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Geog notes Sec3 Cluster 1 Chapter 1 Relationship between people & nature Local communities & nearby nature areas: - Dependent on each other - Positively and negatively affect each other People are dependent on nature: Nature provides food, air & water Animals help pollinate crops cont...

Geog notes Sec3 Cluster 1 Chapter 1 Relationship between people & nature Local communities & nearby nature areas: - Dependent on each other - Positively and negatively affect each other People are dependent on nature: Nature provides food, air & water Animals help pollinate crops continuous food supply Nature provide space for recreation & leisure activities > allow people to bond > maintain physical & mental well-being Nature are dependent on people: People take care nearby nature, ensure plants & animals thrive People encourage each other sustainable with nature areas, importance of protecting natural environment Positive and negative effects People positively affect nature by: 1. Community activities promote importance of environmental protection People negatively affect nature by: 1. Eroding soil (soil erosion), damaging vegetables 2. Disturbing wildlife 3. Worsening population Nature positively affect people by: 1. Lowering temperatures a. Provides shade, reduces amount of direct sunlight on surface b. Cools surrounding air by evapotranspiration (water from plant loss as vapour thru evaporation) 2. Removing pollutants a. Plants absorb CO2 & other pollutants during photosynthesis b. Small particles caught by leaves washed to ground by rain c. Wetland plants trap suspended materials & absorb excess nutrients in water, improve water quality  3. Providing space for recreation a. Nature areas allow outdoor activities b. Interact w/ nature > health & well being benefits, reduce severity & occurrence of health conditions Nature negatively affect people by: 1. Wildlife may harm people (animals) a. Urbanisation -> natural habitats shrinking, animals wander out b. People spending more time in nature areas c. SG promotes human-wildlife encounters by bringing nature into city People may unintentionally provoke animals, animals confused/fearful > attacks 2. Environmental protection limits development a. People in local communities feel protection of nature neglects their needs E.g, Cross Island MRT supposed to be built around Central Catchment Nature Reserve to protect the rainforest Resdients concerned development damages their property > their homes relocated make way for construction Sense of Place What is Sense of Place? People associate meanings & memories w/ locations Reflects rship people have w/ place Builds our identity, understand each other & others better Highly personal & subjective (diff ppl diff meanings) Sense of belonging > memories > sense of place How is Sense of Place acquired? ★ Derived from our exp w/ natural & built environment ○ Interactions w/ people at these places, form memories ★ Repeated encounters w/ objects & ppl ○ Helps recall characteristics and featurers of place, create memories & meanings ★ Significant events at local landmarks ○ Serve symbolic or historic purpose ○ Landmarks highly visible, easy to rmb E.g, Bukit Timah’s Truss Bridges built as part of railway line Many ppl associate it with SG railway history Ppl take pictures there, create memories > sense of place How is Sense of Place represented? Through diff forms of media by individuals & organisations ○ Reflects ppl ideas, memories & significance of location  Posters, broadcasts or internet ○ E.g, Using hashtags like #sgmemory, can share photos of their memorable experiences of places on social media Relationship between locations in a neighbourhood What are Regions? - Areas w/ similar physical or human characteristics - Environmental characteristics: Nature of built up area - Human characterisitcs: Commercial or residential area - Geographical locations: East or West - Regions are spheres of influence for services, events and objects - Town Councils take care of regions What are Spatial Patterns?  Spatial patterns reflect non-random arrangements; shapes, clusters, geometry ○ Services, events & objects are often found in spatial patterns; non-randomly arranged Bus stops, train stations, childcare centres etc can be found in spatial patterns ○ Spatial patterns can include repeated occurrences at regular intervals Spatial associations Tendency to pair of services, events and objects located near each other ○ Lifts and staircase often located together Suggests connections between the services ○ Lift and staircase to go up and down levels, if lift does not work can take stairs ○ Fitness centres found near HDB blocks, residents can access easily and exercise Part of spatial patterns, used to non-randomly arrange services Organisation of locations in neighbourhoods Spatial scales - Spatial scales refer to scale of which a phenomena takes place - Nested area are smaller areas within large ones - Hierarchy of scales; global > regional > local  Why are spatial scales important..? To allow categorisation and description of locations, like where (data given) in the world or (data given) in Singapore > show different levels of detail Spatial Hierarchies in SG 1. Residential Units ⬇ ⬇ ⬇ 2. Precinct – contains 400-800 residential units i. Basic range of facilities ii. Facilities often nearby > service residents everyday needs; enhance convenience ➔ Spread out evenly; meet everyone needs ⬇ ⬇ ⬇ 3. Neighbourhood – serves 4000 - 6000 residents i. Made up of a few precincts ii. Wide range of facilities iii. Complementing facilities w/ precinct’s iv. Integrated facilities; many services found together in one place 1. i.e, train station next to bus interchange, which oso hv clinic and childcare centre ⬇ ⬇ ⬇ 4. Town – contains a few neighbourhoods i. Wide range of facilities & features > enhance resident convenience & meet daily needs Urban Planning Urban planning/Town Planning ➔ Provides for people and nature ➔ Enhances synergies and connections between facilities and housing etc ◆ E.g., Associating different services with each other to enhance interactions between services ◆ i.e. childcares near housing good for families, 1. Takes care of kids 2. Can provide a job opportunity for ppl Senoko Waste-to-Energy Plant 1. Educational purpose, shows students green energy source, how waste energy turn into electricity 2. Powers homes 3. Creates job oppurtunities 4. Save environment, manage pollution Resevoirs in SG Resevoirs are often located near the sea; coastal areas Prevent flooding Protects against rising sea levels Chapter 2 Sustainability - Economic sustainability - long-term economic growth w/out negatively impacting social, environmental, & cultural aspects in community - Social sustainability - inclusive societies where residents hv a voice - Environmental sustainability - manage nature resources; ecological balance, support needs of future gen Sustainable development - Meets the needs of present population thru achieving high living standards - Ensure future gen meet their own needs - Varies from diff places and times - Countries in poverty might emphasise on economic sustainability Economic Sustainability Achieved by ensuring local neighborhood has high enough population density ○ Helps to support local businesses Businesses sustain themselves; high pop density → more customer → sufficient demand ○ Transport and infrastructure cost low; buildings close to each other → residents dunneed travel far Social Sustainability Achieved by ensuring residents feel included & sense of shared identity ○ Shared community spaces → promote regular social interactions ○ Population size kept small → facilitate RSI  Builds resilience & positive relationships betw residents ○ Help resolve each other’s issues, good terms with one another Regular social activities organised locally ○ Encourage resident to voice opinions & participate in decisions Environmental Sustainability Achieved by ensuring there is: ○ Ample protection for nature Wildlife can thrive in urban spaces → foster human-wildlife coexistence Protecting existing native habitats & ecosystems Providing adequate food & shelter for wide range of wildlife → maximise biodiversity in urban spaces ○ Waste minimization & recycling Recycling bins conveniently found arnd estates → Encourage residents to recycle Waste recycling activities organised by town council High population density → waste collected in efficient manner ○ Energy & water efficient designs Eco-friendly buildings & landscapes minimise use fo resources Installation of smart technology/eco-friendly features E.g, Green walls help reduce the amount of direct sunlight on buildings, while also cooling surroundings w/ evapo-transpiration (energy-efficient) E.g, faucet aerators reduce amount of water coming out tap, whilst being as effective (water- efficient) Ecosystems in Urban Neighborhoods - Ecosystems are where living communities & non-living environments interact w/ each other - Every part is interdependent on each other Ecosystem services - Refers to the benefits brought by nature to ppl - Produced by living communities & non-living environment Provisioning services Tangible resources ppl get from ecosystems, e.g, water & food Food vv important provided by nature ○ Obtained thru means like fishing & farming Regulating services Benefits obtained frm regulating ecosystem processes ○ Processes like climate regulation, flood regulation ○ Work tgt ensure ecosystems functional & sustainable Includes air & water quality control ○ E.g, Trees in parks lower surrounding temp by providing shade & evapotranspiration ○ Vegetation in parks reduce surface runoff by holding soil tgt, prevent soil erosion ○ All plants improve air quality by removing pollutants Cultural services Intangible benefits from ecosystems, e,g, aesthetics & recreational activities Green spaces provide aesthetic appreciate & relieves stress ○ → improve ppl physical & mental well-being Supporting services Services necessary for/enable other services to function E.g, Soil formation ○ → Essential for ecosystems; provides habitat for organisms, contributes to biodiversity, acts as water filter (regulate) → Ensures agriculture can take place → Food can be obtained (provision) Hazards in urban neighbourhooods What are Hazards? A process, phenomenon or human activity that may cause: Loss of life Health impacts Property Damage Social & economic problems Classified natural or man made Fire Hazards - Occurs in residential & commercial areas - Causes may include unattended cooking & faulty electrical wiring Health Impacts - Burn injuries, may lead to disabilties or death - Carbon dioxide & monoxide release by fire - Carbon monoxide poisoning - → cause headache, dizziness & confusion, lead to loss of consciousness or death - Smoke inhalation; → breathing difficulties & suffocation Property Damage - Fires destroy commercial & residential properties - → Economic losses; the goods inside oso destroyed - Need more money to repair damaged properties Air Pollution - Occur due to improper dispersal/ presence of pollutants in air - Interfere with human health, harms the environment Health Impacts Respiratory infections, heart diseases Higher risk of asthma ○ Nitrogen dioxide produced from vehicles Lung function decline in older adults ○ PM2.5 particulate matter like soot, smoke, dust & liquid droplets ○ →enters bloodstream and linger in lungs Traffic Hazards - Often due to irresponsible drivers, put themself & other road users at risk - Commonly caused by - Speeding - Drink-driving - Red light running Health Impacts Serious injuries from traffic accidents ○ Lead to disabilities or loss of life (similar to fire) Sustainable urban neighbourhoods - Sustainable urban neighbourhoods can be defined through 3 ways - Environmental Stewardship - Disaster Risk Management - Community Resilience Environmental Stewardship Refers to actions taken by individuals/groups to care for/responsibly use the environment Such actions would be: Conserve natural resources Preserve natural environment Repair negative impacts caused by humans  → Helps to build sustainable urban neighborhoods Achieved through promoting volunteerism & partnering w/ diff orgs ○ Volunteerism helps residents share knowledge to others ○ → Increase awareness of responsible use & actions to take Partnership w/ orgs, orgs hv access to resources & expertise ○ Effectively builds up environmental stewardship Disaster Risk - DR is risk of injuries, property damage & death from disasters - Product of 3 factors - Nature of hazard - Vulnerability (social, economic, environmental factors) - Exposure (hazard prone areas) Disaster Risk Management Refers to plans & actions implemented to prevent & reduce DR Strengthens community resilience Often aims to reduce exposure & vulnerability to hazards Such strategies include: ○ Improve residents’ emergency preparedness to respond to hazards ○ Implementation of monitoring & warning systems → E.g, Public Warning System is a network of sirens placed throughout city. Warns public of imminent threats Community Resilience Refers to community able to resist, adapt & recover from effects of disaster Developed through ○ Strengthening r/ships bet. residents & raising awareness of potential hazards Encouraged to know each other; depend on each other during an emergency Disaster risk management plans only effective if got widespread support & participation ○ Residents organise & equip themselves with resources to resist, adapt & recover Inclusive planning process for residents Active participation in projects that minimize potential hazards in neighborhood (build smth) ○ → better understand risks & adaptation to communicate w/ planners & gov. Cluster 3 Climate What is Climate? Climate refers to the average state of atmosphere of a specific place over a long period of time, typically >=25 years Misconception: Weather and climate are the same X Weather is the state of the atmosphere of specific place & time (Climate is the average of a long period of time, weather is just the present state of the short period) Factors affecting atmospheric conditions Temperature Cloud cover Precipitation Wind speed Wind direction Climographs Mean Annual Temp. – total temp/12 Temp Degree >30 Very High 20-30 High 10-20 Moderate 0-10 Low *Annual Temp. Range – Highest temp. - Lowest temp. Temp Degree >30 Very High 15-30 High 5-15 Moderate 1500 Very High 1000-1500 High 500-1000 Moderate 2000mm - Even distribution of precipitation Tropical Monsoon Climate - High mean annual temp all year round of 25C - Small annual temp range of 3-4C - High annual mean precipitation of about 1500mm - Distinct wet & dry seasons; uneven distribution of precipiation Cool Temperature Climate  - 4 distinct seasons, due to tilt of the Earth and revolution of Sun - Warm winters & cool summers - Large annual temp range of 15C - Evenly distributed precipitation Climactic Hazards - Climate change affecting weather patterns, turning predictable into unpredictable - As a result of ⬆average global temp, there is ⬆rate of evaporation, resulting in ⬆amount of water vapor & latent heat in the atmosphere - → As such, extreme weather events occur more frequently and/or with greater severity Variations of air temperature Over each day As Earth rotates, the side of the Earth facing the sun experiences day & receives solar radiation, hence that side have higher air temp (vice versa) Midday - Hottest part of the day - Sun is directly overhead Earth surface - Solar radiation spread over small area - → Solar rays are more concentrated, thus temp ⬆ Before & After Midday (morning & afternoon/evening) - Sun isnt directly overhead Earth surface - Solar radiation spread over larger area  - → Less concentrated solar rays, not as hot as midday Over a year - As earth is titled (23.5°), different amount of solar radiation is received at different places across a yr (seasons) March - Sun directly above equator - High solar angle at Eqtor (high concentration small area) - Neither hemisphere leaning toward the sun; both hem. receive same amount of solar insolation June - Sun between Tropic of Cancer & Eqtor - High solar angle betw the tropics ⬆(high concentration small area) - NH receives higher radiation (summer), SH receives less (winter) September - Sun directly above Eqtor - High solar angle at Eqtor (high concentration small area) - Neither hemsph. leaning toward the sun; both hems. receive same amount of solar radiation December - Sun between Tropic of Capricorn & Equator - High solar angle betw the tropics⬆ (high concentration small area) - NH receives lower radiation (winter), SH receives more (summer) Air temp vary across places  1. Latitude (y-axis) a. Latitude ⬇, air temp ⬆ b. As the latitude gets further away from the Eqtor (⟂ solar angle), the solar angle gets bigger i. → Radiation is then spread over a larger area; lower concentration 2. Altitude (height above sea level) a. As altitude ⬆, air density ⬇ i. → Gravity pulls most of the molecules to the ground, less molecules on top 1. Less molecules trap heat, hence cooler b. As altitude ⬆, air temp ⬇ i. → Altitude ⬆, further away from Earth’s surface, hence less heat transferred Maritime & Continental effects - Water gains/loses heat slower than land Summer - Sea gains heat slower, hence air above sea is cooler - Thus, coastal areas are cooler (Maritime effect) - Land heats up quicker, hence inland air is warmer (Continental effect) Winter - Sea cools down slower, hence air above sea is warmer - Thus, coastal areas are warmer (Maritime effect) - Land cools down quicker, hence inland air is cooler (Continental effect) As such, coastal areas have a smaller annual temp range, while inland areas have a higher range Water Cycle - Water is recycled between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surfaces 1. Water vapour enters atmosphere (evaporation & plant transpiration) ⬇ 2. Water vapour rises and condenses into tiny water droplets at dew point temperature (forms clouds) ⬇ 3. Water droplets in clouds become heavy, fall to ground as precipitation ⬇ 4. Water flows over ground as surface runoff, then enters a body of water ⬇ 5. Water infiltrates the subsurface of soil and rocks ⬇ 6. Water below the earth surface move above the impermeable rock as groundwater Water movespeed - Type of soil (more porous=faster infiltration and groundwater flows) - Built up areas (smooth concrete, less infiltration, faster surface runoff) - Natural vegetation (infiltration and groundwater faster, roots loosen up soil; runoff slower, roots acts as obstacles) Relative Humidity - The ratio of the amount of water vapour in the air to max amount the air can hold at given temp (have/total cap) g/m3 😂 - As temp ⬆, air can hold more water vapour, so RH ⬇ - When RH is 100%, air is saturated (vapour cap full ) - When RH>100%, condensation occurs - Air temp drop, so air can hold less, current amount exceed max - More vapour added through evaporation Formation of Clouds - When air rises into atmosphere, it cools down and can hold less vapour - When it cools down until current amount exceeds the max it can hold, it reaches dew point temp, and RH>100% - As such, the air condenses into water droplets at condensation nuclei (forming clouds) (dew point temp is the temp which the air needs to be cooled at to reach 100% RH) Formation of Rain - Water droplets in clouds collide and coalesce → bigger & heavier - These droplets fall to earth as rain once they are large and heavy enough Convectional Rain - Land absorbs heat from the sun, warming air above it - Warm air rises then cools (altitude⬆), condenses on condensation nuclei at dew point temp, forming clouds - Water droplets collide and coalesce to grow large and heavier, falling to the earth as rain  Relief Rain - Prevailing winds pick up moisture over the sea, pushing moist air above the windward side of a mountain - The rising moist air cools and condenses on condensation nuclei at dew point temp, forming clouds - Water droplets in the clouds collide & coalesce and become larger and heavier, failing to earth as rain droplets on the windward side - Leeward air no moisture, thus experiences dry descending air Winds Winds are formed through the unequal distribution of air temperature → unequal distribution of pressure gradients (air temp↗pressure; brownian motion) Air cools at places with lower temp, become denser and sink, resulting in more atmospheric pressure Air heats up at places with high temp, become less dense and rise, resulting in less atmospheric pressure As such, air flows from cooler region (more pressure) to hotter region (less pressure), thus wind is formed Windspeed Windspeed depends on - Strength of pressure gradient (pressure diff between 2 regions) - Friction - Wind may be blocked by obstacles or rough surfaces, thus experiencing frictional drag, wind speed⬇ Wind Direction Local scale - Land breezes - Sea breezes Land and sea breezes occur on a local scale, as a result of air temp diff between air and sea (pressure gradient) Land breeze (similar to winter) - Land breezes occur at night - At night, land & sea lose heat through longwave radiation Land loses heat quicker, so inland air is cooler and thus denser, sinks, resulting in more atmospheric pressure over land ⬇ Sea loses heat slower, so air above sea is warmer and thus less dense, rises, resulting in less atmospheric pressure over sea ⬇ Air travels from land (higher Patm) to sea (lower Patm), forming land breeze Sea breeze (similar to summer) - Sea breezes occur in the day - In the day, land & sea gain heat through shortwave radiation Land gains heat quicker, so inland air is warmer and thus less dense, rises, resulting in less atmospheric pressure above land ⬇ Sea gains heat slower, so air above sea is cooler and thus denser, sinks, resulting in more atmospheric pressure above sea ⬇ Air travels from sea (higher Patm) to land (lower Patm), forming sea breeze Regional scale - Unequal distribution of air temp across Earth → varying pressure zones - Winds travelling over large distances are deflected by the Coriolis Effect - A force produced by Earth’s rotation - Changes the course of moving objects & wind on earth’s surface - Responsible for Northeast and Southern monsoon winds - Winds are deflected to the right in the NH - Winds are deflected to the left in the SH Varying pressure zones form due to seasonal differences in temp between regions, as shown here Northeast monsoon - October to February, NH experiences winter & cooler temp (higher Patm over Central Asia), while SH experiences summer and warmer temp (lower Patm over Australia) - Air moves from Central Asia to Australia - As it travels over India, it is deflected to the right due to the Coriolis Effect (NH), forming the Northeast monsoon that is experienced by Spore & Malaysia - The Northeast monsoon is dry as little moisture is picked up from Central Asia → India experiences little rain - It picks up moisture from the South China Sea (water vapour) as it travels toward Australia, → Spore and Malaysia experiences heavy rain  - The winds are deflected to the right by the Coriolis Effect (SH), thus bringing rain to countries like Indonesia & Australia Southwest monsoon - From June to September, NH experiences summer & warmer temp (higher Patm over Central Asia) - SH experiences winter & cooler temp (lower Patm over Australia) - Air moves from Australia (SH) to Central Asia (NH) - When winds cross into NH, they are deflected to the right, forming the Southwest monsoon, experienced by countries like Spore & Malaysia - Winds pick up moisture as they travel over the Indian Ocean, bringing rain to India Climate Change Natural Causes Changes in Earth’s orbit & angle of tilt - Affects incoming radiation from the sun Orbit - The Earth’s orbit stretches from circular to elliptical shape and back - Cycles every 100,000 years  - With elliptical orbit, the Earth travels at a more oval shape, thus receives more radiation when its nearer and less when its farther (oval) Tilt - Earth’s axis changes back and forth betw 21.5° & 24.5° - Cycles every 41,000 years - When tilt decreases, hemisph. will lean away the sun, affecting Earth’s temperatures - Warmer winters & colder summers - → Enables the build up of ice sheets in higher latitudes, cools Earth Sunspot Occurences - Sunspots are colder regions on Earth’s surface, emitting less radiation - Thus, areas around the sunspots radiate more heat to compensate for the lower temp’s of sunspot - Hence, there is high amount of radiation, thus Earth’s temp increase - As such, higher sunspot activity is linked to higher amounts of radiation emitted, resulting in short-term increases in Earth’s avg temp Large-scale volcanic eruptions - When volcanoes erupt, they release huge amounts of CO2, water vapour, sulfur dioxide, dust and ash into the atmosphere - These sulfur-based particles, dust & ash reflect solar radiation back into the atmosphere - Thus, less solar radiation is reaches Earth’s surface - → Creates a temporary cooling effect on global and regional temperatures; global temp⬇ Anthropogenic Causes Enhanced Greenhouse effect - Higher concentration of greenhouse gases - Traps more heat than necessary - More heat is radiated back into the Earth's surface, thus less longwave radiation and heat escape into space - Earth’s temperature becomes too warm, threatens ecosystems and people’s way of life Deforestation - Large-scale removal of forests leads to increased levels of CO2 in the atmosphere - Reduced number of trees to absorb CO2 during photosynthesis - During photosynthesis, trees store carbon, hence removing the trees releases the stored carbon into the atmosphere as CO2 - Cleaning of trees exposes soil beneath to sunlight, increases soil temp and rate of carbon oxidation - Tropical deforestation contributes to 20% of annual greenhouse gas emissions Agriculture - Contributes to 30% of global greenhouse gas emissions annually due to - Burning of fossil fuels to produce farm machines - Nitrogen in chemical fertilisers converts to nitrous oxide (greenhouse gas) - Livestock rearing & natural decomposition processes release methane