Consolidated Geography Notes (Sec 2) PDF

**[Section A -- Chapters 7 -- 9 / Sustainable Cities and Housing]** **[Chapter 7: Sustainable Cities]** **7.1 How can we build sustainable cities?** What is a city? -- A city is defined as an urban area within a country. **Characteristics of a city**: 1. Population size refers to the total n...

**[Section A -- Chapters 7 -- 9 / Sustainable Cities and Housing]** **[Chapter 7: Sustainable Cities]** **7.1 How can we build sustainable cities?** What is a city? -- A city is defined as an urban area within a country. **Characteristics of a city**: 1. Population size refers to the total number of people living in an area. Countries around the world use different guidelines to identify their cities. Why do you think that is so? → Total population size of countries differ, thus countries could define their city population size differently. But, to be classified as a city, the concentration of people living in the area is usually larger than most areas in the country. 2. Population Density is a measurement of the number of people living in an area of land. Population density = Number of people ÷ Land area (km^2^) 3. Many buildings are built close to each other Buildings are tall in height -- skyscrapers 4. Includes administrative, commercial, financial etc. E.g application of services, shopping, banking **Characteristics of a rural area:** 1. Small population size. 2. Low population density. 3. Low-rise 4. Low range. **7.2 What is the relationship between cities and rural areas?** [Rural-urban migration: When people move from rural areas to urban areas] They are referred to as migrants People move due to push and pull factors **Why do people migrate?** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | | | | 1. | 2. | | | +=====================+=====================+=====================+ | | | | | | | | +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | | | | - - | - - - - | | | +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | +=======================================================================+ | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ Compared to cities, rural areas have lower/less: - - however, they are connected by movement of people, goods, services - **[Chapter 8: Sustainable Housing]** **Chapter 8.1 Classifying Housing Types** What is housing? → Housing are structures or buildings developed to shelter people from the elements. Housing can be: - - City: An urban area within a country Village: A small settlement usually found in a rural setting Town: A compactly settled area as distinguished from surrounding rural areas Metropolis: A large important city [Key Comparisons that can be made between housing types:] 1. - - 2\) Height - - 3\) Permanence Temporary (e.g camp sites, relief shelters, nomad sides) Permanent (constructed with more hardy materials: buildings/flats, high-rise offices) 4\) Formal or informal housing \*(important consideration for sustainable cities) Legally-built (Formal) Illegally-built (Informal) [Building sustainable cities] Cities and urban populations often grow faster than the pace of housing development, resulting in a housing shortage. Thus, the types of housing that can be found in many cities include: - - - [Features of formal housing] - Part of urban planning processes and undertaken by the government or private businesses E.g. Singapore has our public housing developed by the Housing & Development Board (HDB) Plots of land may be sold or leased to private businesses which in turn develop private housing projects. - Land rights - ability of individuals to freely obtain, use and possess land at their discretion. Ownership of land provides security and increases human capabilities. Formal housing - properties may be lived in, sold or leased to others. - Access to basic services such as gas, heat, light - High quality building materials, e.g. concrete, stable foundation [Features of informal housing] - - - - **Chap 8.2 -- Distribution of Formal and Informal Housing in Cities** Formal housing are generally located... Near greenery and amenities, away from pollution, quality infrastructure such as roads, piped water, electricity and proper waste disposal. Informal housing are generally located.... Near landfills, sewage treatment plants, polluting industries, neglected and lack infrastructure development, near noisy train tracks Skill: Describing distribution Skill: Describing distribution **O**verall trend Is there a general pattern that you see spatially or across time? **N**oteworthy data What are some specific data that supports this general trend? **E**xceptions Are there obvious data that is the opposite of the overall trend? **Chapter 8.3 What Are Some Factors that Affect the Location of Housing?** THE LOCATION OF ANY TYPE OF HOUSING IS PRIMARILY AFFECTED BY THESE FACTORS: 1. 2. 3. 4. "Explain how *land-use planning* (factor) can affect the location of housing in cities. (Outcome (end point))" Background information: Planning authorities practise zoning as a planning control tool by restricting the type of activities and land-use permitted on specific sites to shape the layout of cities and enable various types of developments. Step 1: Describe factor Land-use planning by planning authorities will mean zoning and planning activities and land-use permitted at different sites of cities. Step 2: Elaborate on how factor affects location of housing Formal housing Will be found in cities areas designated/zoned for residential purposes Informal Housing Will be found in areas that are unwanted land-not at the location planned by authorities "Explain how *land prices* can affect the location of housing in cities." Step 1: Describe factor Land prices refer to the cost of land at a particular location. If land prices are high, houses will have to be sold at a higher price and many people will not be able to afford housing in the city Step 2: Elaborate on how factor affects location of housing (mainly affects informal housing location) This will result in informal housing springing up within the cities undesirable areas to accommodate the urban poor. "Explain how *developers* can affect the location of housing in cities." Background information: There are two groups of legal developers; Private developers (individuals that develop a property for profit) and the public developers that consider the needs of the people. Step 1: Describe factor Private developers focus on profit and public developers consider the needs of the people Step 2: Elaborate on how factor affects location of housing Formal housing Found in areas with high demand and good infrastructure (cities, suburbs). Informal Housing Found in vacant lots, peri-urban areas, or unregulated zones. "Explain how *financial assistance schemes* can affect the location of housing in cities." Background information: Financial assistance in this case refer to monetary help that could be given to the developers for their housing projects Step 1: Describe factor Monetary help provided to developers for their housing projects. Step 2: Elaborate on how factor affects location of housing Formal housing Will be found in underserved areas with identified needs for affordable housing, making development financially viable for projects that might not be otherwise. Informal Housing Will be found outside the direct reach of financial assistance schemes due to their informal nature and lack of formal channels for receiving such aid. [**Chapter 9: Sustainable Development in Housing**](https://classroom.google.com/u/2/w/NjQ2Nzc3ODAxNjgw/tc/NjY5OTcyMzA2Mjg5) **Chap 9.1: How does Access to Housing affect the natural environment?** How does housing affect the natural environment? - - - - [Use of natural resources] With the increasing demand for houses, more houses need to be built. Thus, more land is needed to build houses which results in more forests being cut down. Trees need to be cut down to make furnitures too. When demand of water increases the replenishment rate, groundwater will be used up rapidly. [Pollution] Improper system to treat waste and to dispose garbage will pollute water and land.\ \ With reference to the photograph, point out features of housing that can affect people. Slum in Dharavi, India Annotations P: Toilets show a lack of proper sanitation L: that would lead to the easy spread of diseases, leading to people living in the area falling ill with diseases easily P: Toilets: Lack of proper sanitation → fall ill (dysentery, headaches, etc.) P: Rust on buildings: structural integrity P: Low quality materials → possible to fall/break Sanitation refers to public health conditions related to clean drinking water and treatment and disposal of human excretion and sewage. "With reference to the source, suggest how type of housing in cities can affect people." Checklist: Describe a possible feature of the housing shown that could affect people. \[D\] Clearly quote evidences from the source to support answer (e.g. in the foreground, middleground or background \[E\] Elaborate on the outcomes (problems/benefits) of the feature \[O\] \[1m\] Link: How would the cause affect people. \[L\] \[1m\] From the informal housing, poor sewage disposal is observed from the toilets shown in the middle ground. Waste is excreted straight into the river. This suggests poor sanitation that would lead to the easy spread of diseases, leading to people living in the area falling ill with diseases like dysentery easily. With reference to the photograph, suggest how type of housing in cities can affect people. \[2\]  Facilities like playgrounds and fitness corners that can be found in formal housing are shown in the foreground and the middleground of this photograph. These features will provide a space for social gathering as both children and adults to get to know people from their neighbourhood when play and exercise leading to them forging friendships. With reference to the photograph, suggest how the feature of formal housing shown in the photograph can affect people.\[2\] Eateries like food centre can be found in formal housing is shown in the middleground and background of this photograph. These feature will provide a space for social gathering when people come to eat out with their loved ones. Leading to them forging friendships and relationships. **Chap 9.3: How can Housing be Sustainably Managed?** Sustainability in urban neighbourhoods refers to the ability of a community to meet the current needs of its residents without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own. [Social Sustainability] Fostering a healthy social environment where people feel a sense of belonging, inclusion and connection to their neighbours. [Environment Sustainability] Focuses on minimizing the negative impact that human activities have on the built environment -- conserving the use of resources and promoting a healthy ecosystem within the city for current and future generations. Managing Housing in Cities Sustainably 1. a. To ensure that cities can grow sustainably, a range of housing types should be provided to cater to different groups. For example, HDB has smaller 2-room flats for small families and up to 5-room flats to house extended family as well. Link: This promotes inclusiveness to ensure that all the population feel that they are considered can have access to housing that meets their varying needs. Inclusiveness also refers to developing housing to cater to people of all ages and physical conditions. This enables all residents, regardless of their age and physical abilities, to feel that their needs are considered, and they are at ease in their housing estates. They also promote healthy interpersonal relationships and bonds to be formed in common spaces. b. Environmentally friendly technologies are also incorporated into homes to promote sustainability. This includes using solar panels to offset electrical consumption of common lighting, water-fittings to minimise water consumption and the green roofs to reduce surrounding temperatures. 2. What are some difficulties in planning for integrated land use in a neighbourhood? For land scarce countries like Singapore, competition for needs is the main challenge. → Aim: Sustainable Towns Towns to be self-contained where public housing, amenities, retail, education, healthcare and recreation services needs are met while considering the environment impacts so that the different urban population needs (social, environment and economic) are met. Monetary restraints 3. In most parts of the world, living in informal housing is a necessity Instead of demolishing such settlements, governments should aim to enhance the living conditions of those living there. What will improving the condition of slums do? · Occupants will be more motivated to invest in their own homes · A reduction in diseases spread amongst occupants · Better quality of living for the occupants Are there any problems that might arise? The land that slums were built on were meant for different purposes, hence town planning in the future could become difficult. **[Section B -- Chapters 10 -- 11 / Transport]** **Chapter 10:** Transport Systems and their Spatial Distribution **10.1 What are transport systems?** Transport system connects people from different locations, providing opportunities for social interaction and economic trade. Transport systems enhance the accessibility and connectivity of the movement of people, goods and services. [Variety of Transport Modes] Transport routes that travel through land, water and air Motorised modes of transport such as public transport that move along fixed routes and stop at specific nodes according to a time schedule or a customised point-to-point transport service. Non-motorised modes such as walking and cycling. Shared mobility through bike-sharing and car-sharing. [A transport system is composed of 3 components:] **Modes -- Represents a location that provides entry to a transport network.** - - **Infrastructures -- A path for travel between nodes.** - - **Networks -- number of nodes and routes in a transport network** - - Movements between locations depend on the existence of transportation networks. A transport network contains nodes that are linked by routes. **Quality of Transport Infrastructure** Indicators (and what they mean): - - - - - 3Cs, 1F, 1E [10.2 Where are transport nodes located?] With reference to the map, describe the distribution of bus interchanges & terminals and MRT lines & stations in Singapore. South of Singapore has the highest distribution of transport nodes because the CBD area (Central Business District) is located there. There are many activities and services available in the CBD that requires high accessibility to transport. **Location of transport nodes depends on the concentration of activities.** **The more highly concentrated an area is with activities, there tends to be a higher concentration of transport nodes.** **Major transport nodes are usually located in areas with high accessibility.** **Accessibility refers to the ease of reaching destinations or activities.** **Most people base their travel decisions on travel time and cost.** [10.3: Why are transport systems located in cities?] [Key learning point 1: Movement of people] Transport systems facilitate the mobility of people - - - [Key learning point 2: Movement of goods and services] - - - - - - - - Unimodal - involving only one transport mode Intermodal - using two or more transport modes.  [With reference to the figure, identify the school that is more accessible for Peter. \[1\]] School A. Peter can travel to school A more conveniently, only taking 3 train stops and walking but for school B, he needs more train stops (4) before reaching. "2. John chose school B. Identify the type of modality for John's journey to school. Explain your answer. \[2\]" Intermodal connectivity. He will need to make a switch between train and walking, which makes 2 different transport modes, thus being classified as having intermodal activity. [Intermodal connectivity] - - [Key learning point 3: Connection between transport modes] - - - - - There are different types of connections in a transport network. Many transportation services have adopted the hub-and-spoke structure. [What are the benefits of hub-and-spoke?] Benefit 1: P: Allows for consolidation of resources. E: For example it allows the airline to serve fewer routes, thus fewer aircraft are needed, thus saving cost and manpower, the system also increase passenger loads; a flight from a hub to a spoke carries not just passengers originating at the hub, but also passengers originating at multiple spoke cities. [What are some possible disadvantages of hub-and-spoke?] 1\. Congestion and delays at hub airports 2\. Discontinuous use of airport facilities [Key learning point 4: Connection between cities] - - Reasons for transport systems in cities. 1. 2. 3. 4. **[Chapter 11: Sustainable Transport]** **11.1 How do transport systems impact the environment?** "Explain how (1) the expansion of transport (2) networks could affect the environment. (3)" Answering: Step 1: Due to the expansion of transport network, state what is happening to the environment Step 2: As transport networks improve,Describe how expansion of transport (step 1) leads to environment being affected (step 3) Provide specific examples Step 3: Environment Flora and fauna Land Atmosphere Water etc Tip: look through Housing for a rough idea on links (therefore...) **11.2 How do transport systems impact people in cities** [How can traffic congestion affect people?] Congestion - no. of vehicles exceeds carrying capacity of roads; May affect health & mental/physical well-being. Increased stress, frustration → increased anger → road rage could happen/speeding afterwards to get to destination that could lead to them being traffic hazard [How do transport systems affect our health?] Air pollution from traffic emissions → can be toxic → leads to lung inflammation → that could cause cancer, blood disease and other heart issues. TB Page 130 -- Silver Zones Speed limit of 40km/h to ensure safety of elderly who may need more time to cross the roads. Two-stage crossing to allow seniors to rest in the middle zone. [11.3 Evaluate the strategies taken to sustainably manage transport systems] [What is sustainable management of transport system?] - - [Suggest how ERP helps Singapore to manage our transport systems sustainably. ] - - Is it effective? Effective: Decreased road traffic by 25,000 vehicles in peak hours and increased average road speeds by 20%. Bus travel and car-pooling also increased. Ineffective: Problem of congestion could be shifted to other roads -- does not solve root of the issue. Rich car owners will not be deterred. What are the other ways to reduce the number of cars on the road? [Strategy 1: Laws and policies on transport] - 1. 2. - 1. 2. 3. [Strategy 2: Integrated land use planning and transport planning] - 1. - - - - - - - [Strategy 3: Provision of mobility needs to different groups of people] - - Advantages: Increase the mobility of the aged and disabled → easier and more convenient for them to travel Limitations: 1. 2. [Strategy 4: Research and development in transport] - - - Advantages: 1 To be more environmentally-friendly by reducing carbon emissions 2 Reduce noise pollution as it is quieter Limitations More expensive than conventional buses to buy and maintain → difficult to implement on a large scale. - - - - Advantages: Makes travelling via public transport more attractive → people can plan their journeys to be cost and time-effective → more convenient travelling Limitations: Increased inconvenience → when bus apps show inaccurate bus timing arrivals / incorrect routes are shown Explain one strategy used to manage transport systems sustainably in Singapore. \[4\] Laws and policies help manage transport systems sustainably in Singapore. Road pricing encourages people to use public transport. For example people avoid roads that requires the payment of ERP which reduces traffic congestion. Also, people choose to take public transport because they do not want to waste money paying for ERP. By using more public transport, there will be lesser carbon footprints from vehicles. Answering strategies/skills: State (suggest) Identify -- Identify + Reason(s) / If Explain, then Identify + Point + Example (1 P+E per mark) or Identify + Reason Describe -- Overall trend + Noteworthy data + Exceptions \[3\] With reference to -- State + Reason Explain how -- Point + Example + Elaboration (Each 1m) or Point + Example/Elaboration Explain why -- Point + Example Evaluate -- IDEAL (Identify + Describe + Elaborate + Advantage + Link) using D+E+A+A+L OR D+E+A+L+L Explain two ways in which.. \[5\] P x2 + E + 2L OR P x2 + E x2 + L