Year 8 Yearly Study Notes - PDHPE - Drugs

PDHPE Notes Dangers of Drugs Definitions Alcohol What is the correct classification of alcohol? Why is it classified this way? Alcohol is classified as a depressant. This is because it slows down the central nervous system, impairing coordination, judgment, and reaction time. Despite the initia...

PDHPE Notes Dangers of Drugs Definitions Alcohol What is the correct classification of alcohol? Why is it classified this way? Alcohol is classified as a depressant. This is because it slows down the central nervous system, impairing coordination, judgment, and reaction time. Despite the initial feeling of relaxation or euphoria, alcohol reduces brain function and overall neural activity. 5 Short-Term Effects of Alcohol: Impaired judgment and decision-making Slurred speech and motor coordination problems Drowsiness or sedation Memory blackouts or lapses Nausea and vomiting Body Systems Affected by Alcohol: Nervous System: Alcohol slows brain function, impairing memory, motor skills, and decision-making. It affects neurotransmitter activity, especially GABA and glutamate, leading to slower reflexes and poor coordination. Digestive System: Alcohol irritates the stomach lining, leading to nausea, vomiting, and possibly gastritis. Long-term abuse can result in liver damage (cirrhosis), pancreatitis, and stomach ulcers.  Cardiovascular System: Alcohol can cause an increase in heart rate and blood pressure in the short term. Over time, excessive drinking can weaken the heart muscle (cardiomyopathy) and lead to high blood pressure and stroke. Definition of Binge Drinking and its Effects: Binge drinking is the consumption of large amounts of alcohol in a short period, typically defined as five or more drinks for men or four or more for women in about two hours. Negative effects on individuals: Risk of alcohol poisoning Accidents or injuries due to impaired judgment Increased likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors, such as unsafe sex or violence Negative effects on the community: Increased healthcare costs due to alcohol-related illnesses and injuries Public safety concerns, such as drunk driving and violence Strain on emergency services due to alcohol-related incidents 3 Diseases Related to Alcohol Consumption: Cirrhosis of the Liver: A chronic liver disease where normal liver tissue is replaced by scar tissue, impairing the liver's ability to function. Alcoholic Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver caused by excessive alcohol consumption, which can lead to liver failure if untreated. Alcohol-Related Cardiomyopathy: A condition where excessive alcohol weakens the heart muscle, reducing its ability to pump blood efficiently. 3 Reasons Why Individuals May Choose to Drink Alcohol: Social Pressure: Peer influence and societal norms can encourage alcohol consumption in social situations. Stress Relief: Some individuals use alcohol as a way to relax or cope with stress and anxiety. Cultural or Religious Practices: In some cultures and religions, alcohol is consumed during celebrations, rituals, or ceremonies. 3 Accessible Services to Assist with Alcohol Abuse: Alcoholics Anonymous (AA): A global support group that helps individuals struggling with alcohol dependence through a 12-step program. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA): Provides research, education, and resources on alcohol use disorder treatment. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA): A U.S. government agency offering resources, counseling, and treatment services for those struggling with alcohol or other substance abuse issues. Tobacco What is the correct classification of tobacco? Why is it classified this way? Tobacco is classified as a stimulant due to the presence of nicotine, which increases the activity of the central nervous system. Nicotine temporarily boosts alertness, concentration, and heart rate. However, tobacco also contains chemicals that harm the body, especially when smoked, making it highly addictive and dangerous. Body Systems Affected by Tobacco: Respiratory System: Smoking damages the lungs by introducing harmful chemicals, causing chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and increasing the risk of lung cancer. It reduces lung capacity and obstructs airways. Cardiovascular System: Smoking increases heart rate and blood pressure, hardens the arteries, and significantly raises the risk of heart disease, stroke, and peripheral artery disease. Digestive System: Tobacco use can cause cancers in the mouth, throat, esophagus, and stomach. It also weakens the digestive system by affecting nutrient absorption and increasing the risk of ulcers. How Smoking Can Affect a Family (Father as a Heavy Smoker): Secondhand Smoke: His family, especially his children, can be exposed to secondhand smoke, increasing their risk of respiratory infections, asthma, and ear infections. It may also lead to long-term risks like heart disease and lung cancer.  Financial Strain: Heavy smoking can cause significant financial costs due to buying cigarettes and potential medical expenses from smoking-related health problems, which could impact the family’s budget and well-being. Negative Role Model: The father’s smoking habits could influence his children to pick up smoking, increasing their chances of developing a tobacco addiction and related health problems. 3 Dangerous Chemicals in a Cigarette: Nicotine: A highly addictive substance that stimulates the central nervous system and increases the risk of heart disease by raising blood pressure and heart rate. Tar: A sticky substance that coats the lungs and airways, leading to chronic lung diseases such as bronchitis and lung cancer. Carbon Monoxide: A toxic gas that reduces the blood’s ability to carry oxygen, leading to heart and lung problems and increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases. 2 Accessible Services to Help Smokers Quit: Quitline: A national hotline (in many countries) offering free support, counseling, and resources for people trying to quit smoking. Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT) Programs: Available through healthcare providers, pharmacies, or quit-smoking services, these programs provide nicotine patches, gum, or lozenges to help reduce withdrawal symptoms. Vaping Marijuana What is the correct classification of marijuana? Why is it classified this way? Marijuana is classified as a hallucinogen but also has depressant and stimulant properties depending on the strain and dosage. It contains THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), which alters perception, mood, and cognitive functions. While it can induce relaxation, euphoria, and heightened sensory experiences, it also impairs memory, coordination, and judgment, and in high doses, may cause hallucinations. Body Systems Affected by Marijuana: Nervous System: Marijuana affects the brain by altering neurotransmitter activity, particularly in regions related to memory, thinking, and coordination. It can impair short-term memory, cognitive function, and reaction time. Respiratory System: Smoking marijuana introduces harmful chemicals into the lungs, which can cause irritation, bronchitis, and increased risk of respiratory infections. Long-term use may damage lung function similarly to tobacco smoking. Cardiovascular System: Marijuana increases heart rate and dilates blood vessels, which can lead to increased blood pressure and a higher risk of heart attack, especially in people with pre-existing heart conditions. The 'Gateway Drug Theory' and Marijuana’s Dangers: The gateway drug theory suggests that using less harmful or socially accepted substances, such as marijuana, may lead individuals to experiment with more dangerous and addictive drugs. The idea is that marijuana users might become desensitized to drug use, making it easier for them to try harder substances like cocaine or opioids. Marijuana as a dangerous drug under this theory: Regular marijuana use may lower the perceived risk of using other drugs. It can put individuals in environments where they are more likely to encounter harder drugs. THC can cause dependency, and users may seek stronger experiences, leading to experimentation with more dangerous substances. 3 Short-Term and 3 Long-Term Effects of Marijuana Smoking: Short-Term Effects: Impaired short-term memory and learning ability Distorted sense of time and sensory perception Reduced coordination and slower reaction times, increasing the risk of accidents Long-Term Effects: Decreased cognitive ability and memory retention, especially when used during adolescence Lung damage and chronic respiratory issues due to prolonged smoking Potential development of marijuana dependence, where users feel unable to function without the drug Link Between Marijuana Use and Depression: Research suggests a complex relationship between marijuana use and mental health, particularly depression. Some individuals may use marijuana as a form of self-medication to cope with feelings of sadness, stress, or anxiety. However, frequent marijuana use can worsen depressive symptoms over time. THC affects brain chemistry by interfering with the endocannabinoid system, which regulates mood, stress, and emotions. Regular use can disrupt this balance, leading to worsened depressive symptoms and contributing to the development or exacerbation of mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression. Additionally, some studies indicate that long-term marijuana use may increase the risk of developing depression, particularly in those with a genetic predisposition. Ecstacy What is the correct classification of ecstasy? Why is it classified this way? Ecstasy, also known as MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), is classified as a stimulant and hallucinogen. It stimulates the central nervous system, increasing energy, alertness, and euphoria while also causing distortions in sensory perceptions, mood, and empathy. The hallucinogenic effects are due to the way MDMA alters serotonin levels in the brain, leading to changes in mood and perception. Body Systems Affected by Ecstasy: Nervous System: Ecstasy increases the release of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, causing feelings of euphoria and heightened sensory perception. However, it can lead to serotonin depletion, which causes mood swings, depression, and cognitive impairments in the long term. Cardiovascular System: Ecstasy increases heart rate and blood pressure, which puts stress on the heart. It can cause arrhythmias, and in extreme cases, heart attacks or strokes. Thermoregulatory System: Ecstasy interferes with the body's ability to regulate temperature, often leading to hyperthermia (dangerous overheating), which can cause organ failure, dehydration, and in severe cases, death. 3 Individual Consequences of Consuming Ecstasy: Dehydration and Heat Stroke: Ecstasy increases body temperature and can lead to excessive sweating, dehydration, and hyperthermia, especially in hot environments like nightclubs. Serotonin Syndrome: Overuse of ecstasy can lead to a dangerous condition called serotonin syndrome, which involves agitation, confusion, rapid heart rate, and elevated body temperature. Memory and Cognitive Issues: Long-term use can result in memory impairment and cognitive deficits due to damage to serotonin-releasing neurons in the brain. Ingredients of Ecstasy and Why They Are Dangerous: Ecstasy tablets are often mixed with other dangerous substances, making them highly unpredictable. Common ingredients include: MDMA: The primary ingredient that affects serotonin levels in the brain. In large amounts, it can cause neurotoxicity and damage to brain cells.  Methamphetamine: A stimulant that is sometimes mixed with MDMA to increase its effects. It is highly addictive and harmful to the cardiovascular system. PMA (Paramethoxyamphetamine): A substance that is often used as a substitute for MDMA but is much more toxic. It increases the risk of hyperthermia, seizures, and death. The danger lies in the fact that the exact composition of ecstasy pills is often unknown, which increases the risk of overdose and harmful interactions. 3 Reasons Why Individuals May Choose to Consume Ecstasy: Euphoria and Enhanced Sensory Perception: People use ecstasy for the feelings of extreme happiness, empathy, and enhanced sensory experiences (music, touch, lights) it produces. Social Pressure: Ecstasy is often used in social settings like clubs and music festivals, where individuals may feel peer pressure to join in the use of the drug. Increased Energy and Sociability: Users often take ecstasy to feel more energetic, sociable, and emotionally connected with others, which can enhance social experiences in group settings. Relationships and Being Safe Online Digital Footprint At what age does your digital footprint begin? Your digital footprint can begin as early as birth, or even before. This can happen when parents post ultrasound pictures or photos of their children on social media. As a child grows, their online presence can expand through activities such as sharing baby photos, school achievements, and even registering accounts for online services. What sort of things are included in your digital footprint? Is there anything that surprised you? Your digital footprint includes: Social media posts, comments, likes, and shares Photos and videos you upload Email exchanges and text messages Search engine queries and website visits Online purchases and subscriptions  Personal information used for account creation It might surprise some to know that even seemingly insignificant actions, like browsing websites or searching on Google, contribute to your digital footprint. Additionally, information shared by others about you, such as tagged photos or posts, also forms part of your digital presence. Does your digital footprint finish when you die? Why? No, your digital footprint does not finish when you die. The content and data you posted, shared, or were involved in can remain online indefinitely unless actively deleted. Social media accounts, websites, and other digital services may keep records of your activities, and others can continue to share content that includes or references you. Does a digital footprint only contain things that you post on social media? What else does it include? No, a digital footprint is not limited to social media posts. It also includes: Browsing history and search engine queries Information shared with websites and apps (personal data, emails, etc.) Online shopping behavior, including purchase history and preferences Location data from GPS-enabled devices or services Metadata attached to files (e.g., location info in photos) Data collected by third parties, such as advertisers and data brokers Advice for Young People to Protect Their Digital Footprint: Think before you post: Be mindful of the content you share, ensuring it’s something you’d be comfortable with others seeing in the future. Adjust privacy settings: Regularly review the privacy settings on social media and other accounts to control who can see your posts and personal information. Limit sharing personal information: Avoid sharing sensitive information like your home address, phone number, or financial details. Be cautious with apps and websites: Only use trusted services, and be aware of what data you're sharing when signing up for new platforms. Monitor your online presence: Periodically search for yourself online to see what information is publicly accessible and take action to remove anything inappropriate or outdated. Cybersmart CyberSmart is a term that refers to being knowledgeable, responsible, and safe while using the internet and digital devices. It encompasses various practices, tools, and resources designed to promote online safety, digital literacy, and cybersecurity. Being "cybersmart" means understanding the risks associated with online activities and knowing how to protect yourself from those risks. Here’s more information on what CyberSmart entails: Online Safety and Security: Cybersecurity: Protecting your digital devices, data, and networks from threats like viruses, malware, and hacking. Password Management: Using strong, unique passwords for all accounts and enabling two-factor authentication where possible. Safe Browsing: Being cautious about the websites you visit, avoiding suspicious links, and being aware of phishing scams that try to steal personal information. Digital Privacy: Personal Information: Being mindful of the information you share online, such as your full name, address, phone number, or financial details. Privacy Settings: Regularly reviewing and updating the privacy settings on your social media accounts and online services to control who can access your information. Data Encryption: Using encrypted communication methods (such as HTTPS websites) to protect your online data from interception. Social Media Awareness: Responsible Posting: Understanding the consequences of what you post online, considering how it may affect your reputation or the privacy of others. Cyberbullying Awareness: Being aware of and standing against cyberbullying by promoting kindness online and reporting inappropriate behavior. Digital Footprint: Knowing that everything you do online leaves a trail and can impact your personal and professional life in the future. Cyber Etiquette (Netiquette):  Practicing respect and proper manners when interacting with others online. Avoiding inappropriate language, hate speech, or engaging in harmful discussions. Being mindful of copyright laws when using or sharing content online. CyberSmart Resources: Many governments, educational institutions, and non-profits provide CyberSmart programs or initiatives that offer educational resources, training, and awareness campaigns to help people of all ages stay safe online. For example, the Australian Government’s CyberSmart program (now part of the eSafety Commissioner) provides tips and tools for families, teachers, and students to navigate the digital world safely. CyberSmart for Kids and Teens: Safe Gaming: Educating younger users on safe practices in online gaming environments, such as avoiding chat with strangers and being aware of in-game purchases. Parental Controls: Encouraging parents to use parental control tools to manage the time kids spend online and protect them from inappropriate content. Stranger Danger: Teaching kids and teens about the dangers of sharing personal information with strangers online and how to recognize and avoid potential online predators. CyberSmart Tips for Everyone: Keep software updated: Regularly update your devices and apps to patch vulnerabilities. Use a VPN (Virtual Private Network): When using public Wi-Fi, consider using a VPN to protect your data. Backup important data: Regularly back up files to protect against data loss due to cyber attacks or device failure. Be cautious with emails: Avoid opening emails from unknown senders and don’t click on suspicious links to protect against phishing scams. Identity Theft What is Identity Theft? Identity theft occurs when someone uses another person's personal information (like name, Social Security number, credit card number, or bank account information) without their permission to commit fraud or other crimes. Types of Identity Theft: 1. Financial Identity Theft: ○ The thief uses someone's identity to make purchases, withdraw money, or open credit accounts in their name. 2. Medical Identity Theft: ○ Personal information is used to obtain medical care, prescriptions, or submit fraudulent claims. 3. Criminal Identity Theft: ○ A criminal provides another person’s name or information during an arrest, leading to a false criminal record. 4. Tax Identity Theft: ○ Fraudsters use a stolen Social Security number to file a tax return in someone else's name to claim their refund. 5. Child Identity Theft: ○ A child's personal information is used to open accounts or obtain government benefits fraudulently. 6. Synthetic Identity Theft: ○ A new identity is created by combining real and fake information (e.g., using a real Social Security number with a fake name). How Identity Theft Happens: 1. Phishing Scams: Fraudulent emails or websites trick individuals into sharing personal information. 2. Data Breaches: Hackers gain unauthorized access to a company’s database and steal personal data. 3. Skimming: Devices are used to capture credit or debit card information at ATMs or payment terminals. 4. Dumpster Diving: Thieves rummage through trash to find personal documents like bank statements. 5. Stealing Mail: Thieves intercept sensitive documents like credit card offers or tax forms.  6. Public Wi-Fi: Hackers use unsecured networks to steal personal data transmitted over public Wi-Fi. Signs of Identity Theft: Unexplained withdrawals from your bank account. Not receiving expected bills or mail. Receiving bills or notices for accounts you didn’t open. Declined credit applications despite good credit history. Calls from debt collectors about debts you don’t owe. How to Protect Yourself: 1. Shred sensitive documents before disposal. 2. Use strong, unique passwords for different accounts and enable two-factor authentication. 3. Monitor your credit reports regularly for any suspicious activity. 4. Be cautious with public Wi-Fi and avoid accessing sensitive accounts in public. 5. Don’t share personal information via email or phone unless you initiated the contact. 6. Monitor bank and credit card statements for unauthorized transactions. Steps to Take If You Are a Victim: 1. Contact your financial institutions immediately to freeze or close affected accounts. 2. Place a fraud alert on your credit report with major credit bureaus (Experian, Equifax, TransUnion). 3. File a police report and report the identity theft to the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). 4. Monitor your credit report to ensure the fraud is resolved. Phishing Define the Term Phishing Phishing is a type of online scam where attackers attempt to deceive individuals into sharing sensitive information, such as usernames, passwords, or financial details, by posing as legitimate entities. These scams usually occur through emails, fake websites, or other forms of digital communication, often designed to appear as though they come from trusted sources like banks or social media platforms. What Forms of Phishing Are There? There are several types of phishing attacks, each with a different approach: Email Phishing: The most common form, where attackers send fake emails designed to look like they come from reputable sources (e.g., banks, online services) to trick recipients into providing personal information or clicking on malicious links. Spear Phishing: A more targeted form of phishing where attackers focus on a specific individual or organization. The emails are highly personalized to make the scam more convincing. Whaling: A type of spear phishing that targets high-profile individuals, such as company executives or public figures, in order to gain access to valuable information. Clone Phishing: In this attack, a legitimate email that was previously sent is cloned and altered, with malicious links or attachments replacing the original content. Vishing: This is voice phishing, where attackers use phone calls to try to convince individuals to share personal information or make payments. Smishing: Phishing through SMS (text messages), where attackers send deceptive messages to trick people into clicking malicious links or sharing private details. What Does the Term "Smishing" Mean? Smishing is a combination of "SMS" (text messaging) and "phishing." In smishing, scammers send fraudulent text messages to individuals, often pretending to be from trusted entities like banks, government agencies, or delivery companies. The goal is to trick the recipient into clicking a malicious link, sharing personal information, or downloading malware onto their device. For example, a smishing message might say: "Your bank account has been compromised. Click here to verify your details: [fake link]" What Will a Phishing Email Look Like and What Might They Say? A phishing email is designed to look like it comes from a legitimate source but includes subtle signs of fraud. Some common characteristics include:  Urgency: Phishing emails often create a sense of urgency to trick users into taking quick action without thinking. ○ Example: "Your account will be suspended unless you verify your information immediately." Suspicious Links: Phishing emails often contain links that appear to be from legitimate websites but lead to fraudulent ones. ○ Example: "Click here to log in to your bank account" with a link that looks like it's from your bank but redirects to a fake website. Unsolicited Attachments: Phishing emails might contain attachments that claim to be important documents but are actually malware. ○ Example: "Please see your attached invoice" when you’re not expecting an invoice. Spoofed Email Addresses: The email may come from an address that closely resembles a legitimate one, but with slight variations (e.g., support@[email protected] instead of [email protected]). How Can You Tell if It Is Phishing? Here are some signs that can help you recognize phishing attempts: Check the Sender’s Email Address: Phishing emails often come from addresses that look similar to a legitimate company’s domain but have slight differences. Always double-check the sender's email for inconsistencies. Look for Poor Grammar and Spelling Mistakes: Many phishing emails contain spelling or grammatical errors. Legitimate companies usually don’t send poorly written emails. Check Links Before Clicking: Hover over any links in the email (without clicking) to see where they actually lead. If the URL looks suspicious or unfamiliar, do not click it. Sense of Urgency or Fear: If the email is trying to scare you into quick action (e.g., "Your account will be locked in 24 hours!"), be cautious. Scammers often use fear to trick people into clicking links or providing information. Unexpected Requests for Personal Information: Legitimate organizations, especially banks and government agencies, will never ask for sensitive information like passwords or credit card numbers via email. Catfishing What is Catfishing? Catfishing refers to the act of creating a fake identity online to deceive someone, usually for personal gain or emotional manipulation. The term became popular with the rise of online dating and social media platforms, where people can interact with strangers. In a typical catfishing scenario, the perpetrator pretends to be someone they’re not, often using fake photos, names, and details to establish romantic or emotional connections with unsuspecting victims. How Does Catfishing Happen? Catfishers often use social media, dating apps, or messaging platforms to create elaborate fake profiles. Here’s how the process typically works: 1. Creation of a Fake Identity: The catfisher fabricates a persona, usually using stolen or altered photos, made-up background stories, and false details about their life (e.g., job, location, family). They might steal these elements from real people or create entirely fictional characters. 2. Establishing a Relationship: The catfisher reaches out to their target, often initiating contact on dating sites, social media platforms, or even through direct messages. They may engage in prolonged conversations to build trust, creating a sense of closeness or emotional connection. 3. Manipulation and Exploitation: Once trust is established, the catfisher may ask for favors, gifts, or money, often playing on the victim's emotions. They might claim they need help with a financial emergency, a plane ticket to visit, or some other urgent need. Some catfishers also do this for emotional control, seeking attention and validation without financial motives. Motives Behind Catfishing Catfishing can happen for various reasons, depending on the perpetrator’s intent. Some common motives include: 1. Emotional Gratification: Some catfishers seek attention, validation, or emotional satisfaction by creating fake relationships with unsuspecting victims. They may enjoy the thrill of deceiving someone and maintaining a false persona. 2. Financial Gain: Many catfishers attempt to defraud their victims financially by creating fake crises or situations that require money. This could range from requests for gifts to larger financial scams, like asking for loans or funds for medical emergencies. 3. Revenge or Malice: In some cases, catfishing is used as a means of revenge or to humiliate someone. The catfisher may target someone they know in real life and aim to emotionally manipulate or hurt them.  4. Exploration of Identity: Some individuals may use catfishing as a way to explore different identities or live out fantasies that they can't in their real lives. For instance, someone may catfish by pretending to be a different gender, age, or lifestyle to experience interactions they wouldn't have otherwise. Signs You May Be a Victim of Catfishing There are several red flags to watch for when interacting with someone online, especially if you suspect catfishing: 1. Refusal to Meet in Person or Video Chat: One of the biggest red flags in catfishing is when the person consistently refuses to meet in person or participate in video calls. They may make excuses about bad internet connections, broken cameras, or being too busy. 2. Too Good to Be True: If the person seems perfect in every way, they may be crafting an idealized persona to win your trust. Catfishers often use photos of very attractive people and weave idealized, exciting stories about their lives. 3. Inconsistent or Vague Details: If the person’s story seems to change over time, or they’re vague when discussing details about their life, that can be a sign of deception. Inconsistent timelines or unrealistic backstories (e.g., claiming to be a world-famous model but unwilling to share proof) should raise suspicion. 4. Sudden Requests for Money: Many catfishers, after gaining their victim’s trust, will ask for money. This is usually framed as an emergency (e.g., they need money for a flight to visit, medical bills, or help with family troubles). 5. Overly Fast Emotional Connection: If someone you’ve only recently met online is overly affectionate, makes intense emotional declarations, or pushes for a quick romantic relationship, it may be a sign they’re trying to manipulate you emotionally. Consequences of Catfishing Emotional Harm: The most significant consequence is emotional damage. Victims may feel betrayed, embarrassed, or heartbroken after realizing they were deceived. Financial Loss: If the catfisher asks for money, victims can suffer substantial financial loss, especially if they’ve sent money for non-existent emergencies. Trust Issues: Being catfished can make victims hesitant to trust others, especially when forming future relationships online.  Legal and Criminal Ramifications: In some cases, catfishing can escalate to criminal fraud, especially if the perpetrator is involved in financial scams or uses the victim’s personal information for illegal activities. How to Protect Yourself from Catfishing 1. Verify Their Identity: Before engaging deeply with someone online, try to verify their identity. This could mean doing a reverse image search on their profile picture or asking for video calls to confirm their appearance matches their photos. 2. Be Skeptical of "Perfect" Profiles: If someone’s profile seems too good to be true, be cautious. Ask questions and look for inconsistencies in their story. 3. Never Send Money to Someone You Haven't Met: A major red flag is someone asking for financial help when you’ve never met them in person. Always be wary of anyone who tries to guilt or pressure you into sending money. 4. Take Your Time: Avoid rushing into relationships online. Catfishers often push for a quick emotional connection to make the victim less cautious. 5. Report Suspicious Profiles: If you suspect someone is catfishing, report the profile to the platform or website you’re using. What to Do If You Suspect You’re Being Catfished Stop Contact: If you realize you’re being deceived, immediately cease all communication with the catfisher. Report the Person: Most social media sites and dating platforms have mechanisms for reporting fake profiles. You can also report the person to law enforcement if they’ve committed fraud or caused you harm. Seek Emotional Support: Being catfished can be emotionally devastating, and it's important to talk to friends, family, or a professional counselor about your experience. Cyberbullying What is Cyberbullying? Cyberbullying is the use of digital platforms, such as social media, text messaging, email, or websites, to harass, threaten, embarrass, or target another individual. Unlike traditional bullying, cyberbullying happens online, which means it can occur 24/7 and can reach a wide audience instantly. It can involve harmful comments, spreading rumors, posting private information, or using fake identities to hurt or manipulate someone. How Are People Cyberbullied? People can be cyberbullied in several ways, including: Harassment: Repeatedly sending hurtful or threatening messages through text, email, or social media. Doxxing: Sharing private or sensitive information about someone without their consent to cause harm or embarrassment. Impersonation: Creating fake profiles or accounts in someone’s name to post inappropriate or false content. Exclusion: Intentionally leaving someone out of online activities or social groups, which can lead to feelings of isolation. Spreading Rumors: Posting false, damaging, or hurtful statements or images about someone to damage their reputation. Cyberstalking: Continuously sending unwanted messages or threats, causing the person to feel unsafe. Public Shaming: Posting embarrassing or humiliating content about someone to a wide audience. Why Do People Cyberbully Others? There are several reasons why people might engage in cyberbullying: Anonymity: The ability to hide behind a screen gives some individuals a sense of power without fear of being caught or punished. Power and Control: Cyberbullies often want to feel superior or in control of others and use online platforms to assert dominance. Revenge or Jealousy: Some people cyberbully to get back at someone who has wronged them or to express jealousy over someone's success or relationships. Insecurity: Bullies may project their own insecurities onto others, using hurtful messages or comments to deflect attention from their own issues. Peer Pressure: In some cases, people join in on cyberbullying because they feel pressured by friends or a social group. Lack of Empathy: Some individuals don't fully understand or care about the impact their words and actions have on others when they’re online. How Do People React to Cyberbullying? People can react to cyberbullying in different ways, and the effects can vary depending on the individual: Emotional Distress: Victims often experience feelings of anxiety, depression, anger, or humiliation. The constant nature of cyberbullying can make them feel overwhelmed and powerless. Social Withdrawal: Many victims of cyberbullying may isolate themselves from friends and family, avoiding social situations or online platforms altogether. Lower Self-Esteem: Repeated cyberbullying can lead to feelings of worthlessness and self-doubt, as individuals internalize the hurtful comments or attacks. Academic/Work Struggles: Cyberbullying can cause victims to lose focus, leading to poor performance in school or work due to stress and anxiety. Self-Harm and Suicidal Thoughts: In severe cases, the emotional toll of cyberbullying can lead to self-harm or thoughts of suicide, as victims may feel there is no escape from the constant harassment. Seeking Help: Some victims reach out to trusted adults, counselors, or friends for help in dealing with the effects of cyberbullying, while others may try to handle it on their own. How Can I Prevent Cyberbullying and Stay Cyber-Safe? To protect yourself and prevent cyberbullying, follow these steps: Think Before You Post: Be mindful of what you share online, and avoid posting personal or sensitive information that could be used against you. Strengthen Privacy Settings: Use strong privacy settings on social media and other online platforms to control who can see your posts and send you messages. Be Selective with Friends and Followers: Only accept friend requests or follow requests from people you know and trust. Avoid connecting with strangers who may have malicious intent. Don’t Engage: If someone tries to cyberbully you, don’t respond or retaliate. Engaging with the bully can escalate the situation. Instead, block or report the user. Keep Evidence: If you are being cyberbullied, take screenshots or save messages as evidence in case you need to report it to authorities, school officials, or the platform itself. Report Abuse: Most social media platforms have mechanisms to report abusive content or behavior. Use these tools to report cyberbullying, and encourage others to do the same.  Seek Support: If you’re being cyberbullied, don’t face it alone. Talk to a trusted adult, counselor, or friend to help you navigate the situation and find solutions. Educate Yourself and Others: Learn about the effects of cyberbullying and encourage friends and family to practice kindness and empathy online. Educating others can reduce the chances of cyberbullying occurring in your social circle. Sexting What is Sexting? Sexting is the act of sending, receiving, or sharing sexually explicit messages, images, or videos through digital devices like smartphones, computers, or tablets. These messages may include nude or semi-nude photos, sexually suggestive comments, or explicit videos. While often done consensually between adults, sexting can lead to serious emotional, social, and legal consequences, especially when minors are involved. List Some Devices/Websites That Could Be Used for Sexting. Sexting can happen across various devices and platforms, including: Smartphones: Using messaging apps (e.g., SMS, WhatsApp, Signal, Facebook Messenger) Tablets and Computers: Via email or social media platforms Social Media Platforms: Instagram, Snapchat, Twitter, TikTok (via direct messages) Dating Apps: Tinder, Bumble, Grindr Video Call Apps: Zoom, FaceTime, Skype (for live sexting or video chats) Encrypted Messaging Apps: Signal, Telegram, or other apps with privacy features File-Sharing Services: Cloud platforms like Google Drive or Dropbox can also be used to share explicit content How Can Sexting Come Back to Haunt the Person Who Sent the Sexting Message? Even if someone sends a sexting message privately, there are several ways it could resurface and cause problems: Screenshots or Saved Messages: Even if sent via disappearing message apps like Snapchat, the recipient can screenshot or save the content without the sender's knowledge, and it can be shared or used later.  Shared Without Consent: Trusting someone with intimate images doesn’t guarantee they will keep them private. Content can be forwarded, posted online, or shared with others maliciously (this is known as revenge porn). Hacked Accounts: If a phone, social media, or cloud account is hacked, the private content could be stolen and shared publicly. Loss of Control: Once a sexting message is sent, the sender loses control over where it ends up, who sees it, and how it’s used, which can lead to long-term regret and distress. What Are Some of the Social Consequences of a Sexting Message? Sexting messages, especially if shared without consent, can lead to several social consequences: Reputation Damage: If the explicit content is circulated publicly or among peers, the sender's reputation could be severely harmed, leading to social judgment, ridicule, or shaming. Bullying and Harassment: A person whose sexts are shared may become a target of cyberbullying, with others using the images or videos to taunt, humiliate, or threaten them. Loss of Friendships/Relationships: Trust can be broken if intimate messages are shared among peers, which may lead to the breakdown of friendships or romantic relationships. Isolation: The individual may feel embarrassed or ashamed, causing them to withdraw from social groups or become more isolated due to the fear of judgment. Mental Health Issues: The social and emotional stress caused by having intimate messages shared can lead to anxiety, depression, and loss of self-esteem. What Can Be the Legal Consequences of Sexting for Both the Person Sending and the Person Receiving the Message? The legal consequences of sexting vary depending on the age of the participants and the content shared: For Minors: If either the sender or recipient is under the age of 18, sexting can lead to serious legal consequences. In many countries, it is considered child pornography, even if both parties consented. This can result in criminal charges for the possession, distribution, or production of explicit images of minors. ○ For the Sender: They can face charges for producing or distributing child pornography if they send explicit images of themselves or another minor. ○ For the Recipient: If they possess, forward, or share the explicit images, they could be charged with possessing or distributing child pornography.  For Adults: Sexting between consenting adults is usually not illegal, but sharing or distributing explicit content without the other person’s consent (often called non-consensual pornography or revenge porn) can lead to criminal charges. Many jurisdictions have laws against revenge porn that can lead to fines or jail time for the perpetrator. Registration as a Sex Offender: In some cases involving minors, individuals convicted of distributing or possessing explicit content could be required to register as sex offenders, which carries long-term social and legal implications. How Could Sexting Be Linked to All Aspects of Bullying? Sexting is often tied to various forms of bullying, both online and in person: Cyberbullying: If explicit images or videos are shared without consent, they can become tools for cyberbullying. The victim may be taunted, harassed, or threatened online through social media or messaging apps. Emotional Bullying: The individual may be emotionally manipulated or pressured into sending explicit content, especially in relationships where power dynamics are uneven. Later, that content can be used to coerce, control, or emotionally harm the person. Sexual Harassment: Unwanted or unsolicited sexting is a form of sexual harassment, where one person sends explicit messages or images without the recipient’s consent, making them feel uncomfortable or violated. Exclusion or Isolation: Victims of sexting-related bullying might experience exclusion from social groups or friend circles due to the judgment or embarrassment of having their intimate content leaked. Verbal and Physical Bullying: In school or other social settings, sexting victims may be bullied verbally or even physically, with others mocking or attacking them because of the leaked content. Living Life to the Full Cardiovacular disease (CVD) Cancer Diabetes Mental Health Obesity Newcombe Ball Basic Game Setup Teams: 2 teams play on a court, with or without a net. Preferred Equipment: ○ Tennis, badminton, or volleyball court with a net. ○ Court divided into four quadrants with masking tape. ○ Net at medium height. ○ If no net, mark a "no-go" zone and require serves above head height. Team Size: 4 vs. 4 or up to 8 per side. Game Rules 1. Starting the Game: ○ One player tosses the ball from the back of their court across the net for the opponent to catch. 2. Gameplay: ○ Each player must stay within their playing area. ○ Maximum of 3 passes allowed before the ball is returned. ○ Alternate serves; rotate the server after each point. 3. Scoring: ○ Servers score if the ball touches the ground in the receivers' area. ○ Receivers score if the servers hit outside the receivers' court.  ○ Score to a set number of points or a set time limit. ○ Emphasize cooperation by focusing on keeping the rally going. Variations Use equipment like paddles, sponge balls, softballs, or shuttlecocks. Play with smaller teams (1v1 or 2v2). Coaching Tips Use role models to demonstrate teamwork and game concepts. Encourage players to support each other (defense, attack). Emphasize cooperation and long rallies without dropping the ball. Additional Game Rules Supporting a Teammate: ○ Encourage players to assist a teammate in the same square by moving out of the way. Player Movement: ○ Players can only leave their area if the ball moves to an adjacent square. Touches: ○ Maximum of 4 touches allowed before returning. Access: ○ All players have access to the court space. Return Rules: ○ Return within 3-ball rule. ○ Allow balls to be passed directly to teammates. Gameplay Adjustments Allowable Moves: ○ Allow serving by hitting the ball over. ○ Allow blocking, but not reaching over the net. ○ Allow "hot potato" passes (no holding). Playing Area Vary the court’s size or shape as needed. Adjust the width of the "no-go" area when playing without a net.  Safety Guidelines Use smooth surfaces free of obstructions. Encourage players to call "mine" for clear communication. Only use a bat with 1v1 or 2v2 combinations. Questions for Players For Receivers: ○ How to avoid crowding? ○ How to cover the court efficiently and prevent ball confusion? For Servers: ○ How to target your serve for strategic advantage? ○ What tactics can you use to prevent blocks? Athletics https://www.athletics.com.au/competition-rules/ - Link to a website with all athletics sports and how each one are played or Athletics Rules How long is a lap around the track? World Athletics, the international governing body for athletics, has set standards for competition tracks. One lap on the inside lane of a standard outdoor track is 400 metres. When there's a 400-metre race, the runners go for one lap. A 200-metre race is half of a lap on the outdoor track. Note: Standard indoor tracks are 200 metres long, so a 400-metre race on a standard indoor track would mean running two laps around the track. When outdoor races are one lap or longer, you might hear an announcer refer to the "backstretch" and the "homestretch". These refer to the two longer sections of the track, or straights. The "homestretch" is the straight where races finish, and the "backstretch" is the other straight on the opposite side of the track. Almost all of the running and hurdling events at an athletics competition are held on the track. However, there are exceptions. At the Olympics, the marathon and certain race-walking events are typically held outside the stadium and finish on the track. At a standard middle school, secondary school, university or other professional outdoor athletics competition, the running events are held on the 400-metre oval. The other events, like throwing and jumping, occur on the infield or another location near the track. The sprints: 60 metres (indoor only), 100 metres, 200 metres, 400 metres and 4x100-metre and 4x400-metre relays At the start of a sprint race, the runners in these events will have their feet in starting blocks—metal apparatuses that they use to explode off the line at the sound of the starter's signal. "Sprinters are quick, of course, but to separate from the pack and become great, they need more than just raw speed", said Alton McKenzie, director of athletics and cross-country at Georgetown University. "In a short time, it gets very technical. When you get into the technicalities of trying to take a tenth of a second off your time, it takes a lot of work to do that", he said. Sprinters work on their starts, running form and techniques to shave fractions of a second from their times, which can make the difference between first and second place. While most of the sprints are individual events, there are also sprint relays. In these events, teams of four sprinters all run the same distance in sequence, passing a baton at each exchange between sprinters. In the 4x100-metre relay, for instance, the race is 400 metres in total, with four runners each running 100 metres. In an overlap zone that's 20 metres long, each athlete passes the baton to the next runner, who then completes their 100 metres, and so on. In addition to the 4x100-metre relay race, there's also a 4x400-metre sprint relay race. Middle-distance running events: 800 metres, 1,500 metres, mile, 4x800-metre relays These races don't start from blocks. Runners will often start in a lunge position, feet planted on the track. Athletes who compete in these middle distances need a combination of speed and endurance. The 1,500 metres has been run at the Olympics since 1896 and is a standard distance at university and international competitions. Sometimes referred to as the "metric mile", this distance covers three and three-quarter laps on a standard track. This distance is 109 metres shorter than a full mile. At some competitions, athletes race the mile. A mile is 1,609 metres long—and four laps of a standard track equals 1,600 metres. Therefore, full-mile races start a little more than 9 metres behind the finishing line. The 800 metres is sometimes referred to as the "half-mile", even though it is not quite half a mile. At some—but not all—competitions, there's also a 4x800-metre relay race. Just like the sprint relays, four runners team up and each run the distance for a total of 3,200 metres in the race. Athletics 101: A Beginner's Guide to All the Events in the Sport Long-distance running events: 3000-metre steeplechase, 5,000 metres and 10,000 metres These runs are endurance events. The 5,000 metres, or 5 kilometres, is 3.1 miles long. The 10,000 metres, or 10 kilometres, is 6.2 miles long. In the 3,000-metre steeplechase, distance runners jump over large, hurdle-like barriers. On each lap of the race, as the athletes round the far curve of the oval track, they veer off to the inside of the track to jump over a water obstacle—a large barrier with a pool of water at the base. After the runners clear the water obstacle, they return to the lanes of the oval as they continue racing. Over the 3,000-metre distance, steeplechasers run seven and a half laps around the track, tackling 28 barrier jumps and seven water jumps along the way. Steeplechase barriers are different from the hurdles used in the hurdle races described below. In the men's steeplechase event, according to the USA Track and Field (USATF) rule book, the barriers are one metre (approx.) high, while women's steeplechase barriers are 0.8 metres (approx.) high. Both men's and women's steeplechase barriers are 3.96 metres wide. Unlike hurdles that athletes jump over in sprint events, steeplechase barriers are fixed in place and won't move if an athlete comes into contact with them. Since steeplechase barriers are thicker and sturdier than hurdles, runners can step on the top of the barrier to jump over it without knocking it down. Road-running events: marathons and half-marathons The marathon is 26.2 miles long. Therefore, the half-marathon is 13.1 miles. While many marathon and half-marathon races are held on the roads, separate from track competitions, the marathon is the last athletics event held at the Olympics, and both the half-marathon and marathon are run at the World Athletics Championships. Hurdling events: 100-, 110- and 400-metre hurdles In hurdle races, runners must jump over a series of 10 metal hurdles on their way to the finishing line. According to the USATF rulebook, men's hurdles are 1.067 metres high for the 110-metre hurdles and 0.914 metres high for the 400-metre race. Women's hurdles are 0.84 metres high for the 100-metre hurdles and 0.762 metres high for the 400-metre distance. The hurdles are spaced throughout these distances. In the 400-metre distance, hurdlers will run 45 metres to the first hurdle, then 35 metres between each subsequent hurdle. In the 100- and 110-metre distances, the hurdles are 8.5 and 9.14 metres apart, respectively. In most competitions, men run the 110-metre hurdles, while women run the 100-metre hurdles. Both men and women compete in the 400-metre hurdles. Jumps: high jump, long jump and triple jump In the high jump, athletes run to jump off one foot and try to clear a 4-metre wide, thin, horizontal bar. If they hit the bar too hard, the bar will fall off its stand, and the jump doesn't count. Since the late 1960s, athletes have traditionally jumped backwards over the bar, with their backs facing the ground and their chests facing the sky. After their backwards jump, athletes land on a big cushion called a crash pad. In the long jump, athletes sprint along a 40-metre straight towards a take-off board. When the jumper's foot hits the take-off board, they jump as far as they can into a pit of sand. The number of jump attempts each jumper gets can vary from competition to competition, but in general, the longest jump wins. For a jump to be legal, the jumper's toe cannot pass the end of the take-off board before they jump into the air. If the toe passes this line, it's a foul, and the jump doesn't count. In the triple jump, athletes sprint up to a take-off board before performing three consecutive horizontal jumps. These are referred to as a hop, step and jump. The hop is a one-footed jump where the athlete lands on the same foot they took off with, so if they hop with the right foot, they land on their right foot. The next jump, or step, takes off from one foot but lands with the opposite. For example, a right-footed hopper will land on their left foot after the step. Finally, there's the jump, where the athlete jumps from their landing "step" foot as far as they can into a sand pit. "Getting all those steps right takes a lot of coordination", said Dolan. It can be difficult to keep your momentum going while switching feet and trying to do all three moves smoothly. But doing so is the key to success: The winning triple jumper is the athlete who has the furthest distance from the beginning of their "hop" to the end of their "jump". As with the long jump, the number of jump attempts may be different in different competitions. "Though they specialise in jumping, athletes in all three of these events must be strong runners", McKenzie said. Since they need to sprint up to their take-off point, they spend more time running, both in training and in competing, than they do jumping. The throws: javelin, shot put, hammer throw and discus In all four of these events, athletes try to throw a piece of equipment as far as they can without stepping over a line or out of a circle. If they do, the throw is a foul and doesn't count. In the javelin, athletes throw a metal-tipped spear. The men's javelin is 2.6 to 2.7 metres long and must weigh at least 800 grams (1.76 pounds). The women's javelin is 2.2 to 2.3 metres long and must weigh 600 grams (1.32 pounds) or more. Athletes run up towards a line and then throw the spear. If they step over the line, the throw doesn't count. "Because the javelin throw is an overhead motion, baseball pitchers, quarterbacks and volleyball players—who perform a similar motion in their respective sports—often excel at javelin", said Nathan Ott, throws coach for Penn State University's athletics team. In the shot put, athletes throw a metal sphere called a "shot". The men's shot weighs 16 pounds, or 7.26 kilograms, while the women's shot weighs 8.8 pounds, or 4 kilograms. The thrower usually holds the shot against their neck with one hand, then spins in a circle before throwing the shot as far as they can. Most athletes spin one and a half times before throwing. The shot put circle has a diameter of 7 feet, or 2.135 metres, and has a board at the front of the circle, which athletes can brace against as they finish. But if their feet leave the circle, the throw doesn't count. In most competitions, athletes throw six times. The athlete with the longest legal throw wins. The hammer throw involves throwing from the same circle as the shot put, but the implement and the throw are much different. The "hammer" is a metal ball attached to a grip via a metal wire measuring 1.22 metres or shorter. The metal ball at the end of the hammer weighs the same as the shot: the men's hammer ball weighs 16 pounds, or 7.26 kilogrammes, while the women's weighs 8.8 pounds, or 4 kilogrammes. Hammer throwers typically spin three or four times before releasing the ball and chain to let it fly across the field. The last throw is the discus, where athletes fling a metal disc after one and a half spins in a slightly larger circle. The discus circle is 2.5 metres in diameter, compared to 2.135 metres for the shot put and hammer. The men's disc has a diameter of 22 centimetres and weighs 2 kilogrammes, or 2,000 grams. The women's disc has a diameter of 18 centimetres and a weight of 1 kilogramme, or 2,000 grams. Basketball https://www.wikihow.com/Play-Basketball- Link to how to play basketball and it’s rules or Scoring The winner of a game of basketball is determined by the team scoring the greater number of points. If scores are tied at the end of the 4th period, extra period(s) of 5 minutes are played until a result is obtained. Goals from the field score either 2 or 3 points. A 3 point goal is awarded if the ball is released from outside the three point area. The position of the shooter is determined from where the shooter last touched the court before releasing the ball. Free throws are awarded to a player fouled in the act of shooting and when the defending team has committed 5 team fouls. Each successful free throw scores 1 point. If the ball passes through the basket from below no points can be scored and a violation is called. If a team accidentally scores a goal in the wrong basket, the points are awarded to the court captain of the opposing team. If a team deliberately scores a goal in the wrong basket, no points can be scored and the ball is awarded to the opposing team out of bounds opposite the free throw line. Act of Shooting A player is in the act of shooting when the player has started an attempt to score and continues until the ball leaves the player's hand(s). If the shooter is in the air, the act of shooting continues until the player's feet return to the floor. A shot for a field goal or a free throw: Begins: when the ball leaves the hand(s) of a player in the act of shooting Ends when the ball: Enters the basket directly from above and passes through the basket No longer has the possibility of entering the basket Touches the ring or the floor Becomes dead Free Throws The shooter takes a position behind the free throw line and in the semi circle and does not fake the free throw shoots the ball within 5 seconds ensures that the ball hits the ring or enters the basket does not touch the free throw line or restricted area until the ball hits the ring Players in the rebound positions maximum 3 defensive [B1, B2 or B3] and 2 offensive players [A1and A2] may occupy the rebound positions as shown. Players may only occupy position they are entitled to May not enter the restricted area until the ball has left the shooter’s hands Other Players May occupy any other position on the court above the free throw line extended, outside the 3 point line and remain there until the ball hits the ring. Opponents may not distract the shooter by waiving their hands or making noises. If there is no rebound after the last free throw, there is no line up along the free throw lines. Free throw Violations During the last or only free throw If missed: ○ Violation by the shooter or team-mate-opponent’s ball out of bounds free throw line extended ○ Violation by opponent of free throw shooter-another free throw is awarded ○ Violation by both teams-jump ball situation If successful: ○ Violation by the shooter – cancel the basket – opponent’s ball out of bounds free throw line extended ○ Violation by team-matje or opposition – one point awarded and ignore the violation During a free throw to be followed by another free throw or further penalty If successful ○ Violation by the shooter – cancel the basket and complete free throws ○ Violation by team-mate or opposition – award one point and ignore the violation VIOLATIONS Violations are infractions of the rules. The penalty is the opponents receive the ball for a throw-in from the nearest point out of bounds, except directly behind the backboard, unless otherwise stated. Out of Bounds Includes the sidelines and end lines, the floor and objects outside of these lines. The boundary lines are out of court. This includes structures, supports, the back of the backboard, lights and overhangs. It does NOT include the edges (sides, top and bottom) of the backboard. The ball is out of bounds if it touches any of the above, or someone who is standing out of bounds. The ball is caused to go out of bounds by the last player to touch the ball before it goes out, or by a player who is already out of bounds. Illegal Dribble A dribble starts when a player, having gained control of a live ball bounces, throws, taps or rolls the ball and touches it again before it touches another player. During a dribble, the ball must contact the floor, between touches. The dribble ends when the player touches the ball with both hands at the same time or the ball comes to rest in 1 or both hands. The following are not considered dribbles: The player fumbles the ball at the beginning or end of a dribble Successive shots for goal (regardless of whether the ball hits the ring/backboard or not) Attempts to gain control of the ball by tapping the ball away from another player A player may not make a second dribble after completing a dribble. A player may dribble again after a shot is attempted, the ball is batted away by an opponent, a pass or fumble is touched by another player. Carried Ball A player may not allow the ball to come to rest in the hand during a dribble. Travelling Establishing a Pivot Foot: When a player receives the ball, he/she is entitled to stop, move, shoot or pass under the following conditions: Player catches the ball with both feet on the floor ( i s s t a t i o n a r y ) - may use either foot as the pivot foot. Once one foot is lifted, the other foot becomes the pivot foot. Player catches the ball while moving or dribbling may stop as follows: ○ If one foot is touching the floor: this foot becomes the zero or gather step ○ If both feet are off the floor: and the player lands on both feet simultaneously, the moment one foot is lifted, the other become the pivot foot ○ If both feet are off the floor and the player lands on one foot, then that foot becomes the zero or gather step and the second foot to land is the pivot foot In the 2017 FIBA rule changes there was a significant change to travel rule surrounding a player in motion receiving the ball, beginning a dribble, shooting or passing the ball. Progressing with the ball (after establishing a pivot foot) for a stationary player After coming to a legal stop the player with a pivot foot ○ Must release the ball before lifting the pivot foot to start a dribble ○ May lift the pivot foot or jump to shoot or pass. The ball must be released before the pivot foot returns to the floor After coming to a legal stop the player without a pivot foot (has caught the ball in the air and landed on two feet)  ○ Must release the ball before lifting either foot when commencing a dribble ○ May lift one of both feet to shoot or pass. The ball must be released before either foot returns to the floor Progressing with the ball for a player in motion (not stationary) To legally begin a dribble ○ A player in motion is allowed a gather or ‘zero’ step at the beginning or the end of a dribble ○ The foot that is on the ground when the player catches the ball or the first to land is the ’zero’ step ○ A player in motion must release the ball from his/her hands prior to the 2 step landing on the floor. Example: Blue 5 who is running up the court catches the ball with his left foot on the floor, he steps with his right foot and releases the ball to begin his dribble before his left foot hits the floor again. This is legal To legally end a dribble ○ A player in motion is allowed a gather or ‘zero’ step at the beginning or the end of a dribble. ○ The foot that is on the ground when the player catches the ball or the first to land is the ’zero’ step ○ A player in motion must release the ball from his/her hands prior to the 1 step (pivot foot) landing on the floor again after the 2 step. ○ Example: Blue 5 who is dribbling the ball towards the basket picks the ball up with his right foot on the floor, he steps with his left foot and then his right foot again prior to releasing the ball for the layup or a pass. This is legal  ○ Note: If blue 5 comes to a stop at the end of his dribble, it is the foot that landed second (the 1 step) becomes the pivot foot. The following are not travels: A player falling to the floor A player sliding along the floor, provided it is sliding due to natural momentum. A player cannot roll on the floor or stand up from the position on the floor while holding the ball. From this position a player must begin a dribble, pass or shoot the ball to avoid a violation. FOULS Personal Foul Illegal contact on an opponent whether the ball is live or dead. A player shall not hold, block, push, charge, trip or impede the progress of an opponent by extending his hand, arm, elbow, shoulder, hip, leg, knee or foot not by bending his body into an ‘abnormal’ position (outside his cylinder), nor shall he indulge in and rough or violent play. Unsportsmanlike Foul A personal foul that is not a legitimate attempt to play the ball or causes excessive contact on an opponent with or without the ball. Below are the five criteria of the Unsportsmanlike Foul: (C1) Not a legitimate attempt to directly play the ball within the spirit and intent of the rules.  (C2) Excessive, hard contact caused by a player in an effort to play the ball or an opponent (C3) An unnecessary contact caused by the defensive player in order to stop the progress of the offensive team in transition. (C4) Contact by the defensive player from behind or laterally on an opponent in an attempt to stop the fast break and there is no defensive player between the offensive player and the opponent’s basket. This applies until the offensive player begins his act of shooting. (C5) Contact by the defensive player on an opponent on the playing court during the last 2 minutes in the fourth period and in each extra period, when the ball is out-of bounds for a throw-in and still in the hands of the official or at the disposal of the player taking the throw-in. Penalty: if the foul is committed on a player not in the act of shooting = 2 free throws. For a player in the act of shooting they are awarded 2 free throws for a field goal attempt or 3 free throws for a 3 point attempt. For a player in the act of shooting, if they made the basket, the score counts and they are awarded 1 further free throw. The free throws are followed by a throw in at the center line extended opposite the scorer’s table. Types of Personal fouls Holding Illegal personal contact with an opponent that interferes with his freedom of movement. This contact can occur with any part of the body Pushing Illegal personal contact with any part of the body where a player forcibly moves or attempts to move an opponent with or without the ball Illegal use of hands Occurs when the defensive player is in a guarding position and his hands or arms are placed upon and remains in contact with an opponent with or without the ball, to impede his movement. Blocking/Illegal Screen When a player causes contact that impedes the progress of an opponent. This usually occurs when a player fails to gain or maintain a legal guarding position and stops the player with the body or legs. Blocking also includes illegal screens that impedes the progress of an opponent. Illegal screening occurs when a player who is screening an opponent was moving when contact occurred. Charging When the player with the ball forcibly pushes (or moves) into an opponent’s torso who is in a legal guarding position. When judging a charging foul consider the following: The defensive player must establish a legal guarding position (the defense does not have to be stationary for a charge to be called) The defensive player may remain stationary, jump vertically, move laterally or backwards to maintain his/her legal guarding position. Contact must be on the torso (body) Softball Softball rules Softball is a variation of the sport baseball. It’s more commonly played at a recreational level and played on a pitch smaller than that of baseball. Whilst the rules are very similar there are some that differ. The sport is widely played throughout North America but there are also professional leagues played in Asia, Europe and South America. Object of the Game The object of softball is to hit the ball with a bat before the player tries to run around an infield with four bases. Once a player manages to get right round without being given out a run is scored. The team with the most runs at the end of the game is deemed the winner. Players & Equipment Each softball team has 9 players. The game takes place over 7 innings and within each innings the team will bat then field. An innings is split into two sections called the top and the bottom of the innings. The away team bats first at the top of the innings whilst the home team field, then teams switch so the home team bats at the bottom of the innings. Pitch sizes vary in softball and are often just whatever size can be found or used at the time. The in- filed has four bases in a diamond shape. The bases are home base (where the batter stands), first base, second base and third base. Home plate can be found in the centre of the field where the pitcher must stand to throw the ball. The pitcher must throw the ball underarm and must have at least one foot on the plate at the point of delivery. Once a batting order is set at the start of the game it cannot be changed throughout. A batsman can be given out by being caught by a fielder without the ball bouncing, missing the ball three times in which a strike is called or by being tagged by a fielder holding the ball whilst running between bases. A batsman can be walked to first base if the pitcher fails to get the ball within the strike zone 4 times without a stroke being made. The strike zone in softball is larger than that of baseball. Teams can be mixed with men and women or with just a single sex on each team. Once a team have completed their innings then the teams switch to do the opposite role. An innings is complete when the fielding team manage to get three players out from the bating team. Scoring To score a run the batsman must successfully first hit the ball and make it around the bases without being given out. One run is scored for every batsmen they manage to get round. A run can be scored even if the batsmen who hit the ball doesn’t make it round to home plate but manages to get a player that’s already on one of the bases home. Winning the Game The winners of the game will be decided after the 7 innings have all been completed. The team with most runs after 7 innings will be declared the winner. If after 7 innings the game is tied, then an extra innings will be played until a winner is found. Rules of Softball  Each team consists of 9 players and teams can be of mixed gender A game lasts for 7 innings and is split into two sections; the top and bottom of the innings. Each team bats once in each innings before the sides switch. The fielding team has a pitcher, catcher, a player on first base, second base, third base, three deep fielders and short stop. A batter must successfully strike the ball and run around as many bases as possible. Once they get all the way around and back to home plate without being given out a run is scored. The fielding team can prevent the batsmen by making them miss the ball, catching the ball, tagging one of the bases before they reach it or tagging the batsmen whilst they are running with the ball in hand. Down the first and third base line is a foul area. Once the ball crosses this line before it bounces the ball is deemed ‘dead’ and play restarts with a new pitch. A home run can be scored by hitting the ball over the outfield and into a dead ball area. The batsmen can then stroll around the bases to score along with any additional batsmen on base.