Exam Review Critical Issues In Politics I PDF

Exam Review Lecture 1 - 2 Intro State The central apparatus of political power in a particular national territory, Ex. The police Regime The set of rules by which political power is gained and maintained, Ex. Regimes are rules Government Group of people who are in...

Exam Review Lecture 1 - 2 Intro State The central apparatus of political power in a particular national territory, Ex. The police Regime The set of rules by which political power is gained and maintained, Ex. Regimes are rules Government Group of people who are in power at a given time, these are the people/parties, Ex. Trump Political Revolution A fundamental change in government or political system, often involving the overthrow of rulers. Social Revolution A radical transformation in society's structure, culture, and norms, often addressing issues like class or inequality. Causes of Revolution: 1. Structural approaches to revolution a) Misery/grievance Feeling upset or suffering because of unfair treatment or hardship. b) Relative deprivation Feeling unhappy because others seem to have more or better things. c) Marxist approaches Ideas that focus on class struggles and changing society to reduce inequality. 2. Collective action problem a) Mancur Olson  Explored why individuals often fail to cooperate in groups, even when cooperation benefits everyone. Ex. people will do it for them, perks or penalties need to be given b) Free rider problem When people benefit from something without contributing to it. c) Sucker’s payoff When someone contributes but others don’t, leaving them worse off. Skocpol’s structural theory of revolution Revolutions happen due to a weak state, cohesive peasantry and international pressures Lecture 3 Volanterist Voluntarist theories of revolution a) Pure contingency/anti explanation (Kurzman) The idea that revolutions happen due to unpredictable, random events, rather than clear causes or structures. b) Leadership The role of individuals or groups who guide and inspire revolutionary movements, organizing efforts and shaping goals. c) Diffusion The spread of revolutionary ideas, tactics, or movements from one region or group to others, often inspiring similar uprisings elsewhere. Independent and Dependent variable IV: The factor you change or control to see its effect (cause). DV: The factor you measure to see how it’s affected (effect) Experimental approaches Experimental approach helps avoid causal problems by ensuring that the only difference between the two groups is the independent variable (IV) observational approaches researchers look at how the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV) are related  Quantitative Research that deals with numbers and measurements, like surveys or experiments, to find patterns or test ideas. Qualitative Research that looks at words, experiences, or stories to understand how people think or feel. Problems with observational approaches: Fundamental Problem of Causal Inference It’s hard to prove that one thing causes another because we can't observe both what happens when the cause is present and when it's absent at the same time Missing variable bias This happens when an important factor (variable) is left out of the analysis, making it seem like one thing causes another when it might not. Endogeneity This occurs when the cause and effect are linked in a way that makes it hard to tell which one is influencing the other, often due to a third hidden factor. Lecture 4 Impact Democracy and authoritarian regime Democracy is when the people have the power. They can vote for leaders, have a say in decisions, and enjoy freedoms like speech and assembly. Authoritarian regimes are when one person or a small group has all the power. People have little or no say in decisions, and their freedoms are controlled or taken away. The connection is that sometimes an authoritarian government can become a democracy if the people push for change, or a democracy can turn into an authoritarian regime if leaders take away people's rights and control everything. Social revolutions and democracy A social revolution happens when a large group of people rises up to change the way society is organized, often because of inequality, unfair government, or lack of rights.  One of the key goals of many social revolutions is to create a democratic system where the people have a say in their government, through elections, freedom of speech, and equality. So, in many cases, a social revolution can lead to democracy by overthrowing an authoritarian or oppressive government and replacing it with a system where citizens have more control and rights. However, not all revolutions lead to democracy—some can result in new forms of authoritarian rule. Regime outcome/democratization vs. Authoritarian Durability/breakdown Democratization is connected to both authoritarian durability and breakdown because it often happens after authoritarian regimes either hold on to power or fall apart: If an authoritarian regime breaks down, it can open the door for democratization, where a democratic system replaces the old one. If an authoritarian regime shows durability, it blocks democratization by holding on to power and preventing democratic changes. Types of Authoritarian breakdown (the ways an authoritarian government can collapse) From without – protests/rebellion From within – elite defection/military coup "From without": The people protest or rebel. "From within": Key leaders or the military turn against the government. Dilemmas of state violence (Lichbach reading) State violence is when a government uses force, like the military or police, to control its people. The problem is that while it might stop protests or rebellions for a short time, it can make people even more angry and likely to resist in the future. Using too much violence can also cause the government to lose control if the soldiers or police don't obey or switch sides. Finally, if the government relies too much on violence, people may see it as unfair, making it harder for the government to stay in power. Consistency/inconsistency of repression and protest (Lichbach reading) Consistent repression might stop protests because people are scared of the same punishment each time. Inconsistent repression can lead to more protests because people aren’t sure how the government will react. Elite defection (when members of ruling party go into opposition) – example of Zambia **Elite defection** happens when important people in the government leave their position and join the opposition. In Zambia, this happened in the 1990s. Some high-ranking officials who had worked with President **Kenneth Kaunda** turned against him because people were unhappy with his rule. These officials joined the opposition, which weakened Kaunda’s power. This helped bring about Zambia’s first multi-party elections in 1991 and ended Kaunda's long rule, allowing for a more democratic system. In simple terms, when powerful leaders left Kaunda's side, it helped change the government. Military coup (when military leaders take power) A military coup happens when military leaders overthrow the government and take control of the country. This usually happens suddenly and without warning. The military may seize power because they believe the current government is weak, corrupt, or not doing a good job. Once in charge, military leaders often control the country through force, and the normal government is no longer in control. Causes of coup When autocrat attacks interests/autonomy of military, military often responds with coup – example of Ghana The leader, Kwame Nkrumah, was seen as attacking the military’s autonomy by reducing its power and independence. Nkrumah's government was also seen as weak and ineffective, which made the military leaders unhappy. As a result, the military staged a coup and removed Nkrumah from power, taking control of the government. Social revolutions and durable authoritarian regimes Social revolutions can lead to the rise of durable authoritarian regimes by creating a system that keeps power in the hands of a few. ▪ Revolutionary Reactive Sequence After a revolution, the new regime uses the momentum of change to build strong control. It reacts to threats quickly and aggressively to maintain power. ▪ United ruling party/Elite cohesion The leaders of the regime stay united, avoiding splits or internal fights. This unity makes it harder for opponents to challenge the regime. ▪ Loyal military capable of consistent repression The military remains loyal to the regime and consistently suppresses opposition. This prevents protests or uprisings from gaining strength.  ▪ Destroys alternative centers of power The regime eliminates other sources of influence, like independent organizations or rival political groups. This ensures no one else can challenge their authority. Qualitative methods focus on understanding events or actions by looking at details and context rather than using numbers or large datasets. Dataset observation – data for large-n correlational/quantitative analysis This is when researchers study big sets of data to find patterns or relationships between variables. For example, looking at statistics from many countries to see what causes revolutions. Causal process observation: facts that support a particular causal story (used in criminal investigation, medical diagnosis) This is when researchers look at specific facts or evidence to understand why something happened. It’s like solving a mystery by gathering clues, like in criminal investigations or diagnosing a patient. dataset observation uses numbers from many cases to find patterns, while causal process observation looks closely at one case to understand the cause. Lecture 5 Russia Narodniki They were Russian activists in the 1800s who believed that peasants, not the rich or rulers, should lead the country to change. Thye encouraged the peasants to fight for change Mir - commune a traditional rural community in Russia, where peasants shared land and resources. 1905 revolution The 1905 Revolution in Russia was a wave of protests, strikes, and uprisings against the government of Tsar Nicholas II. It was sparked by dissatisfaction with harsh working conditions, political repression, and Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War. February revolution The February Revolution of 1917 was a key event in the Russian Revolution, leading to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the end of the Romanov dynasty. It was triggered by widespread dissatisfaction with the Tsarist regime, worsened by World War I, food shortages, and economic hardships. This led to the creation of a Provisional Government, though power was also shared with Soviets Provisional government Led by liberal and moderate leaders, such as Alexander Kerensky Soviets. The Provisional Government was a temporary government in Russia, formed in March 1917 after the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II during the February Revolution. Its main goal was to lead Russia through a transition to a more stable, democratic system. Alexander Kerensky A leader of the Provisional Government in 1917. He was a moderate socialist who tried to balance workers' demands but continued the war, which made him unpopular. July days In July 1917, workers and soldiers protested in Petrograd against the government. The Bolsheviks were involved but blamed for the chaos, which hurt their support. The Bolshevik party Led by Vladimir Lenin, they wanted a quick revolution and believed the working class should take control. They took power in the October Revolution of 1917. The Mensheviks A more moderate group of socialists who wanted a slower, democratic path to socialism. They were in the Provisional Government but lost power to the Bolsheviks. April Theses A set of political statements made by Vladimir Lenin in April 1917, after returning to Russia. They called for an immediate end to the war, land redistribution to peasants, and the transfer of power to the Soviets (workers' councils). Lenin’s ideas were radical and aimed at overthrowing the Provisional Government. Kornilov General Lavr Kornilov was a Russian military leader who attempted a coup in August 1917. He tried to overthrow the Provisional Government and establish a military dictatorship. His failure weakened the Provisional Government and helped the Bolsheviks gain more support. What evidence exists that without Lenin there would have been no Bolshevik revolution? Lenin was crucial to the success of the Bolshevik Revolution. His clear leadership, vision, and ideas, like the April Theses, gave the Bolshevik Party direction and purpose. He knew when to act and pushed for decisive action, especially during the October Revolution. Lenin’s ability to unite the party and provide strong leadership helped the Bolsheviks seize power. Without him, the party might have lacked focus and unity, and the revolution might not have happened. His radical approach to Marxism and leadership was key to the success of the Bolsheviks. Role of peasants in the Russian revolution The peasants played a major role in the Russian Revolution by supporting the Bolsheviks because of their promise to give land to the people. After the revolution, many peasants seized land from the nobles. However, not all peasants were happy with the Bolsheviks. Some uprisings occurred when they felt the Bolsheviks weren’t keeping their promises or were being too controlling. Overall, peasants helped the Bolsheviks come to power but also showed some resistance later on. World War I and the Russian revolution World War I contributed to the collapse of the Tsarist government by worsening Russia’s economic and social problems, which helped fuel the February Revolution and paved the way for the Bolshevik Revolution later that year. Falsifiability Falsifiability is the idea that for a theory or hypothesis to be scientific, it must be able to be proven false through experimentation or observation. Dataset observation – data for large-n correlational/quantitative analysis A dataset observation in a large-n correlational/quantitative analysis means collecting a lot of data points from many cases (like people, countries, or events). Researchers look for patterns or relationships between different factors (like age, income, and voting behavior) across many observations to understand trends. Causal process observation: facts that support a particular causal story (used in criminal investigation, medical diagnosis) Causal process observation is about finding evidence that helps explain why something happened. For example, in a crime investigation, detectives look for clues like fingerprints or witness accounts to understand how a crime occurred. In medicine, doctors examine symptoms and test results to figure out what caused an illness. This evidence helps support a story or explanation of the event. Lecture 6 Stalinsm Reactive sequence and Soviet durability The connection between reactive sequence and Soviet durability lies in how the Soviet regime responded to challenges or crises in ways that helped it maintain power over time. A reactive sequence refers to a series of actions taken by the Soviet leadership in response to specific threats, whether internal (like political opposition or unrest) or external (like foreign wars or economic crises). These responses often involved harsh measures, such as purges, repression, or military action. Soviet durability refers to the Soviet Union's ability to stay in power for nearly 70 years despite these challenges. The regime's survival was partly due to how effectively it used reactive sequences to address immediate problems and maintain control Stalin’s purges were a reactive response to perceived threats within the party, and they helped eliminate opposition and strengthen his power, contributing to the durability of the regime. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union's reactions to Western pressure (like building up the military or using propaganda) helped the regime maintain its authority. Death of Lenin and Battle to Succeed him After Lenin's death in 1924, there was a struggle for power in the Soviet Union. Joseph Stalin, who was the General Secretary of the Communist Party, used his position to gain supporters and worked to become the next leader. Leon Trotsky, a close ally of Lenin and a strong military leader, was seen by many as the best choice to lead, but he was less skilled in party politics. Stalin eventually outsmarted Trotsky and his other rivals by building strong alliances and controlling key positions in the party. By the late 1920s, Stalin had removed Trotsky from the party and sent him into exile. Stalin became the undisputed leader and established a totalitarian rule that lasted until his death in 1953. Lenin’s Last Testament a document written by Vladimir Lenin in late 1922 and early 1923, during the final years of his life. It was a series of letters and notes in which Lenin expressed concerns about the future leadership of the Soviet Union and the direction of the Bolshevik Party after his death. Terror vs. “normal” repression Terror involves extreme, widespread, and often violent actions to instill fear in the population. It includes mass arrests, executions, torture, and the elimination of perceived enemies. The goal is to create a sense of fear and intimidation that prevents opposition. An example would be the Red Terror or the Great Terror under Stalin. "Normal" repression, on the other hand, refers to more routine and less extreme methods of control, such as surveillance, censorship, limited arrests, or legal actions against opponents. It doesn’t aim to create mass fear but rather to suppress specific groups or individuals without widespread violence. Terror is a more extreme, fear-driven approach, while "normal" repression involves ongoing control through less violent means. Rational vs. non-rational behavior Rational behavior is when people act based on logical decisions, weighing costs and benefits to achieve a goal. Non-rational behavior is when actions are taken without careful reasoning, often driven by emotions, impulses, or external pressures. Red Terror A period during the Russian Civil War (1918-1922) when the Bolshevik government used violence, mass arrests, and executions to suppress opposition, particularly after the Russian Revolution. It was aimed at enemies of the revolution, like counter-revolutionaries and suspected traitors. Great Terror Also known as the Great Purge, this was a campaign of political repression in the Soviet Union during the late 1930s under Stalin. It involved widespread arrests, forced confessions, executions, and imprisonment of millions, including party members, military leaders, and ordinary citizens, often based on false accusations. Mass Operations A term used in the Soviet Union during Stalin's rule to refer to large-scale purges where certain groups of people, often based on ethnicity or political affiliation, were targeted for arrest, deportation, or execution. These operations were part of the broader campaign of political repression and control. Lecture 7 China Qing dynasty The Qing Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912. It was established by the Manchu people, who were from the northeast region (today's Manchuria) and overthrew the Ming Dynasty to take control of China. 1911 revolution The 1911 Revolution, also known as the Xinhai Revolution, ended the Qing Dynasty and led to the creation of the Republic of China. The Qing Dynasty was weakening due to problems like corruption, economic struggles, and foreign influence, which caused many people to demand change. On October 10, 1911, a military uprising in Wuchang sparked a larger movement across the country. The revolution forced the last emperor, Puyi, to abdicate in 1912, and Sun Yat-sen became the first president of the new republic. While the Qing Dynasty was over, China faced political instability and division, with warlords and rival groups fighting for control. The revolution marked the end of imperial rule and the beginning of China's transition to a republic. Kuomintang (KMT or GMT) A political party founded in 1912 by Sun Yat-sen that helped end imperial rule in China. It later fought the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), lost the civil war in 1949, and moved to Taiwan, where it remains a major party. Chinese Communist Party (CCP) A communist party founded in 1921. Led by Mao Zedong, it won the civil war in 1949 and established the People’s Republic of China, ruling mainland China since then. KMT wanted a nationalist republic, while CCP aimed for a communist state. Sun Yat Sen Known as the "Father of Modern China," he founded the Kuomintang (KMT) and led the movement to overthrow the Qing Dynasty. He promoted nationalism, democracy, and economic reform but died in 1925 before seeing his vision fully realized. Chiang Kai-shek A military leader who succeeded Sun Yat-sen as the head of the KMT. He unified China through the Northern Expedition but later lost the civil war to the Chinese Communist Party in 1949 and fled to Taiwan, where he ruled as the leader of the Republic of China. Northern Expedition The Northern Expedition (1926–1928) was a military campaign led by Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang (KMT) to bring China under one government. At the time, warlords controlled different parts of the country, causing chaos. The KMT, with help from the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), fought and defeated many warlords. By 1928, the KMT had set up a central government in Nanjing. However, after the campaign, the KMT and CCP became enemies, leading to a civil war. The Northern Expedition helped unify China for a time. Mao Zedong **Mao Zedong** was the leader of the **Chinese Communist Party (CCP)** and the first leader of **Communist China**. He helped the communists win the **Chinese Civil War** in 1949 and founded the **People’s Republic of China**. Mao ruled China for many years and introduced big changes, like the **Great Leap Forward** and the **Cultural Revolution**, to make China a communist country. Some of his ideas caused problems, but he is still seen as a very important figure in China’s history. The Long March The Long March (1934–1935) was a huge journey made by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to escape from the Kuomintang (KMT) army. The communists were surrounded, so they left their base and marched over 9,000 kilometers through mountains, rivers, and deserts. It was very hard, and many died along the way. The march helped the CCP survive and made Mao Zedong the main leader of the party. It also became a symbol of bravery and determination for the communists. Causes of the 1949 Chinese Revolution Structural: ▪ Misery of peasants Poor farmers faced poverty, high taxes, and land exploitation. ▪ Skocpol: ▪ State weakness The Kuomintang (KMT) government was corrupt and couldn’t solve problems.  ▪ International challenge ▪ Japanese invasion China faced foreign pressures, especially from the Japanese invasion during World War II, which weakened the KMT. ▪ Peasant Organization The CCP gained support by helping peasants, organizing them, and promising land reform. Voluntarist ▪ Mao’s leadership Mao Zedong’s strategies, vision, and ability to inspire the masses were key to the CCP’s success. Lecture 8 Mao Chinese Communist Party weakness in 1920s/1930s In the 1920s and 1930s, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was weak because they didn’t have much support, especially in the cities, and had trouble connecting with the rural population. The party also faced disagreements within, leading to confusion. The Kuomintang (KMT) turned against them, attacking and forcing them to retreat. The CCP had very few resources, like money, weapons, or training, making it difficult to fight. Despite these challenges, the CCP grew stronger over time and eventually took control of China. Revolutionary Reactive Sequence Hunan Report Mao wrote this report to show how peasants were struggling and needed land. This made the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) realize that helping peasants would get them support. Impact of land reform After the Hunan Report, the CCP took land from rich landowners and gave it to poor peasants. This made a lot of peasants support the CCP, which helped them grow stronger. Fusion of Chinese military and Party The CCP made sure the army and the party worked closely together. This helped them stay strong and organize better, which was important for winning against their enemies. These events were all steps in a chain reaction, where each part contributed to the next, helping the CCP grow in power and influence until they were able to achieve a successful revolution in 1949. Struggle Sessions These were events where people who were seen as enemies of the government were publicly embarrassed, yelled at, and forced to confess their "mistakes." It was meant to make them show loyalty to Mao and the Communist Party. Great Leap Forward The Great Leap Forward was a big plan by Mao Zedong in the late 1950s to quickly turn China into a modern, industrial country. - Peng Dehuai - Peng Dehuai was a military leader and a key figure in the Communist Party. He initially supported Mao's plan, but when the Great Leap Forward caused terrible food shortages and millions of people died from famine, Peng spoke out against it. He criticized Mao’s policies, which made Mao unhappy. Peng was eventually removed from his position and later even sent to a "re-education" camp during the Cultural Revolution. His criticisms showed that not everyone agreed with Mao’s approach. Cultural revolution Big Character posters These posters were used to spread Mao Zedong’s ideas and attack anyone seen as an enemy to his revolution. They helped turn the public against intellectuals, teachers, and anyone who didn’t follow Mao’s vision, spreading the revolution into everyday life. Red Guards The Red Guards were young people who took Mao’s message to heart and enforced his ideas. They attacked people, destroyed old traditions, and tried to create a society based purely on Mao’s version of communism. They played a key role in pushing the revolution forward, even through violence. Jiang Qing Mao’s wife, Jiang Qing, was a major supporter of the Cultural Revolution. She encouraged the destruction of old culture and traditions, helping to shape the revolution's direction. She was a leader of the movement, pushing Mao’s ideas and supporting the Red Guards.  Liu Shaoqi Liu was seen as an important figure who didn’t completely follow Mao’s strict communist vision. During the Cultural Revolution, he was attacked and removed from power. His fall showed how the revolution was about purging anyone who didn’t fully support Mao, making it a cultural and political upheaval. Together, these actions were aimed at reshaping Chinese culture, removing old ideas, and enforcing loyalty to Mao, making it a cultural revolution that affected not just politics, but the very way people thought and lived. Lecture 9 Tiananmen Deng Xiaoping Deng Xiaoping was a key Chinese leader who took over after Mao Zedong’s death. He is famous for shifting China’s economy from strict communism to a more market-based system, allowing for more private business and foreign trade. His reforms helped China grow into one of the world’s largest economies. Hu Yaobang Hu Yaobang was a leader of the Chinese Communist Party who pushed for political and economic reforms. He supported more freedom of expression and wanted to make the government less corrupt. He was popular with students and young people but was removed from power in 1987, which led to protests like the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989. Zhao Ziyang A Chinese politician who served as the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party from 1987 to 1989. He is best known for his reformist ideas and his support for political and economic changes in China. Zhao pushed for greater openness and economic liberalization, encouraging market reforms similar to those of Deng Xiaoping. However, Zhao’s support for the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989, where students called for more political freedoms, led to his downfall. When the government cracked down on the protests, Zhao was removed from power and placed under house arrest for the rest of his life. “Elders” The term **"elders"** in the context of Chinese politics refers to a group of senior leaders from the **Chinese Communist Party** who were influential in making decisions, especially after **Mao Zedong’s** death. These "elders" were usually retired or no longer in official power but still held significant sway over the party's direction. They were respected for their experience and played a key role in guiding the country, often offering advice or influencing important political decisions. Lichbach and initial Communist reaction to protests Lichbach is a scholar who studied how governments react to protests and what factors influence their response. In his work, he explores the idea that initial reactions to protests can shape the outcome of social movements, such as whether protests succeed or are crushed. When it comes to the initial Communist reaction to protests, especially in places like China, the response typically involved a mix of repression and attempts to control the situation. For example, in the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, the initial response from the Chinese Communist Party was cautious, with some leaders trying to calm things down through negotiations. However, as the protests grew larger and more threatening to the Communist regime, the reaction quickly turned to violent repression. The military was called in, and force was used to end the protests, resulting in many deaths. Lichbach’s theory suggests that the initial response (whether violent or not) can influence how people and organizations react next. If the government initially offers concessions or negotiations, protests might diffuse peacefully. But if the response is immediately repressive, it can escalate the conflict and lead to a harsher crackdown. Voluntarist and Structural causes of Communist survival of protests Voluntarism Special leadership of Deng Xiaoping Structuralism Revolutionary reactive sequence leads to united elite with strong ties to military Lecture 10 Cambodia Khmer Rouge The **Khmer Rouge** was a communist group that ruled Cambodia from 1975 to 1979, led by **Pol Pot**. They wanted to create a society based only on farming and tried to remove everything else, like money, schools, and religion. They forced people to leave cities and work on farms. The Khmer Rouge killed many people, including anyone they thought was against them, causing a lot of suffering. Their rule ended when **Vietnam** invaded Cambodia in 1979. Saloth Sar  His was the real name of Pol Pot, the leader of the Khmer Rouge who led Cambodia from 1975 to 1979. Under his leadership, millions of people were killed in an attempt to create a communist farming society. Norodom Sihanouk He was the King of Cambodia before and during the early years of the Khmer Rouge. He initially supported the Khmer Rouge, but later was arrested by them when they took power. Tuol Sleng/S-21 This was a former school turned into a prison by the Khmer Rouge. It was used to torture and kill people they considered enemies. Thousands of people were imprisoned and executed there. Comrade Duch He was the leader of S-21, the prison mentioned above. Duch was responsible for the torture and execution of many prisoners. After the Khmer Rouge regime ended, he was arrested and tried for crimes against humanity. American bombing of Cambodia During the Vietnam War, the U.S. secretly bombed Cambodia to target Viet Cong hideouts and supply routes. This bombing caused a lot of destruction and death, which contributed to instability in Cambodia and helped the Khmer Rouge gain power. Cambodia-Vietnam war 1978-1979 This war occurred when the Khmer Rouge attacked Vietnam in 1978. In response, Vietnam invaded Cambodia in 1979 and overthrew the Khmer Rouge, ending their brutal rule. Roots of Revolution in Cambodia The roots of revolution in Cambodia were mainly due to years of poverty, inequality, and political instability. The Cambodian people suffered under a corrupt government and foreign interference, especially during the Vietnam War. The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, promised to create a better, more equal society based on communism, which attracted many supporters who were disillusioned with the existing system. Roots of Terror in Cambodia The roots of terror stemmed from the Khmer Rouge's extreme ideological goals of creating a classless, agrarian society. This led them to target anyone they saw as a threat, including intellectuals, ethnic minorities, and former government officials. They used fear and violence to control the population and eliminate opposition. The Khmer Rouge viewed terror as necessary to achieve their vision of a perfect society. Rationality/Irrationality of Terror in Cambodia Rationality of Terror: From the Khmer Rouge's point of view, their terror was rational because they believed it was the only way to quickly and completely transform Cambodian society into a pure, communist state. They saw the mass killings and brutal methods as justified to eliminate enemies and achieve their goal of a utopian society. Irrationality of Terror: On the other hand, the terror was also irrational because it led to massive loss of life and devastated the country. The extreme violence alienated many people, destroyed cultural heritage, and left Cambodia in ruins. The Khmer Rouge’s radical policies were disconnected from reality and caused more harm than good, ultimately weakening the very society they sought to build. Lecture 11 Iran Third World Revolutions Third World Revolutions were uprisings in countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America in the 20th century, mainly against colonial rule or corrupt governments. People wanted independence, better living conditions, and fairer societies. Examples include Vietnam (1954), Cuba (1959), Cambodia (1975); Iran (1979), These revolutions were often driven by the desire to remove unfair rulers and create more equal systems, sometimes with socialist or communist ideas. Personalism A system where a single leader holds most of the power and their personal influence shapes the government. The leader’s personality and decisions are central, rather than laws or institutions. Sultanism A type of personalist rule, but even more extreme. It refers to a form of authoritarianism where the leader rules as an absolute, almost monarch-like figure, with little to no constraints on their power. The leader often treats the state as their personal property. Negative coalition  A type of political alliance formed by different groups who may not have shared goals but come together to oppose a common enemy or threat, like a dictatorship or another political force. Mohamad Mosaddegh He was the Prime Minister of Iran from 1951 to 1953. He is famous for nationalizing Iran’s oil industry, which angered foreign powers like Britain and the United States. His government was overthrown in a CIA-backed coup in 1953. Savak The SAVAK was the secret police and intelligence service of Iran under the rule of the Shah (Iran’s monarch before the 1979 revolution). It was known for its brutal tactics, including surveillance, torture, and suppression of opposition to the Shah’s government. White Revolution ` The White Revolution was a series of reforms initiated by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in Iran in the 1960s. It aimed to modernize the country, including land reforms, women's rights improvements, and industrial development. It was called the "White Revolution" because it was peaceful (unlike a "Red" revolution), but it caused many social and economic problems, leading to opposition. Ayatollah Khomeini Ayatollah Khomeini was the leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution that overthrew the Shah’s government. He was a religious leader and the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Khomeini opposed the Shah's rule, which he saw as corrupt and too influenced by Western countries, and he turned Iran into a theocracy governed by Islamic law. Jimmy Carter and the Shah Jimmy Carter, the U.S. President from 1977 to 1981, initially supported Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran because the Shah was seen as an ally against Soviet influence in the region. However, Carter grew critical of the Shah’s human rights abuses, leading to tension. Despite this, Carter's support for the Shah continued until the Iranian Revolution in 1979, when the Shah was overthrown. Black Friday Black Friday refers to September 8, 1978, when the Iranian military opened fire on thousands of protesters in Tehran who were demonstrating against the Shah. This massacre, which killed many people, intensified opposition to the Shah and contributed to the revolution that led to his downfall. Mosque network/mullahs The mosque network refers to the involvement of mullahs (Islamic clerics) and local mosques in organizing and spreading opposition to the Shah’s regime. The mullahs became a key part of the revolutionary movement, as they had influence over large sections of the population, especially in rural areas, and they supported the call for an Islamic government. Origins of Sultanism in Iran Sultanism in Iran refers to the authoritarian rule of the Shah, where power was highly concentrated in his hands. The origins of sultanism can be traced to the Pahlavi Dynasty’s rule, where the Shah's personal authority, control over the military, and disregard for democratic institutions led to an absolute, almost monarch-like style of governance. This system was also marked by the suppression of opposition and a reliance on secret police (like SAVAK) to maintain control. Voluntarist and Structural causes of Iranian revolution Voluntarist causes: Initiative of radicals in 1978 Incompetence of Shah But structural preconditions Sultanism - Shah isolated from society negative coalition - Vulnerable to nationalist opposition Mosque networks - Organizational base for revolution Lichbach applied to the Iranian revolution Lichbach's theory explains that revolutions happen when people face serious grievances (like poverty or unfair treatment) and when there is strong organization and leadership to turn those feelings into action. In the case of the Iranian Revolution, many people were unhappy with the Shah’s rule because of economic inequality and political repression. Ayatollah Khomeini and the mullahs helped organize the opposition and led the movement against the Shah. Lichbach’s theory shows that both the people’s anger and the leadership's ability to unite them were key to the revolution’s success. Readings Skocpol and Trimberger - Why do revolution occur? - Weak states , Cohesive peasantry , International pressures = Revolution This is a structural theory because it depends on big things not a person Kurzman - His anti explanation - Revolution is unpredictable and pure contingency - This is because of collective action - If everyone does it and its planned to succeed then people are more willing to - This is voluntarist Levitsky and way - Why are regimes that come from revolution so durable? - The dependent variable is the revolution - Looks at the outcome where as other readings are the root - This is because of state collapse , Social transformation , Mass based , Violence (IV) - This makes it durable because of a leak cohesion, Loyalty and No alternative powers (DV) Lichbach - When the state cracks down on protestors do they protest more or less? - Whats the relationship between state violence and opposition? - Consistent leads to a decrease in protests - And inconsistent leads to an increased Chehabi and linz - Abt sultanism - Type of a personal regime but an extrme one - U do what the ruler wants and ur rewarded with smthn - If not than it leads to death - U buy people off and coherse them - The rulers descretion is exresice without restraint - Theres no binding rules in the state - Only person that has a say is the sultan - Studied how some authoritarian regimes revolve entirely around one powerful leader, with no rules or limits to their control. Compare and contrast the causes of the October revolution in Russia and the 1949 revolution in China. What causes are the same? Which are different? Similar Causes 1. Unhappy Peasants: ○ Both revolutions happened because most people in the countryside were poor and treated unfairly by rich landowners. 2. Weak Leaders: ○ Russia's Provisional Government and China's Nationalists couldn’t solve big problems like land, war, or poverty. 3. Marxist Ideas: ○ Both revolutions were inspired by the idea of socialism, where wealth would be shared more equally. 4. War Made Things Worse: ○ Russia was stuck in World War I, and China was dealing with Japan’s invasion and later a civil war. Different Causes 1. Workers vs. Peasants: ○ In Russia, factory workers in cities were key. ○ In China, it was mostly poor farmers in villages. 2. Role of Foreign Influence: ○ Russia: While Russia had internal problems, foreign influence played a smaller role in its revolution. ○ China: Foreign powers, especially Japan, played a significant role by weakening the Nationalist government, creating an opportunity for the Communists to rise in power. 3. Type of Revolution: ○ Russia: The October Revolution was a sudden, violent overthrow of the government by the Bolsheviks. ○ China: The Chinese Revolution was a long, drawn-out civil war between the Communists and Nationalists, eventually ending after years of struggle. Summary Both revolutions were about unfair treatment and weak governments. But Russia's was more about workers in cities, while China's was about farmers in villages. Also, wars and foreign attacks played a bigger role in China than in Russia.