PDHPE Notes PDF

Focus skeletal system from syllabus: - major bones involved in movement - structure and function of synovial joints - joint actions, eg extension and flexion Critical question: How do the musculoskeletal and cardiovascular systems of the body influence and...

Focus skeletal system from syllabus: - major bones involved in movement - structure and function of synovial joints - joint actions, eg extension and flexion Critical question: How do the musculoskeletal and cardiovascular systems of the body influence and respond to movement? What's the difference between the axial and appendicular skeleton? Your axial skeleton is made up of the bones in your head, neck, back and chest. Your appendicular skeleton is made up of everything else — the bones that attach (append) to your axial skeleton. Axial Appendicular AXIAL APPENDICULAR - Consists of the bones located - Consists of the bones of the in along the body’s central axis upper and lower limbs and the including the skull, vertebral girdles that attach these limbs column (spine), rib cage to the axial skeleton. This includes upper limbs (arms), (thoracic cage) and sternum lower limbs (legs), pectoral (breastbone) (shoulder) girdle and pelvic (hip) girdle. - The axial skeleton is essential - The appendicular skeleton is for protecting vital organs, crucial for locomotion and providing structural stability and weight-bearing. It provides facilitating movements such as support and mobility for the breathing and posture. limbs, facilitates movements and contributes to the overall - Consists of 80 bones in this functionality and versatility of section the musculoskeletal system - Consists of 126 bones in this system  Six main functions 1. Support and structure 2. Protection 3. Movement 4. Blood cell production 5. Mineral storage 6. Endocrine regulations TENDONS ARE CONNECTIVE TISSUE WHICH CONNECT MUSCLE TO BONE 1 Provides a framework for attachment of soft connective tissue, such as muscles. 2 They protect internal organs; for example, the ribs protect the heart and lungs 3 When muscles contract they pull on bones and produce movement 4 Stores calcium and phosphorus, which are released when needed 5 Yellow bone marrow is a stored source of lipids in the bones. 6 Most blood cell formation occurs within the red bone marrow 5 Types of bones 1. Long 2. Short 3. Flat 4. Irregular 5. Sesamoid Long Bones - Long bones are characterised by their elongated cylindrical shape, with a shaft (diaphysis) and two ends (epiphyses). - Examples of long bones include the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpals, metatarsal, and phalanges. Short Bones  - Short bones are generally cube-shaped or roughly equal in length and width, serving to absorb shock and facilitate fine movements. - Examples of short bones are the bones in the wrist (carpals), ankle bones (tarsals), and sesamoid bones like the patella/kneecap. Flat Bones - Flat bones are thin, flattened, and often curved, providing protection to vital organs and serving as sites for muscle attachment. - Examples of flat bones include skull bones, sternum (breastbone), scapula (shoulder blades), and ribs. Irregular Bones - Irregular bones do not have a uniform shape and primarily consist of cancellous bone with a thin outer layer of compact bone. - Examples of irregular bones are vertebrae, facial bones (mandible, maxilla, zygomatic bones, nasal bones), and pelvic bones. Sesamoid Bones - Sesamoid bones are small, flat, rounded bones resembling a sesame seed shape, found where tendons pass over joints to provide protection and reduce friction and pressure. - Examples of sesamoid bones are the patella (kneecap), bones in the hands and feet, and near the joints of the thumb and big toe. 3 Joint Types 1. Fibrous or (fixed/immovable) 2. Synovial (Freely moveable) 3. Cartilaginous or (slightly moveable) Fibrous Joints - Occur where bone ends are joined by strong, short bands or fibrous tissue like in the skull. - These joints do not allow any movement to occur. Cartilaginous Joints - Bones are separated by a disc or plate made up of tough fibrous cartilage. - Example: Joints of the vertebrae or spine are separated by this tissue, causing limited movement. Synovial Joints (Most common) - Allow for a range of movement. - Include hinge joints (e.g., knee and elbow) and ball and socket joints (e.g., hip and shoulders). - Made possible with tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and synovial fluid. Type of Synovial Joint Range of movement and examples Hinge joint A curving out surface of one bone fits into a curving in surface of another bone, acting like a hinge. Allows movements in only one direction (only back and forth i.e. bending and straightening of a body part/flexion or extension) due to the shape of the bones and the strong ligaments which prevent side to side movement. Examples of hinge joints are the knee, elbow and ankle. Ball and socket joint The rounded head of one bone (ball) fits into a cup-shaped socket of the other bone. This joint allows a wide range of movement (side to side, back and forth, rotating). Examples include shoulder (humerus + scapular) and hip (pelvis + femur). Allows movement through three planes (flexion, extension; abduction, adduction; rotation) and is the most mobile of the synovial joints. Pivot joint A pivot-like projection of one bone rotates inside a ring-shaped structure on the other bone. Allows rotational movements and some bending. An example is the joint at the top of the vertebral column which allows us to turn our heads from side to side (C1 and C2 vertebral joint - between the atlas and axis vertebrae), and the joint which allows us to turn our hand over and back (radioulnar joint). Gliding joint (Plane) The gliding joint occurs where two bones with flat surfaces slide on each other, but are restricted to limited movement by the ligaments. Such joints are found between the small bones of the hand (carpals). Saddle joint Convex and concave surfaces are placed against each other. Each bone that fits together is shaped like a saddle. This allows movement in two directions (side to side and back and forth). Allows the same movements as the condyloid but with no axial rotation. An example is in between the hand and the base of the thumb (carpal + metacarpal joint). Condyloid joint The condyloid joint is basically a hinge joint which allows some (Ellipsoid) sideways movement. The dome shaped surface of one bone fits into the hollow formed by one or more other bones forming the joint. Allows both side to side and back and forth movements. The joint between the radius, ulna and carpal bones in the wrist is an example. It allows flexion, extension; adduction, abduction; and circumduction. Structure of synovial joints 1. Pivot 2. Hinge 3. Saddle 4. Gliding (plane) 5. Condyloid 6. Ball and socket Movement - Synovial joints are crucial for providing movement in the body. - They allow for large movements to happen, enabling flexibility. - Structures like synovial fluid, cartilage, and muscles/tendons facilitate greater movement at synovial joints compared to other joint types. Stability - Synovial joints, along with other skeletal system joints, also offer stability. - Stability is maintained by the joint capsule and ligaments within the joint structure. - Damage to these tissues can jeopardise the stability of the joint and the body. - Different types of synovial joints vary in stability; ball-and-socket joints are the least stable and prone to dislocation, while plane joints are highly stable. Hinge Joint - Hinge joints allow movement only on one axis, preventing rotation in other directions. - The elbow is a prime example of a hinge joint, allowing flexion and extension. - Hinge joints are like the hinges on a door, restricting movement to open or close. - Understanding the position of the hinge joint is essential for creating realistic squash and stretch effects in drawings. - Hinge joints are crucial for movements like bending the arm at the elbow. Pivot Joint - Pivot joints allow rotation along the long axis, such as the radio-ulnar joint. - The pivot joint at the top of the radius bone and the bottom of the ulna bone enables pronation and supination. - Pronation involves the base of the radius rotating over the ulna, while supination involves the reverse movement. - The combination of pivot joints at the top and bottom of the forearm allows twisting motions. - Understanding pivot joints helps explain how the forearm can twist despite the restrictions of the elbow hinge joint. Ball & Socket Joint  - Ball & socket joints allow movement in multiple axes, including flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, and circumduction. - The hip and shoulder joints are examples of ball & socket joints. - The hip joint provides stability with a deep socket, while the shoulder joint sacrifices some stability for increased range of motion. - Dislocated shoulders are common due to the shoulder joint's shallow socket. - Ball & socket joints are versatile and allow for a wide range of movements. Saddle Joint - Saddle joints have a unique structure where one bones concave surface fits the other bone's convex surface. - This structure allows flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, and slight rotation. - An example of a saddle joint is the carpometacarpal joint of the thumb. - The saddle joint's design resembles a 3D yin yang or a cowboy on a horse. - The unique structure of saddle joints enables complex movements while maintaining stability. Condyloid Joint - Condyloid joints resemble ball & socket joints but restrict rotation due to their oval shape and ligaments. - These joints enable movements on two axes, including flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, and circumduction. - The wrist, specifically the radiocarpal joint, is a notable example of an condyloid joint. - The oval head of one bone slides inside the socket, allowing controlled movements. - Condyloid joints provide stability while allowing various movements in different directions. Gliding Plane Joint - Plane joints consist of flat surfaces that allow gliding or rotating movements. - These joints are found in groups like the carpals of the hand and tarsals of the foot. - Ligaments hold the bones together in plane joints, permitting some rotation and gliding. - The acromioclavicular joint, between the clavicle and acromion process of the scapula, is an example of a plane joint. - Plane joints contribute to the flexibility and mobility of the hand and foot. Joint action An anatomical reference system called directional terms is used to identify the location of bones. The starting point assumes that the body is in the anatomical position; that is, a reference position where the subject is standing erect, facing front on and with palms facing forward. This enables us to locate a bone in reference to how it is relative to another part of the body. Directional terms are listed below: Superior towards the head; for example, the chest is superior to the hips Inferior towards the feet; for example, the foot is inferior to the leg Anterior towards the front; for example, the breast is on the anterior chest wall Posterior towards the back; for example, the backbone is posterior to the heart Medial towards the midline of the body; for example, the big toe is on the medial side of the foot Lateral towards the side of the body; for example, the little toe is on the lateral side of the foot Proximal towards the body’s mass; for example, the shoulder is proximal to the elbow Distal away from the body’s mass; for example, the elbow is distal to the shoulder. Anatomical Positions - standing erect, facing front on and with palms facing forward Types of Joint Movements Planes Extension and Flexion ○ Extension involves increasing the angle between two body parts, while flexion involves decreasing the angle between two body parts. ○ Examples of extension include straightening the elbow or knee, while examples of flexion include bending the elbow or knee. Abduction and Adduction ○ Abduction is the movement of a body part away from the midline of the body, while adduction is the movement of a body part towards the midline of the body. ○ An example of abduction is moving the arms out to the side, while an example of adduction is bringing the arms back to the sides of the body. Rotation ○ Rotation involves the movement of a body part around its own axis. ○ An example of rotation is turning the head from side to side. Planes of Movement Sagittal Plane ○ The sagittal plane divides the body into left and right halves. ○ Movements in the sagittal plane include flexion and extension. Frontal (Coronal) Plane ○ The frontal plane divides the body into front and back halves. ○ Movements in the frontal plane include abduction and adduction. Transverse (Horizontal) Plane ○ The transverse plane divides the body into top and bottom halves. ○ Movements in the transverse plane include rotation. Sagittal Plane This plane divides the body into left and right halves. Movements that occur in the sagittal plane include flexion (bending), extension (straightening), dorsiflexion (upward bending), and plantarflexion (downward bending). Frontal Plane This plane divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions. (Coronal Plane) Movements in the frontal plane include abduction (moving away from the midline),  adduction (moving toward the midline), lateral flexion (bending sideways), and elevation/depression (raising or lowering). Transverse Plane This plane divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) portions. (Horizontal Plane) Movements in the transverse plane include rotation (turning around an axis), pronation/supination (rotating the forearm), and internal/external rotation (turning a limb inward or outward). Second dot point muscular system - major muscles involved in movement - muscle relationship (agonist,antagonist) - types of muscle contraction (concentric, eccentric, isometric Approximately 600-650 muscles Movement Muscles work together with bones and joints to allow movement of the body. Skeletal muscles, which are attached to bones via tendons, contract and relax to produce a wide range of movements such as walking, running, lifting, and reaching. Posture and Muscles play a vital role in maintaining posture and stability. They provide support to Stability the skeletal system, helping us stay upright and balanced while sitting, standing, or performing various activities.  Heat Muscles generate heat as a byproduct of muscle contractions. This heat production, Generation known as thermogenesis, helps regulate body temperature and contributes to maintaining a constant internal environment (homeostasis). Protection Muscles protect internal organs and structures by surrounding and cushioning them. For example, the abdominal muscles protect the organs within the abdominal cavity. Respiration Muscles involved in respiration, such as the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, play a crucial role in breathing by expanding and contracting the chest cavity to facilitate inhalation and exhalation. Digestion Muscles in the digestive system, such as the smooth muscles in the stomach and intestines, aid in the movement of food through the digestive tract via peristalsis, which involves rhythmic contractions. Blood Smooth muscles in blood vessels help regulate blood flow and blood pressure by Circulation constricting or dilating the vessels as needed. Facial Muscles in the face are responsible for facial expressions, allowing us to convey Expressions emotions such as happiness, sadness, surprise, and anger. 3 types of muscle tissue Skeletal muscle – is primarily attached to bones, and it moves the skeleton. It is said to be striated because of its obvious striped appearance. Contraction is under our direct control and so the movement of the muscle is said to be voluntary. Smooth muscle – is located on the walls of our internal structures, such as the stomach, blood vessels and intestines. It is nonstriated, and its movement is usually involuntary. Cardiac muscle – forms most of the heart. This muscle is striated and, because contractions occur without us knowing, its movement is said to be involuntary. Voluntary and Involuntary muscles V- are muscles which have the ability to be moved by the conscious effort and will of an individual. An example of this includes skeletal muscles in the arm, legs and facial muscles. I- Muscle is a muscle that contracts without any conscious control. It is usually found in the heart and walls of internal organs stomach, intestine, bladder ad blood vessels) A tendon is a cord of strong, flexible tissue, similar to a rope. Tendons connect your muscles to your bones. Tendons let us move our limbs. ORIGIN, INSERTION, ACTION Origin: The muscle’s point of attachment to the more stationary bone is called its origin. In most cases, this point is nearer the trunk (TRUNK means centre of the body) Insertion: The insertion of a muscle is the point of attachment at the moveable end. This end tends to be away from the body’s main mass. Muscle Action: The muscle action refers to movement made at the joint when the muscle contracts. Major muscles muscles are arranged to work together or in opposition to produce movement. Most muscles cross over at least one joint. Movements are produced when muscles exert force on tendons, which pull on articulating bones or other structures; for example, skin. Remember that muscles can only pull; they do not push. To locate muscles, it is important to establish the origin and insertion of the muscle. The origin of the muscle is usually attached directly or indirectly to the bone via a tendon. The attachment of the muscle is usually by a tendon at the movable end, which tends to be away from the body’s main mass. When the muscle contracts it causes movement. The movement that a muscle produces is called its action. Muscle contraction Concentric and Eccentric are under the category of isotonic contraction Isokinetic is machine movement Concentric Contraction ○ Muscle shortens during contraction, leading to movement at the joint. Eccentric Contraction ○ Muscle lengthens while under tension. ○ Often assisted by gravity. Isometric Contraction ○ Muscle fibres are activated and develop force. ○ Muscle length remains constant, resulting in no movement. Extra notes ○ In isotonic contractions, muscle tension remains constant while the muscle length changes as it contracts and pulls on the bone. ○ If the muscle force is greater than the opposing force, the muscle shortens, known as a concentric contraction. ○ If the muscle force is less than the opposing force, the muscle lengthens, known as an eccentric contraction. ○ Isotonic contractions are typical in weight lifting exercises. ○ Concentric isotonic contractions occur when the muscle overcomes the opposing force and shortens. ○ Eccentric isotonic contractions occur when the force created by the muscle is less than the opposing force, causing the muscle to lengthen ○ In isometric contractions, muscle length remains constant while the tension across the muscle may change. ○ Energy required by the muscle may vary to maintain length, but the muscle length itself does not change. ○ Isometric contractions are exemplified in exercises like the 'invisible chair' where there is no movement. ○ Maintaining a constant length in isometric contractions may require more tension and energy depending on the added weight. ○ Isometric contractions are like using the metric system to measure length. ○ Isokinetic contractions require a constant amount of energy throughout the contraction. ○ The tension across the muscle may change, and the muscle length also changes. ○ Isokinetic contractions are highly effective for building strength. ○ Special machines are needed for isokinetic exercises to maintain a constant energy output. ○ Isokinetic contractions can be either concentric or eccentric. Students learn about: respiratory system - structure and function - lung function (inspiration, expiration) - exchange of gases (internal, external) Critical Question 1: How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of the body influence and respond to movement? Respiration is the process by which the body takes in oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. This process is made possible through the respiratory system, which includes the lungs and the air passages that ventilate them. Structure of the respiratory Structure and function Anatomy of the Respiratory System Nose ○ The nose is the primary external opening for the respiratory system. ○ Contains hairs and mucous membranes that filter, moisten, warm, and humidify incoming air.  ○ Small hairs in the cavity remove small particles like dust or bugs. ○ Houses olfactory receptors responsible for the sense of smell. Pharynx (Throat) ○ Muscular tube serving as a common pathway for air, food, and liquid. ○ Divided into nasopharynx (connected to nasal cavity), oropharynx (connected to mouth), and laryngopharynx (connected to larynx and oesophagus). ○ Epiglottis ○ Used to close off the airway when swallowing. ○ Flap of elastic tissue that forms a lid over the opening to the trachea. Larynx (Voice Box) ○ Located between pharynx and trachea, used for sound production and speech. ○ Contains vocal cords that vibrate to produce sound during speech. ○ Plays a role in preventing food and liquids from entering the airway during swallowing. Trachea (Windpipe) and Bronchial Tree ○ Trachea is a tube composed of cartilage rings extending from larynx to lungs. ○ Main air pipe bringing air down to the lungs, lined with ciliated epithelial cells and mucus-producing goblet cells. ○ Bronchial tree consists of bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. ○ Trachea branches into two primary bronchi (right and left) that enter the lungs. ○ Bronchi further divide into smaller bronchioles, ending in clusters of air sacs called alveoli. Gas Exchange  Function of Gas Exchange ○ Facilitates the exchange of oxygen (02) and carbon dioxide (CO2) between the air and bloodstream. ○ Oxygen is taken in, while carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular metabolism, is removed. Ventilation Process ○ Regulates the intake and expulsion of air to ensure oxygen enters the body and carbon dioxide is expelled. ○ Involves inhalation (breathing in) and exhalation (breathing out). ○ During exercise, depth of breath and number of alveoli used for gas exchange increase, enhancing oxygen transfer and carbon dioxide removal. ○ Increased breathing rate during exercise allows for faster gas exchange in the lungs, delivering more oxygen to working muscles. Regulation and Protection Regulation of Blood pH ○ Respiratory system helps maintain body's pH balance by controlling levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. ○ Carbon dioxide can form carbonic acid, impacting blood acidity.  Protection Mechanisms ○ Protects lungs and respiratory structures from harmful substances like dust, pollutants, and pathogens. ○ Mucus and cilia in the respiratory tract trap and remove foreign particles. Internal Respiration (within the body tissues): - Oxygen-rich blood reaches muscle cells. - Oxygen leaves the blood and enters muscle cells. - Muscle cells release carbon dioxide, which enters the blood. - Oxygen is carried in the blood by a protein called haemoglobin, and within muscle cells by a protein called myoglobin. - This gas exchange happens through a process called diffusion. - The carbon dioxide in the blood is taken back to the lungs to be expelled. External Respiration (in the lungs): - Blood low in oxygen (deoxygenated) reaches tiny air sacs in the lungs called alveoli. - Carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the alveoli. - Oxygen from the air we breathe moves from the alveoli into the blood. - This oxygen-rich blood then goes back to the heart and is pumped throughout the body. - Carbon dioxide is exhaled out of the body. Lung Function - Inspiration is air movement from the atmosphere into the lungs; breathing in. - Expiration is air movement from the lungs to the atmosphere; breathing out. Internal Respiration (within the body tissues): - Oxygen-rich blood reaches muscle cells. - Oxygen leaves the blood and enters muscle cells. - Muscle cells release carbon dioxide, which enters the blood. - Oxygen is carried in the blood by a protein called haemoglobin, and within muscle cells by a protein called myoglobin. - This gas exchange happens through a process called diffusion. - The carbon dioxide in the blood is taken back to the lungs to be expelled. External Respiration (in the lungs): - Blood low in oxygen (deoxygenated) reaches tiny air sacs in the lungs called alveoli. - Carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the alveoli. - Oxygen from the air we breathe moves from the alveoli into the blood. - This oxygen-rich blood then goes back to the heart and is pumped throughout the body. - Carbon dioxide is exhaled out of the body. In simple terms - gas exchange is the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream and the elimination of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the lungs. Gas exchange The alveoli is where gas exchange occurs as the air passes through the thin walls of the alveoli and enters the surroundings capillaries. Carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses int the alveoli to be exhaled (expiration). Once in the capillaries i goes to the red blood cells , which is then carried to the heart through pulmonary vein. The heart pumps this blood into the systemic circulation via the aorta, distributing to all part of the body. Role of Cartilage ○ Cartilage in the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles keeps the airway open, ensuring unobstructed airflow. ○ Intercostal muscles are muscle groups that are situated in between the ribs that create and move the chest wall. The muscles are broken down into three layers, and are primarily used to assist with the breathing process. Lung function Inspiration ○ During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and flattens, while the external intercostal muscles lift the ribs outwards and upwards. ○ This movement increases the volume of the chest cavity, pulling the walls of the lungs outwards and decreasing air pressure within the lungs. ○ Air rushes into the lungs to balance the pressure, getting warmed by blood vessels and moistened by mucus lining for efficient gas exchange. ○ Inspiration involves the contraction of muscles like the diaphragm, intercostals, and pectorals. Expiration ○ During expiration, the diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards, while internal intercostal muscles allow ribs and structures to return to resting position. ○ The volume of the chest cavity decreases, increasing air pressure inside the lungs to push air out. ○ Expiration is achieved through elastic properties of the lungs and thoracic cage, as well as contraction of intercostal muscles. ○ Normal breathing rate is around 12 to 18 breaths per minute, varying with physical activity, excitement, body temperature, and age.  Lung Function ○ Lung function enables respiration through the processes of inspiration and expiration. ○ Complete emptying of the lungs is avoided to prevent difficulty in inspiring again due to suction. ○ Trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles are kept open by cartilage to maintain airway patency. ○ Expiration involves increasing air pressure in the lungs to push air out into the atmosphere. ○ Breathing rate can vary with different factors like physical activity, excitement, body temperature, and age. Exchange of Gases Gas Inhaled air (%) Exhaled air (%) Oxygen (O2) 20.93 16.4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.03 4.1 Nitrogen (N) and other gases 79.04 79.5 Capillaries are blood vessels in the walls of the alveoli. In the capillaries, blood gives off carbon dioxide through the capillary wall into the alveoli and takes up oxygen from air in the alveoli. Students learn about: Critical Question 1: How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of the body influence and respond to movement? circulatory system - components of blood - structure and function of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries - pulmonary and systemic circulation - blood pressure.  The circulatory system (also known as cardiovascular system) consists of: blood, heart and blood vessels — arteries, capillaries and veins. THE FOUR COMPONENTS OF BLOOD 1. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells) carry oxygen from the lungs and deliver it throughout our body. 2. Leukocytes (White Blood Cells) to fight infection give immunity 3. Thrombocytes (Platelets) rush to fix cuts 4. Plasma liquid portion of the blood including water, protein and minerals Main functions of blood - transportation of oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removal of carbon dioxide and wastes - protection of the body via the immune system and by clotting to prevent blood loss - regulation of the body’s temperature and the fluid content of the body’s tissues. Cardiac cycle STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE HEART - The heart is a muscular pump that contracts rhythmically, providing the force to keep the blood circulating throughout the body. It is slightly larger than a clenched fist and is the shape of a large pear. The heart lies in the chest cavity between the lungs and above the diaphragm, and is protected by the ribs and sternum. The human heart has  two sides, four chambers and four valves. The chambers include the left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle and right ventricle. The four valves include the pulmonary value, tricuspid valve, mitral valve, and aortic valve. Deoxygenated blood enters the heart through the superior and inferior vena into the right atrium. Blood flows through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle. The right ventricle ejects the blood into the pulmonary artery which is split into two vessels, each going to the lungs. As the blood cells make their way to the lungs, it returns back through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium. That blood is now oxygenated, it then goes through the mitral valve into the left ventricle which expels blood through the aortic valve and into the aorta. The aorta ejects oxygenated blood to the organs, muscles and other body parts. On average, an adult heart beats 60-80 per minute. - The pulmonary circulation is a short loop from the heart to the lungs and back again. The systemic circulation carries blood from the heart to all the other parts of the body and back again. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE ARTERIES - Arteriole are small arteries - Arteries are the tubing to takes blood away from the heart - Also helps the heart to pump the blood. - Arteries require elastic walls to cope with the pressure caused when the ventricles contract and muscle to provide a further contraction to help move the blood. - The muscles also help dilate (open) the artery to increase blood flow. - Arteries have high pressure and fast blood flow. Arteries Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They have thick, strong, elastic walls containing smooth muscle to withstand the pressure of the blood forced through them. The blood pumped under pressure from the left ventricle passes through the aorta (the largest artery) and throughout the body. At the same time, blood from the right ventricle passes through the pulmonary artery to the lungs where it collects oxygen and then returns to the heart. These large exit arteries branch into smaller arteries that eventually divide into tiny branches called arterioles. Arterioles in turn divide into microscopic vessels (capillaries). Artery = AWAY (take blood away) STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE VEINS Veins return blood to the heart (deoxygenated blood) Venules are small veins The venules collect deoxygenated (low oxygen content) blood from the capillaries and transfer it to the veins. As pressure in the veins is low, blood flows mainly against gravity (blood flow in the veins above the heart is, however, assisted by gravity). The walls of veins are thinner than those of arteries, with greater ‘give’ to allow the blood to move more easily. Valves at regular intervals in the veins prevent the back-flow of blood during periods when blood pressure changes. - Pressure changes created by the pumping action of the heart stimulate blood flow in the veins and help to draw blood into it during diastole (relaxation phase). The return of - If we stop exercising suddenly or stand still for long periods, the muscle pump will not work. Blood pooling (sitting) then occurs in the large veins of the legs because of the effect of gravity. This can result in a drop in blood pressure, insufficient blood flow to the brain and possible fainting. This pooling of blood has implications for the cool down period after  strenuous exercise. Rather than stop the exercise immediately, it is recommended that the activity is gradually tapered off with lower intensity exercise and maintained until the heart rate returns to a steady state. This allows blood from the extremities to be returned to the heart and lungs for re‐oxygenating. It also promotes the disposal of waste products such as lactic acid. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE CAPILLARIES Capillaries The capillaries are a link between the arterioles and the veins. They rejoin to form tiny veins called venules. In active tissue such as the muscles and brain, the capillary network is particularly dense with much branching of very fine structured vessels. This provides a large surface area for the exchange of materials between the blood and the fluid surrounding the cells (interstitial fluid). - Capillary walls are extremely thin, consisting of a single layer of flattened cells. These walls allow oxygen, nutrients and hormones from the blood to pass easily through to the interstitial fluid, then into the cells of the body’s tissues. The blood pressure (due to the pumping action of the heart) helps to force fluid out of the capillaries.  - Meanwhile, carbon dioxide and cell wastes are received back into the capillaries. This diffusion of oxygen and other nutrients from the capillaries into the cells and carbon dioxide and wastes from the cells into the capillaries is known as capillary exchange PULMONARY AND SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION Pulmonary circulation is between heart and lungs Systemic circulation is between heart and the rest of the body Pulmonary circulation: deoxygenated blood leaves the right side of the heart, travels to the lungs where it becomes oxygenated, then travels to the left side of the heart Systemic Circulation: oxygenated blood leaves the left side of the heart and travels to the body tissues where it becomes deoxygenated, then travels back to the right side of the heart - Systemic circulation is connected to the left side of the heart.  ➔ It carries oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. ➔ The main purpose is to deliver oxygenated blood and nutrients to cells and remove waste products like carbon dioxide. ➔ Blood is pumped from the left ventricle. ➔ It travels through the aorta, the largest artery. ➔ The aorta branches into various arteries. ➔ These arteries further branch into smaller arterioles. ➔ Arterioles lead to capillary networks throughout the body. Capillaries are the sites of exchange, delivering oxygen and nutrients to cells, including myocytes (muscle cells). Capillaries also remove carbon dioxide and other metabolic waste products from cells. Deoxygenated blood is collected by venules. Venules merge to form veins. Veins return blood to the heart. The blood enters the right atrium via the vena cava (superior and inferior vena cava, the largest veins). The process ensures oxygen and nutrients reach body cells and waste products are removed efficiently. - Overall, systemic circulation is vital for oxygen and nutrient delivery, waste removal, and maintaining homeostasis. BLOOD PRESSURE: SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE Systolic pressure – is the highest (peak) pressure recorded when blood is forced into the arteries during contraction of the left ventricle (systole) Diastolic pressure – is the minimum or lowest pressure recorded when the heart is relaxing and filling (diastole) - Blood pressure is the amount of force against the walls of the blood vessels. (artery, vein and capillaries) Cardiac Output Cardiac output refers to the amount of blood the heart pumps out of the left ventricle in one minute. Any increase in cardiac output results in an increase in blood pressure. Volume of Blood If blood volume increases because of increased water retention, such as in Circulation when salt intake is high, blood pressure increases. During blood loss, such as during a haemorrhage (damage to blood vessels) blood pressure falls. Resistance to If the viscosity (stickiness) of the blood is increased, such as during Blood Flow dehydration, resistance increases. The diameter of the blood vessels also affects blood flow through the vessels. With narrowing of the vessels, resistance to blood flow is increased. The elasticity of the arterial walls act to maintain blood flow. As deposits build up on the walls, the arteries become less elastic and harder (arteriosclerosis), thereby making it more difficult for blood to flow. Any increase in the resistance to blood flow consequently causes elevated blood pressure. Venous Return Refers to the flow of blood from the body’s veins back to the heart, specifically the right atrium. Since this affects cardiac output, it also affects blood pressure. Summary The body has 206 bones of varying shapes and sizes. They provide important functions such as protecting vital organs and enabling movement. Bones involved in movement are usually long, meeting at joints such as the knee and elbow joints. Muscles surrounding these joints pull on bones making many different types of movement possible. Joints are places where two or more bones meet. Some joints allow more movement than others. Synovial joints allow maximum movement. The knee joint is a typical synovial joint. It contains important structures including tendons, ligaments, cartilage and synovial fluid. Synovial joint movements can be described in terms of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, inversion, eversion, rotation, circumduction, pronation, supination, dorsiflexion and plantar flexion. Muscles enable us to move. There are more than 600 muscles in the body. The most important muscles that enable us to move include the deltoid, biceps brachii, triceps, latissimus dorsi, trapezius, pectorals, erector spinae (sacrospinalis), gluteus maximus, hamstrings, quadriceps, gastrocnemius, soleus, tibialis anterior, rectus abdominis and external obliques. Muscles perform roles according to the movement required. They can act as agonists (prime movers), antagonists (the lengthening muscle on the opposing side), or stabilisers (muscles that fix a joint while other actions are occurring). During movements such as running, the roles are constantly being reversed. The types of muscle contraction are concentric, eccentric and isometric. In a concentric contraction, the muscle shortens while under tension. In an eccentric contraction it lengthens while under tension and, in an isometric contraction, there is no change in length despite the muscle being under tension. The major components of the respiratory system include the bronchi, bronchioles, lungs and alveoli. The alveoli are microscopic sacs surrounded by capillaries. It is here that oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide. Inspiration and expiration are automatic processes controlled by the contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. The immediate effect of exercise on the lungs is to increase the rate and depth of breathing. This provides more oxygen to blood that is being moved rapidly around the body. The role of circulation is to transport oxygen and nutrients to the body’s cells, carry hormones to target sites and collect carbon dioxide and waste. Blood consists of plasma and formed elements consisting of red and white cells, as well as platelets.  The heart is a pump consisting of four chambers. The right chambers receive blood from the body and pump it to the lungs. The left chambers receive blood from the lungs and pump it to the body. Arteries and arterioles deliver blood to capillaries where oxygen exchange takes place. Venules and veins return the deoxygenated blood to the heart. Pulmonary circulation refers to the circulation of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart again. Systemic circulation is circulation from the heart to the body tissues and back to the heart. Blood pressure refers to the force exerted by the blood on the walls of the blood vessels. Blood pressure is measured using a sphygmomanometer. It indicates peak pressure, when blood is forced into the arteries (systolic pressure) and lowest pressure (diastolic pressure), when the heart is filling. Second Critical Question What is the relationship between physical fitness, training and movement efficiency? Students learn about: health-related components of physical fitness cardiorespiratory endurance muscular strength muscular endurance flexibility body composition skill-related components of physical fitness power speed agility coordination balance reaction time aerobic and anaerobic training – FITT principle 11 fitness components 5 are health related 6 are skill related - Physical activity refers to any voluntary body movement involving action of the skeletal muscles  - Physical fitness refers to a set of attributes people have or achieve that are related to the ability to perform physical activity - - Physical fitness is measurable by field-based or clinical tested such as the sit and reach or vertical jump test - Although it is good to develop all these skills, everyone will develop these skills to a different level depending on the activities they do most. Health Component Description Test Important for Cardiorespiratory Also known as aerobic endurance, or Beep test Marathon runners, Endurance cardiovascular fitness, refers to the healthy distance swimmers and functioning of the circulatory and respiratory tri athletes systems which are made up fo your heart, lungs, and blood vessels. It is the ability to exercise for a long period of time without running out of breath or getting tired. Muscular The ability of muscles to perform an activity for Push up Cycling, running, skiing, Endurance a long period of time without becoming fatigued and sit ups basketball, shovelling snow etc. Muscular The amount of force produced and exerted by Dynamom Weight lifting, wrestling, Strength muscles in a single maximal effort eter rugby grip test Flexibility The ability to move your joints through a full Sit and Gymnastics, dance, range of motion. Best exercise is stretching reach athletics Body The amount of fat, bone, water and muscle in Skin fold Gymnastics, athletics Composition the body. In terms of health fat is the main point of interest and everything else is termed lean body tissue. The amount of boyd fat we carry varies from person tp person and healthy averages vary with gender and age. A healthy amount of fat for a man is 150-18% and for women 20-25% Skills Component Description Test Important for Power The ability to perform quickly an activity that Vertical Shot puts and discus, requires strength. As power involves both jump swimming, high jump strength and speed, it is best to work on both skills in your effort to build power. Speed Ability to perform a movement or to cover a 50m sprint Short distance events distance in a minimum amount of time Agility Ability to change and control the direction of Shuttle Hockey, football, your body while moving quickly run, Illinois soccer, dancing Coordination The ability to use two or more parts of your Juggling Good eye hand body together to perform a task coordination is needed in baseball and volleyball. Balance The ability to keep your body stable in a moving Stork Bicycle, gymnastics, or stationary position stand surfing Reaction Time The time it takes for the brain to receive Ruler drop Soccer (goalkeeper), information and to send a message to the test basketball, muscles to initiate movement Study extra notes: - Focus Question 1 - How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of the body influence and respond to Movement? - Focus Question 2 - What is the relationship between physical fitness, training and movement efficiency? identify the location and type of major bones involved in movement identify the location of the major muscles involved in movement and related joint actions analyse the various aspects of lung function through participation in a range of physical activities analyse the movement of blood through the body and the influence of the circulatory and respiratory systems on movement efficiency and performance design an aerobic training session based on the FITT principle Practice Question: Dot point 1: Skeletal system: identify the location and type of major bones involved in movement, eg long bones articulate at hinge joints for flexion and extension identify the location of the major muscles involved in movement and related joint actions Muscular system: perform and analyse movements, eg overarm throw, by examining: bones involved and the joint action muscles involved and the type of contraction Respiratory system: analyse the various aspects of lung function through participation in a range of physical activities Circulatory system: analyse the movement of blood through the body and the influence of the circulatory and respiratory systems on movement efficiency and performance. Dot point 2: Health related components analyse the relationship between physical fitness and movement efficiency. Students should consider the question ‘to what degree is fitness a predictor of performance?’ Skill related components measure and analyse a range of both health-related and skill-related components of physical fitness Aerobic and anaerobic training compare the relative importance of aerobic and anaerobic training for different sports, eg gymnastics versus soccer aerobic and anaerobic training – FITT principle Aerobic Training ○ Aerobic training aims to develop the cardiorespiratory endurance of the athlete. ○ It primarily utilises the aerobic energy system. ○ The term 'aerobic' refers to 'with oxygen'. ○ Focuses on enhancing the athlete's capacity to absorb, transport, and utilise oxygen for energy production. Anaerobic Training ○ Versatility and Focus ○ Anaerobic training is diverse and can vary significantly based on the session's objectives. ○ It mainly relies on the anaerobic energy systems. ○ The term 'anaerobic' signifies 'without oxygen'. ○ Can target strength, power, speed, lactate removal, and muscular endurance among other aspects. Aerobic training is training that focuses on developing the cardiorespiratory endurance of the athlete and uses predominantly the aerobic energy system. - The word aerobic means “with oxygen” and focuses on developing the athlete’s ability to absorb, transport, and use oxygen for energy production. Anaerobic training varies enormously depending on the focus of the session. - Anaerobic means “without oxygen” and uses predominantly the anaerobic energy systems (Lactic Acid and Alactacid energy systems). - Anaerobic training can focus on strength, power, speed, lactate removal, muscular endurance, and much more. F- Frequency (how often) I- Intensity (how hard) T- Time (how long) T- Type (activity) Frequency ○ Training Frequency ○ Improvements occur when individuals train at least three times per week. ○ Training can be increased to five times a week, but minimal benefits are gained from sessions exceeding this. Intensity ○ Stressing Body Systems ○ Training sessions should stress body systems to induce adaptations. ○ Adaptations are adjustments made by the body in response to progressive increases in training intensity. ○ Resistance Training Intensity ○ Three sessions of resistance training are sufficient. ○ Four sessions are maximal, allowing for rest days for muscle fibre regeneration. ○ Measuring Intensity ○ Intensity during aerobic exercise can be accurately measured by calculating target heart rate. ○ Target heart rate serves as a guide for workout intensity. Time ○ Duration of Exercise Sessions ○ For individuals in good health, exercise sessions in the target heart rate zone should last 20 to 30 minutes. ○ Sessions can be increased to 40 minutes or more if possible.  ○ Realisation of Training Effect ○ Six weeks is the minimal period for adaptations to take place. ○ Adaptations need time to manifest. Type ○ Best Type of Exercise ○ Continuous exercises using large muscle groups are most effective. ○ Examples include running, cycling, swimming, and aerobics. ○ Aerobic Fitness Improvement ○ Aerobic fitness improves as the cardiorespiratory system adapts to increased demands. ○ Increased breathing rate, heart rate, and blood flow to muscles are key indicators of improved aerobic fitness. Source of Fuel – The aerobic system can use CHO, fats, and protein as its source of fuel, though protein is used sparingly. The aerobic system uses aerobic glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain in its production of ATP. It is the presence of oxygen, which allows this energy system to use these various fuel sources. FORMULA for MAX HEART RATE 220 - AGE = MHR Training at for example 70% then you do MHR x 0.70 MHR= maximum beats per minute Last critical question How do biomechanical principles influence movement? motion the application of linear motion, velocity, speed, acceleration, momentum movement and performance contexts balance and stability centre of gravity line of gravity base of support fluid mechanics flotation, centre of buoyancy fluid resistance force how the body applies force how the body absorbs force applying force to an object. Motion the application of linear motion, velocity, speed, acceleration, momentum movement and performance contexts Biomechanics - Biomechanics is the study of how the body moves, it looks at the forces and mechanics involved in movement, including how muscles, bones tendons, and ligaments work together to produce motion. - A knowledge of bio mechanics helps us to choose the best technique to achieve our best performance with consideration to iou body shape. Motion - Motion is the movement of the body from one place to another - Living motion can be classified as human movement - Non living motion can be movement such as basketballs, soccer balls etc. - Motion can simply be an arm being moved from one position to another or the entire body - Linear motion is movement when a person or object moves im a straight line. It takes place when a body and all parts connected to it travel the same distance in the same direction and at the same speed. Example of linear motion - A person who is standing still in a moving escalator or in a lift. - A ball moving in a straight line - A swimmer gliding off the wall - Sprint events where they run from start to finish in a straight line Velocity - Velocity is the speed of an object in a given direction. Velocity is equal to displacement divided by time. Formula -----> V= D/T - Displacement measures the shortest straight line distance between an objects initial and final position. - Velocity includes direction and speed, while distance only includes the length of the path travelled. - If you were to run a lap 400m and you end up in the same spot then the velocity is 0 because you didn't go anywhere but the distance is 400m Speed - Speed is equal to the distance covered divided by the time taken to cover the distance. When an object like a car moves along a road, or a person in a race, we often refer to how fast each is moving. Formula -----> Speed = D/T - Example: 100/12 =8.333 metres per second (m/s) Acceleration - Acceleration is the rate at wich an object velocity changes over time. - When a person or object is stationary, the velocity is zero. - An increase in velocity is a positive acceleration, wheres a decrease in velocity is called a negative acceleration. (deceleration) - Long jump when in air is positive acceleration but when they land in the sand it becomes negative acceleration. Momentum - Adrenaline built up and you keep going and going - Reefers to the quantity of motion an object possesses. Checklist How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of the body influence and respond to movement? Students learn about: Students learn to: skeletal system identify the location and type of major bones major bones involved in movement involved in movement, eg long bones articulate at hinge structure and function of synovial joints, joint joints for flexion and extension actions, eg extension and flexion identify the location of the major muscles muscular system involved in movement and related joint actions major muscles involved in movement muscle relationship (agonist, antagonist) perform and analyse movements, eg overarm types of muscle contraction (concentric, throw, by examining: bones involved and the joint action eccentric, isometric) muscles involved and the type of contraction respiratory system analyse the various aspects of lung function structure and function through participation in a range of physical activities lung function (inspiration, expiration) exchange of gases (internal, external) analyse the movement of blood through the body and the influence of the circulatory and respiratory circulatory system systems on movement efficiency and performance. components of blood structure and function of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, pulmonary and systemic circulation blood pressure. What is the relationship between physical fitness, training and movement efficiency? Students learn about: Students learn to:  health-related components of: analyse the relationship between physical - physical fitness fitness and movement efficiency. Students should - cardiorespiratory endurance consider the question ‘to what degree is fitness a - muscular strength predictor of performance?’ - muscular endurance - flexibility measure and analyse a range of both - body composition health-related and skill-related components of physical fitness skill-related components of physical fitness: - powerspeed think critically about the purpose and benefits - agility of testing physical fitness - coordination - balance design an aerobic training session based on the - reaction time FITT principle aerobic and anaerobic training compare the relative importance of aerobic and - FITT principle anaerobic training for different sports, eg gymnastics versus soccer