Exam 2 Study Guide PDF

1. People gain the strongest sense of social identity from belonging to groups, but how does this make them feel about their attitudes and beliefs? ○ People gain the strongest of social identity from belonging to groups that make them feel their attitudes and beliefs are cor...

1. People gain the strongest sense of social identity from belonging to groups, but how does this make them feel about their attitudes and beliefs? ○ People gain the strongest of social identity from belonging to groups that make them feel their attitudes and beliefs are correct 2. What is cultural racism and how does it impact hate group recruits? 3. What techniques do hate group members use to help socialize their children to hold a racist worldview? 4. How do hate groups typically find and recruit new members? 5. What social group are most hate group members likely to come from in society? 6. What do the majority of hate groups advocate regarding minority groups in relation to segregation and deportation? 7. How does hate group membership transform everyday racism? 8. When do people feel the most resentment and dissatisfaction about a situation? 9. How is this impacted by low or high distributive and procedural justice? 10. What is distributive justice? 11. What is procedural justice? 12. What is relative gratification? 13. How does it impact people in groups and how they compare their group to other groups? 14. What is realistic conflict theory? 15. What is relative deprivation theory? 16. How does it help people explain why they are prejudiced against other groups? 17. What role does social identity and self-concept play in group membership? ○ The part of a persons self-concept that derives from membership in groups imporant to the person 18. What is gender constancy? ○ Is the understanding that gender is permanent despite superficial changes is appearance 19. Aboud’s theory of the development of prejudice in children maintains that in the earliest stage of development, the children’s prejudice is based on what? ○ Holdstat at the earliest stage of development, children's prejudice is based on emotional responses to others and focus on the self 20. How do older children feel regarding boys with feminine characteristics? 21. What are some of the characteristics and results of internal resegregation in schools? 22. What are some types of internal resegregation? 23. What is the jigsaw classroom learning technique? ○ Each student takes a primary responsibility for learning one par of a lesson and then teaches the material to other team members 24. In the social categories, explicit awareness regarding religion occurs first or last? ○ last 25. When do gender stereotypes develop for children? ○ Toddlers begin to form gender stereotypes before they can speak or say boy or girl ○ Around age 2.5 or three, children know their own and others genders ○ Children tend to think in terms of biological sex rather than socially defined gender roles ○ By age nine, children begin to associate gender roles with activities and interests 26. How does direct teaching of prejudice occur?  ○ Individual is rewarded for behaving in a certain way ○ Prejudice occurs when an individual is rewarded for behaving in a prejudiced manner 27. How is the individual rewarded for behaving in a prejudiced manner? 28. What is vicarious learning? ○ Observing someone else being rewarded for a behavior (child playing with a child of another race) 29. What is social learning? ○ 30. What religious orientation is the least associated with prejudice? ○ Quest orientation 31. What is religious fundamentalism? ○ Belief that there is one set of religious teachings that clearly contain fundamental and inerrant truths about humanity and deity ○ Highly correlated with intrinsic orientation 32. What is terror management theory? ○ Rooted in two human characteristics: Instinct for self preservation Knowledge of ones death is inevitable ○ Coexistence of these lead to terror: Self-preservation instinct motivates people to try to avoid death ○ Challenges to ones cultural beliefs end to increase prejudice 33. How does it impact prejudice (increase or decrease)? 34. What value places the strongest emphasis on self-reliance? 35. What are the two components of social dominance orientation? ○ Two components: ○ Group-based dominance: Belief that ones group ought to be at the top of the social ladder ○ Opposition to equality: The belief that groups on the bottom of the social ladder out to stay there 36. What is intergroup anxiety? How does it impact groups? In-group and out-groups? ○ Feelings of discomfort people experience when interacting, or anticipating an interaction, with members of other groups ○ Can result from concerns about: Members of the persons own group ridiculing them for associating with outgroup members Not knowing how to interact properly with outgroup members Outgroup members viewing te person being prejudice against them ○ Expectation of negative consequences can lead to: Avoidance of ougroup members Hostility toward the outgroup ○ Negative consequences can include: Ougroup members rejecting o ridiculing the person Ingroup members rejecting or ridiculing the person for associating with outgroup members Possibility of embarrassment from committing a social blunder Concern about appearing prejudiced against the outgroup 37. What are values? ○ Beliefs people hold about the importance of their goals and the outcomes they try to achieve and avoid 38. What is extrinsic religious orientation and how do people use it? ○ Use of religion to achieve non-religious goals Security, social contacts, self-justification 39. What is intrinsic religious orientation? What to people in this group want to avoid? ○ People truly believe in religious teachings and try to live by them ○ Most likely to be concerned with avoiding the appearance of being prejudiced 40. What is individualism? ○ Emphasizes self- reliance and independence from others 41. What is aversive racism theory? How does it impact how people interact with other groups? 42. How does aversive prejudice result in a pro-minority bias? What are people trying to avoid? 43. People high in empathy tend to be low in what? ○ They tend to be low in prejudice ○ Induces feelings of similarity with members of other groups ○ Similarity leads people to associate their positive views of themselves with other people 44. What component of empathy has research focused on between empathy and prejudice? ○ Perspective-taking- adopting the other persons psychological viewpoint is especially important ○ Most research on the relationship between empathy and prejudice has focused on the perspective-taking component of empathy 45. What is perspective-taking? ○ Empathy tends to reduce prejudice 46. What emotion do most people feel when they feel when a group poses an economic threat on their group? ○ Economic threats evoke emotions such as anger, fear, and disgust ○ Likely to feel anger 47. What amount of knowledge do people with modern-symbolic prejudice have regarding other groups of people? ○ 48. What is egalitarianism? ○ A value system that reflects the belief that all people are equal and should be treated identically ○ Emphasizes principles of equal opportunity, equal treatment for all people, and concern for others well- being 49. What are implicit prejudices, and when are they activated? ○ Implicit Prejudice: prejudices people are not aware of holding: Are activated automatically Intergroup attitudes and stereotypes that are outside of people's conscious awareness ( question 53) Are difficult to control Cannot be assessed through self-report: Assessed using implicit cognition measures ○ Can lead to unintended and unwanted:  Emotional responses to outgroups Behvior onward outgroups Ofen activated automatically without the person being aware that it is happening 50. What is response amplification? How does it impact stigmatized and non-stigmatized individuals? 51. What is ambivalent prejudice? 52. What characteristics do unprejudiced individuals have? 53. What does implicit prejudice refer to regarding intergroup attitudes and stereotypes? 54. What is the bogus pipeline technique? ○ The theory underlying assessing attitudes is that people do not want to be caught lying 55. What does it say regarding people who lie? ○ 56. What type of sexism reflects the belief that women and men are opponents in the battle of the sexes? 57. What is benevolent sexism? 58. What is old-fashioned prejudice? 59. How does it relate to group equality and endorsement of traditional racist beliefs? Chapter 6 1. Values: beliefs people hold about the importance of their goals and the outcomes they try to achieve and avoid (Question 37) 2. Two categories of values are related to prejudice a. Individualism b. Egalitarianism 3. Individualism: empasizes self-reliance and independence from others (Question 33 and 40) 4. Egalitarianism: emphasizes principles of equal opportunity, equal treatment for all people, and concern for others wellbeing (Question 48) a. Greater endorsement of egalitarian values is associated with less prejudice: i. Egalitarianism may inhibit prejudice by preventing activation of negtive stereotypes 5. Prejudice begins with: a. Perception that members of minority groups have characteristics contrary to majority group values 6. Terror management theory: (Quesion 32) a. Rooted in two human characteristics: i. Instinct of self-preservaion ii. Knowledge ones death is inevitable b. Challenges to ones cultural beliefs tend to increase prejudice (Question 33) 7. Intrinsic religious orientation: (Question 39) a. People truly believe in religions teachings and try to live by them b. Most likely to be concerned with avoiding the appearance of being prejudiced 8. Extrinsic religious orientation:(Question 38) a. Use of religion to acive nonreligious goals i. Example: security, social contacts, self-justification 9. Quest orientation: (Question 30) a. Views religion as search for answers to quesions about the meaning of life b. Minimally correlated with intrinsic and extrinsic orientation c. Reflects open-mindedness and willingness to change d. Appears to be least associated with prejudice e. Relation to prejudice: i. Small negative correlation with permitted prejudices ii. Moderate negative correlation with proscribed prejudices 10. Religious fundamentalism (Question 31) a. Belief that there is one set of religious teachings that clearly contain fundamental and inerrant truths about humanity and deity b. Highly correlated with intrinsic orientation 11. Social dominance orientation: a. Desire for ones ingroup to dominate and be superior to outgroups b. Two components: (Question 34) i. Group based dominance: 1. Belief that ones group ought to be at the top of the social ladder ii. Opposition to equality: 1. Belief that one roup on the bottom of the social ladder ough to sta there  c. People in high sdo prefer a society in which: i. Social groups are unequal ii. Their group holds the superior position d. Members of groups that hold more power in society exhibit higher sdo 12. Sdo focuses on: a. Dominance over ougroups or relations between groups b. Eliminating competition for resources from other groups 13. Authoritarianism focuses on: a. Submission to ingroup authority figures b. Seeking security against perceived threats from other groups i. Security comes from conformity to group norms and obedience to authority 14. Personal values: a. Conservatives tend to place more weight on individualism and less on egalitarianism than liberals b. Therefore, differences in prejudice ma reflect differences in values: i. Political conservatives who score high on egalitarianism score lower on prejudice 15. Emotions: a. Emotions have two characteristics that are important to understanding prejudice i. Emotions are aroused automatically without conscious awareness ii. Emotions motivate beavior b. Empathy tends to reduce prejudice c. People with high empathy tend to be low in prejudice (Question 43) 16. Emotions and stereotype: a. Happy people stereotype more than people in neutral or sad moods: i. If everything is fine theres little need to carefully analyze the environment b. Anger anxiety and disgust are associated with stereotyping: i. Hot emotions facitlitae stereotyping by leading people to focus attention on their emotional state 17. Threat model: a. Outgroups can pose threats to ingroup: i. Economic threats evoke emotions such as anger, fear, and disgust b. If people perceive that a group poses an economic threat to their own group they are likely to feel anger toward that group (Question 46) 18. Intergroup anxiety: a. can result from concerns about: (Question 36) i. Memers of the persons own group ridiculing them for associating with outgroup members ii. Not knowing how to interact properly with ougroup members iii. Outgroup members viewing the person being prejudice against them b. Expectation of negative consequences can lead to i. Avoidance of ougroup members ii. Hostility toward the outgroup c. Negative consequences can include: i. Outgroup members rejecting or ridiculing the person  ii. Ingroup members rejecting or ridiculing the person for asociaing with outgroup members iii. Possibility of embarrassment from committing a social blunder iv. Concern about appearing prejudiced against the outgroup 19. Empathy: (Question 45) a. An other-centered emotional response congruent with another's perceived welfare b. Perspective taking- adopting the other person's psychological viewpoint is especially important c. Most research on the relationship between empathy and prejudice has focused on the perspective-taking component of empathy (Question 44) d. More empathetic people show less implicit and explicit prejudice i. Induces feelings of similarity with members of other groups ii. Similarity leads people to associate their positive views of themselves with other people Chapter 7 1. Awareness of social categories a. Two aspects of awareness i. Implicit awareness– children recognize category but cannot yet put names on the categories ii. Explicit awareness– children can accurately name the categories 1. Studied in older children 2. In explicit awareness religion emerges last (Question 24) 2. Explicit awareness of social categories a. Two basic research techniques; classification and soring i. Classification: 1. Show child a picture of a doll 2. Child names category which person in picture belongs ii. Sorting 1. Give a child a set of pictures of people who fall into different categories 2. Have child group the photos that “look-alike” or “belong-together” 3. Gender prejudice (younger children) (question 25) a. Toddlers begin to form gender stereotypes before they can speak or say boy or girl b. Around age 2.5 or 3, children know their own and others genders c. Children tend to think in terms of biological sex rather than socially defined gender roles d. By age 9, children begin to associate gender roles with activities and interests 4. Sexual orientation prejudice a. Research shows that older children are most likely to dislike boys with feminine characteristics (Question 20) 5. Cognitive developmental theories a. Abounds theory of the development of prejudice holds that at the earliest stage of development, childrens prejudice is based on emotional responses to oters and focus on the self (question 19) b. Aboud proposes 3 sages: i. Not linked to age groups  ii. Different children move through states a different rates c. Stages in abounds theory: i. Very young children: anxiety about strangers: 1. Prejudice expreessed as fear and disapproval rather than aner and hostility ii. Children develop categories, initally focusing on differences: 1. Leads to “us versus them” view of groups 2. Later also become aware of intergroup similarities iii. Conceptual understanding develops 1. Ethnicity is seen as permanent characteristics 2. But children also learn to inividuate other 3. Individuaion leads to decline in prejudice 6. Social learning theory a. Explains prejudice in terms of three learning processes i. Direct teaching: (Question 26) 1. Individual is rewarded for behaving in a certain way (Question 27) 2. Prejudice occurs when an individual is rewardded for behaving in prejudiced manner ii. Observational learning: 1. Imitating attitudes or behavior iii. Vicarious learning: (Question 28) 1. Observing someone else being rewarded for behavior (child playing with a child of another race) b. Three sources of social learning (Question 29) i. Parents ii. Peers iii. Media iv. Research results suggest that children become aware of racial categories because they see adults making distinctions between people on he basis of race v. This finding is most consistent with social learning theories of the development of prejudice in children 7. Categorization a. Children attain category constancy: i. Understand that a persons social category membership does not change across tme ii. Gender constancy is the understanding that gender is permanent despite sperficial changes in appearance (Question 18) b. Over time children also come to see that a person can fit into more than one category 8. Development of stereotypes and prejudices a. Four factors contribute to this process: i. Essentialism 1. Belief that all members of a category have a similar unchanging psychological characteristics ii. Ingroup favoritism  1. Attribute positive traits to their own groups 2. But do not necessarily derogate outgroups iii. Explicit teaching iv. Implicit teaching 9. Conditions for interegroup contact to be effective for reducing prejudice a. Conditions are often unmet because officially desegregated schools may be segregated internally: b. Internal resegregation in schools can be: (question 21) i. Separating sudens based on their english fluency ii. Dividing students into standard and accelerated tracks iii. Children from different groups preferring different extracurricular activities 10. Cooperative learning a. Implementsconditions for effective contact as part of day-to-day educational process b. Example: jigsaw classroom (each student takes primary responsibility for learning one part of a lesson and then teaches that material to other team members (Question 22) 11. The jigsaw classroom a. Students study their topics and discuss them with the experts on their topics from other teams b. Students then meet as teams: i. Each member teaches the others his or her area of expertise c. Students quizzed: i. Their individual scores are combined into a single team score Chapter 8 1. Social identity a. Social identity: the part of a persons self-concept that derives from membership in groups important to the person: i. Family, college, nation b. Social identity is the part of oneself concept that comes from group membership (Question 17) c. Taking on social identity leads to: i. Feelings of competition with outgroups and a need to maintain a positive social identity 2. Social identity and intergroup bias a. When people identify with an ingroup and view others as an outgroup: i. They perceive the ingroup more positively than the outgroup ii. People gain the strongest of social identity from belonging to groups that make them feel their attitudes and beliefs are correct (question 1) 3. The categorization-competition hypothesis a. When social identity is activated: i. People place themselves and others into distinct and consrasing categories ii. Outgroup homogeneity bias develops: 1. People perceive members of ougroups as more similar to each other than they actually are 4. Factors that influence social identity a. Self categorization  i. Cateorizing oneself as a group member becomes more likely as the perceived difference between the ingroup and an outgroup increases b. Distinctiveness i. Extent to which aa person feels that he or she differs along some dimension from other people in a situation c. Optimal distinctiveness i. Modification to self- categorization theory ii. People more likely to identify with groups that provide most satisfying balance between personal and group identity d. Threat to the group: i. Events that threaten well-being of the group generate stronger identification with the group 5. Self- categorization a. self - stereotyping: i. Group members view themselves in terms of stereotypes they have of their group so the self becomes one with the group ii. Positive view of the group is reflected in a positive view of the self b. Self categorization derives from: i. Feelings of distinctiveness, need for certainty, and choosing one’s identities 6. National identity a. National identity: the extent to which one identifies with ones country b. Relationship between national identity and prejudice is influenced by: i. Ethnic versus civic view of national identity ii. Group narcissism: 1. Belief in the superiority of one country overall others coupled with denial of negative aspects 7. Relative deprivation theory (Question 15) a. People who are doing well in objective terms may explain that they are prejudiced because their group is being victimized by groups that are less well-off b. Process i. People: 1. Compare their current situation to similar past situations 2. Compare themselves to other people in similar situations ii. If, as a result, they decide they lack some resources, they deserve to have: 1. They perceive the situation as being unfair 2. They become dissatisfied with the situation 8. Relative deprivation, dissatisfaction, and resentment a. Distributive justice: reflects the extent to which rewards are allocated by a fair process (Question 10) i. The perception that outcomes are being distributed on an expected basis: 1. People who deserve more get more b. Procedural justice refers to the extent to which the rules used to allocate rewards are perceived to be fair (Question 11) i. Fairness of the process by which rewards are distributed ii. People feel the most resentment and dissatisfaction about a situation when they believe that both distributive and procedural justice are low (Question 8) 9. Relative gratification a. Satisfaction is derived from the belief that one’s ingroup is better off than others (question 12) b. Both relative deprivation and relative gratification can lead to prejudice: i. People who are relatively deprived: 1. Focus on losses and experience resentment and hostility toward those they blame for them ii. People who are relatively gratified: 1. Focus on the group's superior position relative to outgroups (question 9) 10. Realistic conflict theory a. Proposes that people: i. Are motivated to maximize the rewards they receive in life, even if it means taking those rewards away from others ii. People dislike members of an outgroup because their ingroup is competing with that outgroup for resources (Question 14) 11. Hate group membership a. Hate group: an organization whose central principles include hostility toward racial-ethnic, and religious minority group members i. Techniques used by hate group members to socialize their children ino holding a racist worldview: 1. Holding racially themed birthday parties 2. Telling bedtime stories about aryan heroes 3. Dressing their children in clothing that has white power themes (QUestion 3) b. Hate groups i. Hold membership meetings, rallies, and family events ii. Engage in protests and demonstrations iii. Distribute information via literature, the media, and the internet iv. Rarely engage in actual violence v. The majority of hate groups advocate the segregation and deportation of minority groups (question 6 12. Why people join hate groups a. Members recruited based on everyday racism b. The groups then try to convert everyday racism to extraordinary racism c. People are seeking solutions to their philosophical and practical problems i. Meaning or purpose of life (Question 7) ii. Solutions to grievances iii. Making the world a better place d. The attitudes of new hate group recruits most likely reflect cultural racism (question 2) 13. Myths about hate group members (question 5) a. Most are middle class and reasonably well educated (not all are poor) 14. Recruiting hate group members (Question 4) a. Most people do not seek out hate groups, but are recruited: i. Usually by someone the person known and trusts  ii. Usually a gradual process iii. Begins with attendance at innocuous “bring the family” events: 1. Presents a sense of normalcy 2. Inviting friends and family people to events that emphasize fellowship and learning 15. Leaving the group a. Hate group membership is unstable b. Why do people leave racist groups? i. Disencantment with the group ii. Relationships outside the group Chapter 9 1. Forms of discrimination a. Blatant discrimination: i. Unequal and harmful treatment that is typically intenional, quite visible and easily documented b. Subtle discrimination i. Unequal and harmful treatment that is typically less visible and easily documented ii. Often not noticed because people have internalized it as normal, natural or customary iii. Can be active or passive c. Micro-aggressions: i. Small-scale, everyday behaviors that demean other social groups or members of those groups: 1. Behavor can be verbal or nonverbal 2. Microaggressions communicated by email can be jus as harmful as hose communicated face-to-face 2. Factors influencing the prejudice and discrimination relationship a. Motivation to control prejudice i. A personal belief system that prejudice is wron ii. A desire to comply with other peoples expectations that one not act in a prejudiced manner iii. A esire to avoid arguments over ones beliefs and behaviors hat migh appear to reflect prejudice 3. Personal stereotypes a. Personal stereotypes usually overlap with social stereotypes, but some of their content may be different b. Prejudiced people are more likely to discriminate against outgroup members who fit their personal stereotype of the group c. People are more likely to discriminate when they are high on prejudice and believe others hold similar views 4. Motivation to control prejudice a. People will sometimes feel an impulse to behave in a prejudiced way but will restrain their behavior 5. Internal and external motivation a. Internal motivation- stems from a personal belief tat prejudice is wrong b. External motivation- is a result of social pressure (ex. A person may avoid doing anything that might appear o be prejudice because all of his or her friends think prejudice is wrong) c. Internal motivation - Even if prejudiced associations are activated: i. People high in internal motivation are more likely to recognize conflict between value systems and prejudices  d. External motivation- people high in external motivation feel pressured to appear unprejudiced i. Feel irritated and resentful as a result ii. Negative emotions expressed as prejudice 6. Social norms a. Govern behavior and attitudes b. Creates a desire to avoid social punishment for norm violations 7. Losing control: regressive prejudice a. Regressive prejudice: unintended expressions of prejudice by people who are otherwise low in prejudice 8. Moral credentials a. Acting in a non-prejudiced way can establish moral credentials: i. Behavior indicates that the person is not prejudiced ii. Reinforces persons own beliefs that this is true iii. Reduces concern that future behavior will be seen as prejudiced b. (once believe they have demonstrated their lack of prejudice, they sometimes then behave in a prejudice manner because they believe they have established their moreal credentials as an unprejudiced person) (Question 9. Reactions to having acted in a prejudiced manner a. Discomfort and guilt lead to actions that reaffirm persons self-image as not prejudiced 10. Workplace discrimination a. Employers policies, practices, or behaviors result in different outcomes for members of different groups b. Two aspects: i. Employment discrimination at the organization level ii. Discriminatory behavior by individuals 11. Organizational research a. Racial discrimination occurs in: i. Hiring ii. Job performance iii. Promotion 12. Hiring a. Based on employment audits, white applicants are: i. Morelikley to get a job interview ii. Receive more positive interview ratings iii. More likely to be offered a job 13. Performance evaluations and promotion a. Overall, gender is not related to job performance ratings b. White employees generally receive better job performance evaluations: i. Difference might reflect: 1. Discrimination, but also 2. Lower level of job performance 14. racial/ethnic differences in promotion a. Why is there a difference? Minority managers:  i. Usually supervise minority employees are found in lower organizational levels 1. So minority managers ge stuck at those levels ii. Are tracked in jobs that have fewer promotion opportunities iii. Have less influential mentors iv. Receive less positive narrative reviews 15. Psychological processes that lead to discrimination a. Stereotype fit b. Shifting standards c. Contemporary prejudice d. Conformity to perceived norms 16. Stereotype fit hypothesis a. Characteristics associated with effective managers aree: i. Similar to cultural stereotypes of men ii. Different from cultural stereotypes of women b. So men are seen as a better fit for managerial jobs c. Women are less likely to be hired as managers because people believe managers have traits associated with men rather than women d. Employees can creat subcategories within stereotypes: i. Some subtypes “fit” better than others e. Intersectionality i. Ethnic groups stereotyped as feminine seen as better fit for feminine jobs ii. Ethnic groups stereotyped as masculine seeen as better fit for “masculine” jobs