Animal Structure & Function Exam Material PDF

10/8/2024 Chapter 41 Animal Bodies and Homeostasis Chapter 41 Introduction to...

10/8/2024 Chapter 41 Animal Bodies and Homeostasis Chapter 41 Introduction to Key Concepts: Animal Structure Organization of Animal Bodies & Function The Relationship Between Structure and Function Homeostasis 2 1 2 Internal organization of animals Levels of Animal Organization Cellular – Phylum Porifera Tissue – Phylum Cnidaria & Phylum Ctenotophora Organ – Phylum Platyhelminthes Organ System – advanced animal groups Cells with similar properties group to form tissues Tissues combine together to form organs Organs are linked to form organ systems 4 3 4 1  10/8/2024 Tissues Tissue is an association of many cells that have a similar structure and function Epithelial Tissue Connective Tissue Muscle Tissue Nervous Tissue 5 6 5 6 Types of Epithelial Tissues Types of Connective Tissue Simple squamous – single layer of flat cells Blood – transport and protection Simple cuboidal – single layer square cells Adipose – (fat) insulation, energy, support & protection Simple columnar – single layer rectangular cells Bone – support and protection Pseudostratified columnar – 1 cell thick w/ all at basement membrane Cartilage – support and flexibility Stratified squamous – multi-layered flattened cells Loose – holds internal organs in place Transitional – stretchable tissue Dense – strength and support *ALL may be involved with secretion/absorption & some protection 7 8 2  10/8/2024 Muscle tissues Cells specialized to contract, generating mechanical force Skeletal Muscle Attached to bone or exoskeleton for locomotion; elongate fibers; voluntary control Smooth Muscle Surrounds tubes and cavities for propulsion of contents; flattened cells; involuntary control Cardiac Muscle Only in the heart; elongate fibers; involuntary control Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. 9 No reproduction or distribution without the prior written 10 consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 9 10 Nervous tissue Complex networks of neurons (nerve cells) Initiate and conduct electrical signals from one part of the animal’s body to another Electrical signals produced in one neuron may stimulate or inhibit other neurons to Initiate new electrical signals Stimulate muscle cells to contract Stimulate glandular cells to release chemicals 11 12 11 12 3  10/8/2024 13 14 13 14 Organism Homeostasis Changing variables in the environment Air Temperature Water Temperature Homeostasis Food Supply Water Supply Process of adjusting to pH the external O2 Concentration environment and maintaining a stable internal environment 16 15 16 4  10/8/2024 Fig. 29.1c Integumentary System 17 18 Fig. 29.1c Digestive System Key Concepts: Animal Nutrition General Principles of Digestion and Absorption of Food Overview of Vertebrate Digestive Systems Mechanisms of Digestion and Absorption in Vertebrates 20 19 20 5  10/8/2024 Gut Tract – 2 types Gut Tract (continued) 1) Blind Gut – 2) Tube-within-a-tube – -no cavity between gut and body wall -flow through digestive tube -one opening -body cavity between gut and body wall -primitive form -separate openings (mostly) 21 22 Digestive Enzymes (hydrolases) Food processing in animals Carbohydrases Occurs in five phases 1. Ingestion – food is taken into the body and moves into a digestive cavity Proteases (usually called the alimentary canal) 2. Digestion – Food is broken down into smaller molecules Lipases 3. Transport – 4. Absorption – ions, water, and small molecules diffuse or are transported into Nucleases the circulatory system 5. Egestion – undigested materials and other wastes are passed from the body. 24 23 24 6  10/8/2024 Alimentary Canal Alimentary canal Digestive tract or tube (GI tract) Single elongated tube with an opening at both ends Contains smooth muscle in walls 5 Regions Lined by epithelial cells Synthesize and secrete digestive enzymes Secrete hormones Transport digested material Several specialized regions Different environments for different processes Storage area. 26 25 26 Structure of the GI tract Same general structure from the midpoint of the esophagus to the anus or cloaca Lumen lined by epithelial and glandular cells Secretory cells release a protective layer of mucus Other cells release hormones Glands release acid, enzymes, water, and ions Epithelial cells linked by tight junctions and surrounded by layers of tissue made of smooth muscles, neurons, connective tissue, and blood vessels Neurons activated by sight and smell of food, presence of food in tract. 27 27 28 7  10/8/2024 29 30 Surface modifications that  surface area for absorption (3): 2. Villus (Villi) 1. Plicae circulares: Finger – like projections Large folds of the epithelial lining  surface area 10 times.  the surface area 2 – 3 times Villus Villus Plicae Plicae 31 32 8  10/8/2024 3. Microvilli Folding of the plasma membrane of cells lining the villus.  surface area 20 times. Microvilli Villus 33 34 Biomolecules: Carbohydrates: polysaccharides -> mono- & disaccharides Proteins: polypeptides -> amino acids Fats: glycerol & fatty acids Nucleic acids: nucleotides *Enzyme activity for chemical reactions at biological temperatures 36 35 36 9  10/8/2024 Nervous System (Chapters 42-44) The nervous system Key Concepts: Central nervous system (CNS) – brain and nerve cord Cellular Components of Nervous Systems Brain and spinal cord in vertebrates Electrical Properties of Neurons and the Resting Membrane Potential Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – all neurons and Generation and Transmission of Electrical Signals their projections that are outside of the CNS Along Neurons Neurons Communicate Electrically or Chemically at Synapses In certain invertebrates with a simple nervous system, the distinction is less clear/not present Evolution of Nervous System 37. 38 37 38 39 40 39 40 10  10/8/2024 Reflex arc Stimulus from sensory neurons sent to CNS, little or no interpretation (few or no interneurons), signal transmitted to motor neurons to elicit response Quick and automatic response 41 42 41 42 Vertebrate Nervous System Spinal Cord + Brain = Central Nervous System BOTH are surrounded by meninges (layers) – 3 of these -dura mater (outer), arachnoid (middle), pia mater (inner) -between each layer and within canal of spinal cord contains cerebrospinal fluid 1. Spinal cord – always dorsal and hollow - enclosed within the vertebral column 43 43 44 11  10/8/2024 Vertebrate Nervous System (continued) 2. Brain - 45 46 Fish Reptile Mammal (human) 47 48 12  10/8/2024 Muscular-Skeletal System – Chapter 45 Concepts: Types of Animal Skeletons Types of skeletal muscle fibers and their functions Animal locomotion 49 50 Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone Types of Animal Skeletons Osteon: A skeleton is a structure that functions in support, protection, Structural/functional locomotion (movement from one place to another) unit of compact bone. Most oriented Three types of skeletons parallel to long axis Exoskeletons of the bone. Endoskeletons Hydroskeletons Osteonic Canal: Found in some soft-bodied invertebrates that use water pressure for propulsion Passageway for blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves 51 52 13  10/8/2024 Lamellae: Anatomy of a Long Bone Concentric rings of bone tissue (labeled Epiphysis: ends of bone Osteonic 1,2, and 3) Diaphysis: shaft of bone Canal Lacuna: Ignore Medullary Cavity: Spaces between black Yellow bone marrow lamellae where circle 2 3 osteocytes (mature storage (adipose 1 bone cells) are located tissue) in diaphysis Canaliculi: Red bone marrow in Microscopic canals that epiphysis of certain connect lacunae to lacunae and lacunae to bones; site of blood the osteonic canal cell production. 53 54 Anatomy of a long bone Anatomy of a long bone (cont) Epiphysis Ends of bone The articular surfaces of a bone are capped with a layer of hyaline Spongy internal cartilage which acts as a shock absorber (articular cartilage) Diaphysis Shaft of bone Periosteum – protective membrane covering the external surface of a Medullary cavity bone, except at the articular surface Yellow bone marrow storage (adipose tissue) in diaphysis Red bone marrow in epiphysis of certain bones; site of blood cell production 55 56 14  10/8/2024 x.9 i The vertebrate skeleton a Two parts l Axial skeleton – mid longitudinal axis of the body S Appendicular skeleton – limb bones and girdles k Joints e Formed where two or more bones come together (allow enhanced movement and better contact with substrate) l Three types that allow movement Pivot joints e Ball-and-socket joint t Hinge o n 57 58 Muscles Muscle (ex: Biceps) Vertebrates have three types of muscle, classified according to structure, function, and control mechanisms Muscle Fascicles Cardiac – found only in the heart (striated, involuntary, fibers of elongated tubes, possibly branched) Skeletal Muscle Cells Smooth – surrounds and forms part of the lining of hollow organs and tubes (involuntary, 1 nucleus per cell) Myofibrils Skeletal muscle – directly involved in locomotion (striated, voluntary, multi- nucleic) Thin and Thick Filaments (Myofilaments) 59 60 15  10/8/2024 Sarcomere: Functional unit Sarcomere (cont) of skeletal muscle cells Contraction Sliding filament model The distance [-----] Relaxed muscle cell from one Z-line [--] to the next. Contracted muscle cell Myosin heads attached to actin filaments and pull together shortening of sarcomere The sarcomere Energy required – high energy bond of the 3rd phosphate of ATP Adenosine-P-P=P, where = is high energy bond, applied for sarcomere contraction THICK THIN shortens during Overlapping of thick and skeletal muscle thin filaments produces contraction. the striations. 61 62 16