5 3. 6% ) can be used to supply the balance of 0. 8 2 kg TON. 8 2 (additional TON needed). 5 3 6 (TON of molasses) = 1. 5 3 kg molasses As a safety factor, feed 2 kilograms of molasses to fully meet the energy needs of the cow. The molasses will also add to the palatability of the ration. The rice bran can be fed separately or mixed with chopped forage. 18  The total daily ration therefore is : Amount in kg Cost/kg Total Cost Napier grass Centrosema 42.5 8.2 ro. 1 0 r 4. 2 5 0. 1 5 1.23 Rice bran 1.2 0.8 5 1.02 Molasses 2.0 0.60 1.20 Assuming a farm-gate price of J> 2. 5 0 per kilogram of milk the dairy farmer will realize a net income of J> 12. 3 0 per cow per day above feed cost. Feeding Guides Dairy calves The calf should be fed with whole milk or milk replacer at the rate of 4 to I O percent of bodyweight preferably in two feedings daily. The m ilk should be warmed to body temperature before feeding in the pail. Milk should be fed for 6 to 8 weeks. Calf starter (7 5 percent TON ; 1 6 to 18 percent CP) and good quality grass-legume roughage should be fed as early as possible so that the calf can be weaned from milk as early as six weeks of age. By this time the calf should be eating about 0. 5 kg calf starter daily and grass or hay without limit. See guide for calf feeding on p. 22. After weaning from milk the calves can be raised in group pen. Calf starter should be fed up to 4 months of age at the rate of I to 2 kg per day depending on the supply of good quality roughage. Good quality forage or hay should be fed free-choice. Cool, clean drinking water should be available always. Calves should be supplemented with antibiotics, vitamins A and D, and trace minerals. These can be incorporated in the concentrate ration. At 4 months of age the calves can be put out to clean, good quality pasture during the daytime and kept indoor at night. A grow­ ing herd concentrate mix (75 percent TDN; 14 to 16 percent CP ; may be given at the rate of 2 kilograms per day up to 6 months of age. 19  Growing heifers At six months of age heifers can be raised on pasture or dry­ lot. Good quality pastures or forages can be provided. Cool, clean drinking water and trace mineral salt licks should be available all the time. From 6 months to one year of age, heifers should be given 1 to 2 kg concentrate (14 to 16 percent CP) daily to ensure sufficient nutrient intake for normal growth. At one year old, heifers can be raised solely on good to fair quality pasture or roughage. However, they should get sufficient nutrients to continuously gain normally. Growing bulls Follow the feeding guide for growing heifers up to 12 months of age. At I O months old, allow the bull to graze in the forage area. Pregnant heifers During the last 2 months of pregnancy provide liberal supply of good forage and 0.5 to I kg concentrates. Otherwise provide 1 to 3 kg concentrates especially if the animal is not in good condition. Fifteen days before calving, heifers should be given additional amount of concentrates of about I to 2 kg. Dry cows If the dry cow is in excellent condition, give only high quality forage. However, if its condition is poor, give 2 kg concentrates during the early part of the dry period until 2 weeks before calving date. Two weeks before calving, dry cows should be given additional concen­ trates I to 2 kg more of the normal ration. Provide cool, clean drinking water and trace mineral salt lick at all times. Milking herd Good quality forage should be provided to milking animals either managed indoor or outdoor. Concentrates ( 1 6 to 1 8 percent CP) should also be fed to high milk producers at the rate of one kiler gram concentrate for every 2 1/2 to 3 kg milk produced. If fed on poor quality roughage such as cane tops or com stover, a high pro­ tein concentrate ( 18 to 20 percent CP) should be fed. Plenty of cool, clean drinking water should be available all the time. Provide also salt­ bone meal mix in a separate box. Appendix 4 contains suggested con- 20 centrate and mineral mix. If milking animals are managed outdoors, shade/shelter should be available for the cows · on pasture. Pasture rotation should be prac­ ticed. Corn and grass silage should be fed to supplement forage or p asture crops during lean months. Corn or grass silage should be fed after milking to prevent the milk from absorbing undesirable odors. Hay is fed to supplement pasture and forages during the rainy season when forages have low dry matter content. Hay should be fed outside the milking barn to avoid raising dust during milking. Herd bull Good quality roughage must be fed to the bulls. Concentrates ( 14 to 16 percent CP) must be fed at the rate of 2 to 4 kg daily de­ pending on the size of the bull and frequency of breeding. Bulls must not be fattened. Veal calves Veal calves are male animals fattened mainly on milk or milk re­ placers for 6 to 8 weeks after birth. They are not fed roughage or grain at all, so that the veal carcass is usually light-colored. Veal calves should weigh about 80 to 100 kg at 6 to 8 weeks of milk feeding. Liquid whole milk or milk replacer is fed at the rate of l O percent of body weight up to 6 to 8 weeks. About 10 kg of milk replacer is consumed for every kilo of veal produced. It takes about 1.3 kg of dry replacer to produce a kilogram of veal. Soy milk together with skimmilk can be fed to produce veal calves satisfactorily. Note: The market for veal calves is highly specialized and rather limit­ ed. Dairy beef Yearling feeder calves can be raised on practical and economical fattening rations to gain about 0.7 to 1.0 kg per day and attaining be­ tween 400 to 450 kg slaughter weight in one year. Faster gains are obtained when concentrates are fed at the rate of l percent of body weight in addition to free choice roughage or silage feeding. Crop residue silage such as sugarcane tops and pineapple pulp can be the sole source of roughage. Urea and molasses are usually in­ cluded in the ration. The calves can be fed individually or in groups. 21  Suggested Feeding Guide Age Feed Amount Per Day Birth to 5 days Colostrum No limit 6 days to 5 weeks Whole mil k/skimmilk 1-1. 5 kg Good quality soilage Limited Salt, water No limit 6 to 8 weeks Whole m ilk l -1. 5 kg Calf starter ( 16-18% CP). 5 kg So ilage No limit Salt, water No limit 9 weeks- 3 months Calf starter ( 16-18% CP) l -2 kg Soilage No limit Salt, water No limit 4-6 m onths Grower herd mix ( 14-1 6% CP) 2 kg Soilage No limit Salt, water No limit Growing heifers/ Grower herd m ix l -2 kg bulls up to one So ilage No limit year old Salt, water No limit Pregnant heifers Herd m ix ( 16-18% CP) 1-3 kg depending on the condi­ tions of the animals and supply of roughage So ilage No lim it Salt, water No limit Dry cows Herd m ix (16-18% CP) 1-2 kg Soilage No limit Salt, water No limit Lactating cow Herd mix ( 16-18% CP) 1 kilo for every 2. 5 kg milk produced 22  or high protein concentrate If the animals are ( l 8-20% CP) fed poor quality roughage Soilage No limit Salt-bone meal mix, water No limit Herd bull Herd mix (1 4- 1 6% CP) 2-4 kg daily Soilage No limit Salt, water No limit 23  Forage and Pasture Management for Dairy Cattle The most economical way o f producing milk from dairy cattle is to feed them with good quality forages. Sufficient nutritious forage greatly reduc.e feeding of concentrates which are more expensive than forages. However, a well-managed and a good stand o f forage crop needs good land preparation, desirable pasture species, lrriga.tion, fer­ tilization, strong paddock and perimeter pasture fences. Pasture Establishment and Grazing Management In the establishment and manageme nt of the pasture at least four factors must be considered: choice of land, choice of forage species, pro11agation of the pasture and grazing management. Fig. 9. A pasture slightly elevated, fertileand with available waler suppl y A. Choice of Land The cost of land and possible alternative use should be considered. The forage area should be preferably fertile, slightly elevated and have available water. For dairy farmers who may not be in the position lo 24 devout lands specifically for forages., they could plant forages in margin­ ally utilized areas and on coconut areas. They could secure planting materials from the BAI and other government agencies. B. Choice o f forage species Forage crops to be planted must be high yielding, nutritious, palatable, can compete with weeds, resistant to trampling and thrive well under the shade. fig. 10. Para grass C. Pasture propagation A pasture c.an be grass alone, mixed grass and legume or a. pure legume (s). The following procedUieS are recommended in the estab­ lishment and propagalion of pastures: I. Prepare ihe land thoroughly to enable the forage species to out­ grow weeds. 2. Begin planting when the rainy season starts or when rains are regular. 3. Planting materials may either be vegetative cuttings (canes or stern cuttings, tufts or root stocks, and rhizomes or stolons) or seeds. 4. For majority of grasses and small seeded legumes, drill for about 0.6 cm deep. Others may be seeded at 1.2 10 2.5 cm deep. Seed at the rate of 3 to 5 kg PLS (pure live seed) per hectare for small seed species and 6 lo 10 PLS per hectare for large seeded ones. 25  5. To ensure the fertility and suitability of the soil and satisfy the needs Qf ' the forage crops planted, apply complete fertilizer at the rate of 400 kg per ha per year; 30 to 60 kg P1 O, (phosphorous) per ha per year; 2 to 4 tons lime per ha if the soil pH is below 5.0. Also, based on soil analysis and plant needs, apply potassium. However, the amount of fertilizer can be reduced by means of recycling manure waste materials and intercropping o f legumes. D. Grazing management Gr zing in improved pastures should be rotated. Rotational grazing is done by wviding the areas into several enclosures or paddocks. When 50 to 60 percent of an area is grazed, the animals are moved to another area. The pasture must recover for 20 to 60 days depenwng upon the species and growing condition of the crops. Fig. lJ. Grazing in improved pa.sture should be rotated On the other hand, continuous grazing is employed only in native pasture and where management is extensive. Small subdivisional fencing in this area is usually not economically practical. Where animals are few or the forage area is limited and animals are kept in close confinement, iero grazing or cut and carry system is 26 practical. With this system, the crop is cut and then brought to the animals. Usually about 3 to 10 animals per hectare can be supported with this system depending on the forage species planted. Some of the recommended grasses and legumes for dairy cattle production are: Grasses 1. Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) 2. Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) 3. Para grass (Brachiaria mutica) 4. Pangola grass (Digitaria decumbens) 5. African star grass ( Cy no don plectostachyus) 6. Ala bang X (Dicanthium aristatum) Legumes 1. Centro ( Centrosema pubescens) 2. lpil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) 3. Townsville stylo (Stylosan thes humilis) 4. Schofield stylo (Stylosanthes guyanensis) 5. Siratro (Phaseolus atropurpureus) Possible grass/legume mix* 1. Guinea/Stylo 2. Centro/Napier 3. Para/Stylo 4. Guinea/Centro The choice of each species and combination w ould depend on the geographic and agro­ climatic condition in the area. For further information please refer to the Philippines Re­ commends for Forage and Pastures. 27  Herd Management* A dairy herd or even a holding of one or two milk animals needs utmost care. They are quite sensitive to the routine activities such that change in schedule may lower milk yield. Where pastureland is limited, it is practical to follow zero-grazing. That is, forage crops are cut and carried to the animals. Zero grazing prevents parasites from infesting the animal and accelerates pasture regrowth to meet the daily forage requirements of the herd. Management of Calves Care and management of the calf starts even before the calf is dropped. The calving area is disinfected and provided with bedding material such as rice hulls. The udder of the cow due to calve must be cleaned. Avoid drafts in the maternity ward. The caretaker must watch for the approximate time of calving. However, assistance during calving should be rendered only when necessary. When there are difficulties, seek the assistance of the veterinarian. Some guidelines for the care of calves: 1. Allow the dam to cleanse the calf. Drain out the mucus from the nose and mouth of the calf. 2. When breathing is difficult, raise the calf by its hindlegs to drain out the mucus in the nose or throat. Or, lay the calf on its side and apply compression on the rib cage. 3. Tie the navel cord of the calf about 3 cm away from the body; cut off the navel 2 cm below the tied portion and soak the cut navel on tincture of iodine and/or the effective wound powder. 4. Assist the calf to suckle the first milk (colostrum) as early as possible. Be sure that the calf is sucking clean teats. The calves may be allowed with the dam for a maximum of 3 days or it may be sepa­ rated immediately at birth provided the calf has suckled the first milk. In the latter case, take colostrum from the dam and feed artificially to the calves. 5. Watch for the expulsion of the afterbirth (within 5 to 6 hours after birth). Dispose of properly the afterbirth and litter. Refer to Appendix 1 for specialized management practices for temperate breeds of dairy cattle. 28 Fig. 12. The calr allowed 10 slay wilh dam for 3 days, or separated immediately al birth provided the calf has suckled lhe r...i milk ,1 , ,., Fig. 13. A sample system or numbering · · calves by eamotching. ,.\....l,.J Fig. 14. A cal£ identified by eamolch 29  6. As soon as possible, weigh the calf and identify it by earnotch or by ear tag, neck chain, etc. 7. For those having difficulties raising calves artificially, the calves may be allowed with the dam during the day after milking and sepa­ rated from the dam at night. 8. In a commercial herd, group the calves into five categories until they are one year old. a. Group I - This is composed of calves from 4 to 14 days old. This group should be taught to feed from the bucket or pail. Dehorn the calves and remove the extra teats of all female calves. b. Group II - This is composed of 15 to 30 day old calves fed artificially. c. Group III - Separate the males from the females and mix the former to the veal calves group. Also, females with abnormalities like umbilical hernia, slow growth due to metabolic disorders should also be included in the veal calves. These veal calves should be ready for market when they weigh 90 to 100 kg. The veal calves group age ranges from one to four months old. d. Weaned female replacement - This consist of all female calves reared as herd replacements. They range from 4 to 1 2 months old. e. Male stockers - These are male calves and yearlings that had passed the veal stage which are reared for maxi­ mum growth at the lowest cost. The stocker period refers to the period from the time the vealers are wean­ ed from milk replacer until they are sold. 9. Groom the calves whenever possible. 10. Allow the calves to have daily exercise in the open diy lot. 1 1. Do not paint calf pens with lead based paints nor leave paint cans armmd. Use only lead-free paint. Dehorning Calves can be dehorned by use of chemical such as caustic potash or soda ; or by electric dehorners, and hot iron. 30  The latter method as indjcated in Fig. 15 is considered the most practical especially in the backyard. The cost is minimal and horn re· growth is not a problem. Dehom the calves only when the horn buttons can be felt. Use this procedure in dehoming with hoc iron: Fig. IS. Hot iron dehornlng I. Heat the soldering iron (a bout l.2 cm diameter) until re-d hot. 2. Restrain lhe calf properly. 3. When the soldering iron is thoroughly heated, 3pply it firmly on the horn buttons. Handle the dehorner firmly to avoid unneoessary injury. 4. Apply pine tar or fly repellant powder after dehoming. Removal of extra teats Some calves are born with more Utan four teats. The extra or supernumerary teats. which are not usually aligned with the udder may mark the appearance of the udder and at times interfere with the milking process. Cut these extra teats with a sharp scissor. Disinfect with tincture of iodine immedjately after cutting. 31 Management of Growing Herd Separate the heifer from bulls at 6 months of age to avoicl pre­ mature breeding among young animals, Grouping.of growers should be according to unifonnity in sizes and similarity in ages. If clean pastures are available grow them in the pasture. If on pasture, provide adequate shade and shelter to protect the animals from extreme weather conditions. Train each animal to lead by the halter If possible. fig. 16 Separate heifers from bulls before :sexual maturity Management of Breeding Heifers Once the heifers are 1 8 to 20 months with a mi nimum weight of 250 kg, they should be bred. Periodic pregnancy diagnosis is recom­ mended. Animals should be weighed every month ro check normal growth. Minimum housing is recommended for breeding heifers. Allow springing heifers lo run, with the milk cows for a month or so before calvi.ns so as to get them used to the routinary mil.king activity_ Management of Pregnant Herd During early pregnancy the animals can be. managed together with the heifer herd. In the last rwo months of pregnancy, U1e animals may be separated from the heifer herd and mixed with tl1e dry herd.. The animals should be given more c:are and attention and be.tier nutri­ tion. They should be allowed to graze in clean pastures, and f'ree from hazards. 32  Avoid stress factors, Do not make pregnant animals walk long distances, run fast, fight or bun with other animals. Don't frighten them. One week before calving, house pregnant animals separately. Prepare the calving area by providing clean and dry bedding mate­ rials, such as rice straw or rice hulls. Keep a round-the-clock obser­. vation for signs of calving. The usual signs of calving are: I. Reduced appetite 2. distended udder; 3. swelling and congestion of the vulva; 4. mucus discharge from the genitals; 5. frequent urination and 6. restlessness as a manifestation of labor. Management of Milking Herd Management of milking animals involves such factors as training, kindness and care, and regularity of feeding and milking activities. Tips for managing a milking herd: I. Proper feeding and nutrition is a must for maximum milk production. Good quality forages should be fed as much as possible. 2. Keep the cows clean. Brush off the adhering dirts and clip Fig,.17. A cow about lo calve Fi g. 18. Observe silence during milking 33  long hair from the udder, hindlegs and rear flanks. Hooves should be trimmed when too long or uneven. 3. For temperate breeds, cool the animals by sprinkling or splashing them with water during the hot hours of the day. 4. Provide a clean well bedded and cool resting shed. Use rice hulls or rice straw for bedding. 5. Provide a clean drinking water. 6. If the cow is pastured, the animal should not be allowed too far to avoid too much exercise. 7. Do not frighten the animals especially during the milking process. Observe silence during milking. 8. Milk the cows regularly once, twice or thrice daily depend­ ing on milk production and availability of market. It is desir­ able that milking intervals be equal. Management of Dry Cows Dry off the milking cow 60 days before the expected date of calving by milking once a day then once every other day until finally ceasing the collection (intermittent process). Another way to dry-off a cow is to stop milking abruptly by dras­ tically reducing or removing the amount of concentrates. If the animal is infected with mastitis, practice drying by the intermittent method. Apply broad spectrum antibiotic infusion in all teats. Management of Breeding Sire Since the sire contribute 50 percent of the genetic make-up of the offspring, it should be managed well. Use these guidelines: l. Teach the bull to lead when 6 to 8 months old. 2. The bull at 6 months should have a nose ring to make hand­ ling easier. The ring should be of lightweight non-rusting material about 4 cm diameter. When the bull is l O to 12 months old, replace the ring with a 7.5 cm brass or cannon metal ring. A trocar may be used to puncture the nasal septum before inserting the ring. Allow at least 2 weeks for the nostril to heal before leading with the ring. 3. After the ring has been affixed in the nasal septum attach the staff to it when handling the bull. Several makes of staff are on the market, some of which are fitted with special device designed parti­ cularly to handle vicious bulls. 4. House the bull in separate shed but allow daily exercise in an open yard. 34  In large commercial dairy operation bulls are grouped into three categories: breeding bulls mainly for semen collection, breeding bulls for servicing the breeding heifers, and yearling bulls ( 12 to 20 months· old) as replacement stock for the farm. Management of Replacement Stock A replacement stock must be available to cover up losses due to culling or death. Maintain a 20 percent replacement for an average herd loss of 20 percent of the stock each year or a replacement of one of five each year. Select replacement stock from top producing cows. Use of Herd Records A good record should include only the important aspe ts of production. It may carry the individual production performance of the animal, its potentials and possibly its ancestry. Records help one make daily decisions on the amount of feed to give ; breeding schedule; time to dry the animal, culling or treatment for diseases and abnor­ malities, and pinpointing inefficiency in aspects of production for remedial measures. An efficient and functional record must be simple so that it can be easily understood. Entries should always be factual and updated. The following herd records should be kept in the farms : milk produc­ tion record, breeding record, general performance and herd health record, cattle inventory record, feed records and cost of production records. Refer to forms 1-5 for sample records. Waste Management Man}.ITe disposal should be designed to minimize odor, prevent proliferation of flies and pests, and prevent seepage especially in water sources. It should also conform with existing laws and ordinances gov­ erning pollution. The manure is a good source of organic fertilizer and possibly energy. Methods of manure handling: I. The shed or barn should have a good drainage canal. The floor­ ing should be inclined to facilitate flushing during cleaning. 2. If the bedding material is filled with manure and urine, haul and spread it in the field ( I ton of dairy manure is equal to 45 kg of I 0-2-1 0 fertilizer). 35  3. Where the pasture is near, drainage canal should go to the pasture. If not, manure may be periodicaUy spread in the pasture. 4. If manure must be stored, storage area should be far from the water sources to avoid contamination through seepage. In highly sophis ticated dairy operation, manure is converted into bio gas. 5. Locate milking parlors or milk house away from cattle shed to avoid fly problem and absorption of undesirable odor by the milk. Fig. 19. Inclined Door to fadlilllte Hushing or manuff' and urine 36  Form 1. Daily Production Record Month ________ Name of owner _____ Animal No. ______ Name of Milker _____ Utilization (kg) Production (kg) Date Mille fed Remark PM Total to calves Sold Others I 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 l 'I 20 21 22 23 24 2S 26 27 18 29 30 31 Total 37  Form 2. Daily Report Month'-_____ 1 9__ DATE HERD INVENTORY MILKING DRY HEIFERS CALVES EXPT I i TOTAL DAILY MILK PRODUCTION (kg.) I I I 1 1 I I I I I A. M. P. M. BAD MILK TOTAL CONCENTRATE FED MILKING DRY '-- HEIFERS CALVES PASTURE MILKING DRY HEIFERS OLD YOUNG HEIFERS CALVES REMARKS: 38  Fonn 3. Monthly Production and Breeding Record MONTHS Cow No. Jan. Feb. Mar. May J une J uly Note Observed heat cycle every 1 7-2 3 days Determine pregnancy by rectal palpation 60-90 days after breeding. Use positive (+) or negative (-) signs on the date when palpation was done. Gestation period is 2 8 3 days. 39  Form 4 - Concentrate and Roughage Consumption Record I Herd __________ Month ________ Year ________ No. of Concentrate Silage Soilage Grazing Pasture Others Remarks Date Animals ,.__ , (kg) (ka) lk I lka\ annrnx, I 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Total Ave. milk, vitamins & minerals, etc. Prepared by ________ Noted by _________ 40  Form 5. Increases and Decreases of Dairy Animals Mont,.______ 19.__ ASSIGNED I N C R EA S E ASSIGNED D E C R E A S E BLOOD HERD HERD REMARKS DATE DAM SIRE SEX COMPOSITION Jl,IORTA- OTHER NUMBER BIRTH PURCHASE NUMBER SOLD lJTCHER l'n I JTV C' A I ISl'S  Housing and E quipment Dairy housing should be condusive to their health, production, comfort and make management convenient. Housing should be simple and inexpensive although this depends on the resources of the individual and scale of operation. However, it should afford the greatest return per capital invested. There are at least 2 types of housing : loose housing and stanchion barn. In loose housing, animals are free to move between resting, feed­ ing and watering areas. Cows rest in free stalls or loafing shed. Cows are usually milked in a milking room. In a stanchion barn each cow is tied in a stanchion, tie stall or comfort stall most of the time, except when grazing or at exercise. Cows may be milked in the stanchion or in a milking room. A simple and inexpensive housing for dairy cattle is shown in Fig. 20 Dairy Calves Quarters for dairy calves must be designed for easy cleaning and disinfecting to minimize calf mortality. Preferably during the milk­ feeding period the calves should be housed and fed individually. If it is necessary to pen in groups, tie calves particularly during milk feeding and for thirty minutes thereafter, to reduce sucking of navels, ears, etc. Keep dairy calves in individual pens or tie in stalls until at least one week after milk or milk replacer is discontinued. Calves may be raised in groups when animals are too big for the stalls or beginning one week after milk or milk replacer is discon­ tinued. Ten calves is the maximum for one group. Allow only age difference of 2 months. Minimum tie stall for a calf is.61 m. wide x 1.3 m long and mini­ mum pen size for individual calf is 2.2 sq. m. Both types of cages, if these are constructed in series should have solid partitions between sections. Preferably both should have slatted flooring elevated at least.30 m from ground floor. Pen for older calves in group with no outside run should be 3 sq m/calf. Feed box for individual pens or tie stalls should be 20 x 2 5 x 15 cm deep. Make boxes removable for easy cleaning. Metal pails of suitable size can be substituted for these feed boxes. 42  -------. ---- , -1 1 = r , T ----11 ' j,1-- I m 1........----. 3 I t - ------ ---o LoafiRJ lfta : E a Fttdina. I nor cemented) 1 I I k A It I mlki stall 1 I ct menled t ,4---i ,,, j ===o I in - - 4H m Temporary fb:tuft' to bt placed -- - - only durina milkin1 or when SCHEMATIC PLAN handJiq lht> animal 91 cm 46 cm 61 cm Door PERSPECTIVE VIEW..... clnalrd \'I I r 4- -- - ;- ; ' i s:tJJ·;,\ ;);.-{ !-::- / : :VJf t. "-.,;'!,"'-· 1, !- ,::,t 't. , ":::..:.-l:rri ·'!. 'J -...,,..ir....··· 'l"" 1 1 "''' '",& ·· ;ot" b ,!;;_- _· - , ,. ,4 ": -·.....,,...., '-"._,.. t ,....... ":'I". LEFT SI DE VIEW FRON T VIEW "'" i :,. : +'" w Fig. 20. Simple and inexpensive housing for dairy cattle t 1.2 m 2 pa 6cm x 8 cm x I.S m Stopper boanl ;,., 2 pcs S cm x IO cm x 1.2 cm 2 pa 10 cm x IO cm +------I Pall for fongo 1.2 m 2 pea S cm x 10 cm x 1.2 m , Pail for concentntes 6.3 X 3.8 cm 9.6 x 4.S cm Bamboo Fig. 2 0 8-Details o f stanchion Fig. 20 A-Details of elevated calf stall Fig. 21. Backyard dairy housing Fig. 22. Semi-commercial dairy housing Fig. 23. Loose-type housing !Fig. 24. Calf barn for day-old calves Fig. 2S. Elevated iodividual confinement ofcalves 45  When calves are raised in groups, feed boxes should be 25 cm wide x 15 cm deep, allowing up to 61 linear cm per calf. Provide two troughs in a pen. Top of feed boxes should be 51 cm from the floor. Locate feed boxes away [rom waterers. For individually penned calves, use pails or automatic drinking cups as waterers. Older calves confined in group may avail on halved drum or concrete water tanks as water source. Or provide one auto­ matic drinking cup for each 5 to 8 calves pen. Water sources should not be more than 5 1 cm from the floor or ground. Fig. 26. Calves con fined in groups of uniform site orag Growing Dairy Cattle Depending upon climate and type of soil, provide the following lot space: Paved lot - 4.0 to 6.5 sq m/head Paved and dirt lots - 7.0 to 9.0 sq m/head Dirt lots - 9 to 14 sq m/head Provide a compacted surface to which stones or gravel had been added at least 4 m wide around w.aterers, feed bunks,. roughage racks and entrances to shades if the surface can not be cemented. Allow 2 to 5 percent slope in paved lots and 5 percent or more in dirt lots, depending on soil and weather conditions. Except in mild climates, provide open sheds for shelter. Allow 2 to 3 sq m/head for small cattle; 3 to 4 sq m/head for large cattle. In hot weather provide artificial shade, if necessary. Build shade 2 to 3 m high. Allow 2 sq m/head for small cattle; 3 sq m for large cattle. Top of feed bunks should be 46 cm above ground for small cattle (up to 273 kg) and 61 cm above ground for large cattle. 46  Fig. 27. A clean, well bedded and well ventibted resting shed Depth of feed bunks should be 20 cm for grains and other con centrate s and 20 to 30 cm for s ilage or cut green forage. Bunks pem,ilting feeding from one side only should be 46 cm w ide for small cattle und 61 cm for large cattle. If feeding is pem1itted from both sides, bunks should be 91 to 122 cm wide. Allow the fol­ lowing amount of feeder space {linear centimeter). Grain Roughage Small cattle 30 46 Large catlle 46 6] Cattle con sume JO to J 5 gallons of water per day depending on size. foed and climate. Allow 30 linear centimeter of open water tank for each IO animals; or one automatic watering bowl for each 25 ani mals. Milking Herd Build hard-surface lots w.ith 2 to 5 percent slope. In dirt lots provide 5 percent slope or more depending upon soil and weather conditions. Provide a compacted surface to which stone or gravel had been placed on at le_ast around waterers, feed bunks, roughage racks and shed entrances, if cementing the su:rface can not be done immediately. If loose housing system is adap-ted use open sheds. While with f ree­ stall housing the size of stall would depend on the breed: 2 x I m for small breeds and 2.2 x I m for large breeds. 47  Provide bedding materials to keep eows/heifers dry and com­ fortable. Depending o n climate and soil, provide the following lot space as follows: Paved lots - 9 sq m/head Paved and dirt lots - 1 4 sq m/head Dirt lots - 19 sq m/head Provide 61 to 76 linear cm/head of manger space 'for roughage feeding. Make feed bunks and roughage racks 6I to 76 cm wide· when cattle feed from one side and 91 t o I 2l cm when feeding from both sides. Provide, plenty of clean, fresh water a t all times. Allow 25 linear cm o f open tank per 8 to 10 head; or one automatic bowl per 15 head. Halve barrel may also be used. Fig. 28.Clean wateravailable all the time Dairy Bull House the bulls in separate enclosures or sheds. Provide also the necessary space allowances and equipment as in growing or mature bulls. Where several bulls are maintained for commercial opera· tion, provide each a separate stall. Milking Parlor Backyard dairy operation doe:s not need a sophisticated milking parlor. A stall and clean working surroundings are sufficient. In commercial dairy where several cows are o n the milking line, milking parlor is essential. A milking parlor have these· advantages: I) It requires less effort to milk cow. 2) More cows are milked at one time. 3) ft facilitates production of clean milk. 48  Fig. 29. Commercial type of milking parlor at th Magnolia Daily Farm Fig. 30. Tandem type of milking parlor at the Magnolia Dairy Farm There are at least four types of milking parlors: Abreast parlor. chute type parlor (walk through parlor), side opening or gate-type stalls, and herringbone parlor. Derails in design of these milking parlors are usually provided by suppliers. H is recommended that the parlor. noor should be 6 1 to 76 c above the floor of th milker to minimi1.e efforts in milking. Other production facilities Foot bath - This is necessary for visitors. The bath usually con­ tains disinfectant such as creoline or. iodine-base chemical. Holding chute - This is helpful in restraining animals while being treated, immu·nized or groomed. Fencing - Fences are necess.ary for stock control and for proper pasture grazing rotation. A 3-4 strand fence with plain and barbed wire combination is best. Gauge 8 wire is. sufficient. The plain wire should be the top wire. Post material may be lauan, guij o, yakal, mollave or other hard­ wood. Post interval should be 1.8-2.4 m apart. Bury the post 76 to 9 1 c m below leaving 1.2 m above ground. 49  Dairy Herd Health Program The success of a herd health program depends upon the efficient cooperation of the veterinarian, herdsman and owner. General considerations for herd health program : 1. Cleanliness and sanitation are necessary in all phases of the dairy operation. Without sanitation it is impossible to con­ trol diseases of dairy cattle. 2. Eliminate all wet and marshy areas as well as any stagnant pools of water. Farm ponds should be fenced and water piped from them to a drinking trough. 3. Remove rocks, wire, boards and any extraneous materials from buildings and pastures to minimize injury. 4. Keep strangers from the mangers, to minimize intro­ duction of disease. Keep mangers clean at all times. 5. Do not allow neighbors' animals on the place under any con­ dition. 6. All buildings should be so constructed for easy cleaning and disinfecting. 7. All persons who travel from farm to farm should disinfect footwear upon entering and leaving the premises. Any litter or other materials from cattle trucks that may go from farm to farm can be a means of spreading diseases. Sales barns and stock yards should have truck washing and disinfecting equip­ ment. 8. Control rodents, flies and insects. 9. Keep animals segregated according to age groups. I 0. Isolate immediately any animal that appears sick and call the veterinarian early. 11. Utilize the services of a veterinarian to treat sick animals. 50 1 2. Brucellosis and T.B. control programs should be a routine management practice. 13. Utilize available measures to keep external parasites to a minimum. 1 4. The veterinarian and herdsman should maintain a health and breeding record for each animal. A more complete record is more useful for future reference. 1 5. Vaccination program should be instituted whenever indica­ ted. Disease preventive measures when purchasing animals: 1. Maintain a closed herd by raising all replacements if possible. 2. Purchase animals from herd free from communicable diseases. 3. Transport animals only in thoroughly cleaned and disin­ fected trucks. 4. Quarantine all purchased animals for at least 30 and prefer­ ably 60 days. Add them to the herd only when they are released from isolation by the veterinarian after he has de­ termined that they are apparently free from communicable diseases, internal and external parasites. If isolation is not possible make sure purchased animals are from disease-free source. Internal and External Parasite Control 1. Segregate according to age groups. Never graze calves and adult animals in same pasture. 2. Do not overstock pastures. 3. Pasture rotation is essential in a parasite control program. 4. Periodic examination for parasites at intervals as suggested by the veterinarian is desirable. 5. Administer treatments under the direction of a veterinarian. 51 Control of Genital Diseases 1. Use of artificial insemination as a means of controlling reproductive diseases. Only semen from bulls free of diseases should be used. 2. I f bull is used : (a) It is desirable to breed virgin heifers to clean young bulls only. (b ) Check carefully the breeding records of the h erd of origin. (c) Bulls released from isolation may be u sed as recom- mended by the veterinarian. 3. Cows that abort should be rebred only artificially. 4. Do not use 2 or 3 bulls on hard breeding cows. This will facilitate spread of disease. 5. I f a herd problem develops and several cows abort or fail to settle call the veterinarian immediately. A diagnosis is neces­ sary before effective treatment or control measures can be applie d. Control of Mastitis The control of mastitis depends upon applying the following in detail to the entire herd. 1. Follow-recommended management procedures. 2. Follow-recommended milking practices. 3. Use proper diagnosis including physical examination, bacte­ riological examination and such other tests as the veterinarian may wish to use. 4. Treatment should be selected on the basis of the veteri­ narian's diagnosis and applied as directed by him. 5. Withhold milk from treated quarters and d o not ship for at least 7 2 hours after the last treatment. 6. Do not u se any abnormal milk for human consumption. 52  Table 3. Common Diseases of Dairy Cattle Disease/Causes Signs Prevention Treatment Withholding Mastitis: Abnormal Use bacterin for Depends on type Withhold milk 96 Streptococcus sp. Swelling of the precaution of organism in­ hours after treat­ Staphylococcus sp. udder and teats volved and sensi­ ment Escherichia coli Fever and off feed. Use teat dipping tivity testing. Withhold treated cow Others after milking and Intramammary in­ from slaughter for dry cow treatment fusion or intra­ 30 days for all infected venous routes to quarters give antibiotic Routine machine milking maintenance Cowpox: Sensitive teats Avoid bringing the Antibiotic oint­ None Virus and udder virus in with the ment after milk- Presence of les­ herd replacements ing to keep down ions or papules Do not use sponge secondary infection to wash udder; use recommended teat dip after milking Johne's disease Chronic diarrhea No vaccine avail­ Symptomatic, no None Paratuberculosis able complete cure Mycobacterium Remove reactor para tuberculosis Hygienic program (need laboratory for calf raising confumation) Separate calf from adult herd Vt w V,.i:,. Table 3. Continued Disease/Causes Signs Prevention Treatment Withholding Vibriosis Repeat services Vaccination o f None None Vibrio fetus breeding animal prior to breeding Use A.I. Brucellosis Abortions Calfbood vaccinations None None Bruce/la abortus ( 3-4 months old) Test and slaughter reactors Tuberculosis Usually none Periodic testing None None Mycobacterium Slaughter reactors bovis IBR (Infectious Respiratory involve­ Vaccination prior Chlortetracycline 48 hours of antibiotic Bovine Rhinotrac­ menf to exposure Sulfamethazine, therapy, over 350 mg/ heitis) : Fever , vaginitis, "Hyper serum" day Virus, laboratory abortion, eye diagnosis for discharge accuracy Bovine viral diarrhea Ulcers evident Vaccinations prior Symptomatic treat­ None Virus, laboratory throughout the digest­ to exposure ment, antibiotics, diagnosis for ive tract sulfonamides, accuracy "Hyper serum" Force feed  Shipping fever , Respiratory involve­ Vaccination, chlor­ Sulfonamides, anti­ 48 hours for anti­ Parainfluenza : ment tetracycline, 350 mg/ biotics, antisera, biotics in feed over Bacteria, virus day ; sulfamethazine, hypersera, Tylan 350 mg/day for 8 days plus st ress 350 mg/day; oxytetra­ 200 cycline 0.5-2 mg/.5 kg per day for 3 days ------------- -------- ---------- ------- Rabies Furious or hyper­ Vaccination o f Human health Reportable disease Virus, usually sensitive animals, dogs and hazard bites from Zoonotic disease cats infected animals Sporadic bovine Fever , weakness, Not known Chlortetracycline Depends on drug encephalomyelitis : incoordination, Remove infected Oxytetracycline and dosage Virus, (Psittacosis depression animals lymphogranuloma group) Viral Pappillomato­ Warts on all parts Observe sanitation Use autogenous None