Exam 3 Study Guide PDF

Exam 3 Study guide Chapters 40-43-49 50-60 multiple choice questions Intra, extra, intercellular / interstitial fluid Structure & function of epithelium Simple/stratified, squamous/cuboidal/columnar Structure & function of connective tissue CT fibers (ela...

Exam 3 Study guide Chapters 40-43-49 50-60 multiple choice questions Intra, extra, intercellular / interstitial fluid Structure & function of epithelium Simple/stratified, squamous/cuboidal/columnar Structure & function of connective tissue CT fibers (elastin, collagen, reticular) Muscle tissues (skeletal, smooth, cardiac) - Striation vs nonstriated, voluntary vs involuntary, conduction Homeostasis Positive & negative feedback regulation Ectotherm vs endotherm organisms Heat exchange, conduction, radiation, convection, evaporation Role of the hypothalamus Innate immunity Role of neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells in vertebrates Role of mast cells Septic shock Meaning of epitopes Variable regions on T & B cells - Recombinase T vs B cells Role of cytotoxic T cells First exposure to pathogens Role of MHC Class of immunoglobulin - Plays a role in allergic reactions Knee jerk reflex Glial cell function Myelinated vs non-myelinated neurons Sympathetic & parasympathetic divisions Each brain structure & its function Suprachiasmatic nuclei Telencephalon Motor vs somatosensory Broca’s area vs Wernicke’s area - Motor vs comprehension Regions of the brain & function Short-term vs. long-term memory Alzheimer’s & Parkinson’s disease 1. Intra, Extra, Intercellular, and Interstitial Fluid Intracellular Fluid: Fluid within cells, essential for maintaining cell shape and biochemical processes. Extracellular Fluid: Includes interstitial fluid (surrounding cells) and plasma (in blood vessels). Interstitial Fluid: The fluid between cells; facilitates nutrient and waste exchange between cells and blood. 2. Structure & Function of Epithelium Structure: Tightly packed cells forming continuous sheets, classified by shape and layering: o Simple Epithelium: Single cell layer. o Stratified Epithelium: Multiple layers for protection. o Shapes: ▪ Squamous: Flat, scale-like for diffusion (e.g., lungs). ▪ Cuboidal: Cube-shaped for secretion (e.g., glands). ▪ Columnar: Tall and column-like for absorption/secretion (e.g., intestines). Function: Covers body surfaces, lines cavities, protects, absorbs, secretes, and filters. 3. Structure & Function of Connective Tissue Structure: Sparse cells scattered in an extracellular matrix. o Matrix Components: Collagenous, reticular, and elastic fibers in a liquid, jelly-like, or solid ground substance. o Cell Types: Fibroblasts (fiber secretion), macrophages (immune response). Types: Loose connective tissue, fibrous tissue, bone, cartilage, adipose tissue, blood. Function: Provides structural support, binds tissues, stores energy, and mediates immune responses. 4. Connective Tissue Fibers Collagenous Fibers: Provide strength and flexibility. Reticular Fibers: Connect tissues to adjacent structures. Elastic Fibers: Allow tissues to stretch and return to their original shape. 5. Muscle Tissue Types: o Skeletal Muscle: Striated, voluntary, enables movement. o Smooth Muscle: Non-striated, involuntary, lines organs like the intestines. o Cardiac Muscle: Striated, involuntary, found in the heart. Key Features: o Striated vs. Non-striated: Presence of banding patterns. o Voluntary vs. Involuntary: Controlled by somatic vs. autonomic nervous systems. 6. Homeostasis Definition: Maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes. Mechanisms: Negative feedback loops (e.g., temperature regulation) and positive feedback (e.g., childbirth). Regulation: Hypothalamus plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis. 7. Thermoregulation Ectotherms: Rely on external heat (e.g., reptiles). Endotherms: Generate heat metabolically (e.g., mammals). Heat Exchange Mechanisms: o Conduction: Direct transfer of heat. o Radiation: Heat transfer through space. o Convection: Heat carried by moving fluids. o Evaporation: Cooling via liquid-to-gas phase change. 8. Immune System Innate Immunity: First line of defense; includes skin, phagocytic cells (neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells), and mast cells (histamine release in inflammation). Septic Shock: Systemic inflammatory response to severe infection. Adaptive Immunity: o Key Features: Specificity (epitopes), diversity (recombinase-mediated gene rearrangements), and memory. o T vs. B Cells: ▪ T Cells: Kill infected cells (cytotoxic T cells), regulate immunity. ▪ B Cells: Produce antibodies; differentiate into plasma cells. o Immunoglobulin Classes: IgE mediates allergic reactions. 9. Nervous System Reflexes: Knee-jerk reflex is an automatic spinal response. Glial Cells: Support neurons, form myelin, maintain the blood-brain barrier. Neurons: o Myelinated: Faster signal conduction. o Non-myelinated: Slower signal conduction. Autonomic Divisions: o Sympathetic: "Fight or flight" response. o Parasympathetic: "Rest and digest" response. Brain Functions: o Suprachiasmatic Nuclei: Regulate circadian rhythms. o Telencephalon: Includes the cerebrum, responsible for higher-order functions. o Broca's Area vs. Wernicke's Area: ▪ Broca’s: Speech production. ▪ Wernicke’s: Language comprehension. 10. Memory and Neurological Disorders Short-term vs. Long-term Memory: o Short-term relies on hippocampus; long-term involves cerebral cortex. Disorders: o Alzheimer’s: Memory loss, amyloid plaques, tau tangles. o Parkinson’s: Motor dysfunction, dopamine neuron loss. 1. Intra-, Extra-, and Intercellular/Interstitial Fluid Intracellular Fluid (ICF): o Found within cells. o Comprises about 2/3 of total body water. o Critical for cellular processes, including enzyme activity and maintaining cell volume. Extracellular Fluid (ECF): o Found outside cells. o Divided into: ▪ Interstitial Fluid: Surrounds cells, facilitating nutrient and waste exchange. ▪ Plasma: Liquid portion of blood. o Functions as a medium for transporting nutrients, oxygen, and waste. Intercellular Fluid: Often synonymous with interstitial fluid; refers to fluid between cells. 2. Epithelium: Structure & Function Structure: o Tightly packed cells with minimal extracellular matrix. o Attached to a basement membrane, providing support and anchorage. o Shapes: ▪ Squamous: Flat, thin cells for diffusion and filtration (e.g., alveoli, blood vessels). ▪ Cuboidal: Cube-like, involved in secretion and absorption (e.g., glands, kidneys). ▪ Columnar: Tall cells specialized for absorption (e.g., intestines). o Layers: ▪ Simple Epithelium: One cell layer thick. ▪ Stratified Epithelium: Multiple layers for protection. ▪ Pseudostratified Epithelium: Appears layered but is not. Functions: o Protection (e.g., skin). o Absorption (e.g., intestines). o Secretion (e.g., glands). o Sensory reception (e.g., olfactory epithelium). 3. Connective Tissue: Structure & Function Structure: o Sparse cells embedded in an extracellular matrix. o Matrix consists of fibers (collagen, reticular, elastic) and ground substance. Functions: o Structural support (e.g., bones, cartilage). o Binding tissues (e.g., tendons). o Transport of nutrients and waste (e.g., blood). o Energy storage (e.g., adipose tissue). 4. Connective Tissue Fibers Collagenous Fibers: o Composed of collagen.  o Provide strength and flexibility. Reticular Fibers: o Thin, branched collagen fibers. o Connect tissues and support the soft organs. Elastic Fibers: o Contain elastin. o Allow tissues to stretch and recoil. 5. Muscle Tissues Skeletal Muscle: o Striated, voluntary control. o Responsible for body movements. Smooth Muscle: o Non-striated, involuntary control. o Found in walls of hollow organs (e.g., intestines, blood vessels). Cardiac Muscle: o Striated, involuntary. o Found exclusively in the heart; intercalated discs facilitate contraction. Key Features: o Striation: Alternating bands in skeletal and cardiac muscle. o Voluntary vs. Involuntary: Controlled consciously or autonomously. o Conduction: Muscle tissues propagate signals for coordinated contraction. 6. Homeostasis Definition: Maintenance of stable internal conditions. Mechanisms: o Negative Feedback: ▪ Reverses a change to return to set point (e.g., body temperature regulation). o Positive Feedback: ▪ Amplifies a response (e.g., oxytocin release during childbirth). 7. Thermoregulation Ectotherms vs. Endotherms: o Ectotherms: Rely on environmental heat (e.g., reptiles, fish). o Endotherms: Generate metabolic heat (e.g., mammals, birds). Heat Exchange Methods: o Conduction: Heat transfer through direct contact. o Radiation: Emission of heat without contact. o Convection: Heat transfer through fluid motion. o Evaporation: Heat loss through liquid vaporization. Role of Hypothalamus: Central regulator for body temperature, triggering mechanisms like shivering or sweating. 8. Innate Immunity Key Players: o Neutrophils: Rapid responders; engulf and destroy pathogens. o Macrophages: Long-lasting, phagocytose pathogens and debris.  o Dendritic Cells: Bridge innate and adaptive immunity by presenting antigens to T cells. o Mast Cells: Release histamine, triggering inflammation. Septic Shock: Life-threatening systemic inflammatory response; often fatal. 9. Adaptive Immunity Epitope: The specific region on an antigen that binds to an antibody or receptor. T and B Cell Receptors: o Composed of variable (V) and constant (C) regions. o Diversity generated by recombinase enzyme-mediated rearrangement. T Cells vs. B Cells: o T Cells: ▪ Cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells via perforin and granzymes. ▪ Helper T cells activate B cells and other immune cells. o B Cells: Produce antibodies and differentiate into memory or plasma cells. Immunoglobulin Classes: o IgE: Involved in allergic reactions (e.g., histamine release). MHC Molecules: Present antigens to T cells; essential for immune recognition. 10. Reflexes and Nervous System Knee-Jerk Reflex: A simple reflex arc involving sensory and motor neurons. Glial Cells: o Astrocytes (support neurons, blood-brain barrier). o Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells (myelination). Myelinated vs. Non-Myelinated Neurons: o Myelinated axons: Faster signal transmission. o Non-myelinated axons: Slower conduction. Autonomic Nervous System: o Sympathetic: Activates "fight-or-flight." o Parasympathetic: Promotes "rest-and-digest." 11. Brain Structures Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN): Biological clock for circadian rhythms. Telencephalon: Forms the cerebrum, involved in sensory processing, learning, and memory. Motor vs. Somatosensory Cortex: o Motor: Controls voluntary movements. o Somatosensory: Processes sensory information. Broca’s vs. Wernicke’s Areas: o Broca’s: Speech production. o Wernicke’s: Language comprehension. Memory: o Short-term: Temporary links in the hippocampus. o Long-term: Permanent storage in the cerebral cortex. 12. Neurological Disorders Alzheimer’s Disease: o Characterized by memory loss, amyloid plaques, and tau tangles.  Parkinson’s Disease: o Motor dysfunction due to dopamine neuron degeneration. o Symptoms include tremors, rigidity, and shuffling gait.